Chemistry and chemical reactivity 8e by kotz, terichel and townsend 1 pdf

Periodic Table of the Elements
Hydrogen
1

H

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

MAIN GROUP METALS

1.0079
1A
(1)

2A
(2)

Lithium

3

Beryllium
4

Li

TRANSITION METALS

Uranium
92

U

METALLOIDS

Be

6.941
9.0122
Sodium Magnesium
12
11

Na

Mg

3B
(3)

4B
(4)

5B
(5)

6B
(6)

7B
(7)

22.9898

24.3050

Potassium
19

Calcium
20

Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese
22
23
24
25
21

39.0983

40.078

44.9559

K

Ca

Rubidium Strontium
37
38

Rb

Sr

Sc

Yttrium
39

Ti

47.867

V

50.9415

Cr

51.9961

Mn

54.9380

Y

Zr

Nb

Hf

Ta

Tc

W

Re

132.9055
Francium
87

137.327 138.9055 178.49 180.9479 183.84

186.207
Radium Actinium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium
105
107
104
106
88
89

Fr

Ra

88.9059
91.224 92.9064
Lanthanum Hafnium Tantalum
57
72
73

Mo

87.62
Barium
56

Ba

La

Ac

(223.02) (226.0254) (227.0278)

Note: Atomic masses are
2007 IUPAC values
(up to four decimal places).
Numbers in parentheses are
atomic masses or mass numbers
of the most stable isotope of
an element.

kotz_48288_00a_ EP2-3_SE.indd 2

Atomic weight

8B
(8)

(9)

(10)

1B
(11)

Iron
26

Cobalt

27

Nickel
28

Copper
29

55.845

58.9332

58.6934

63.546

Fe

Co

Ni

Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium
45
41
42
43
40
44
46

85.4678
Cesium
55

Cs

Symbol

238.0289

NONMETALS

Atomic number

Rf

(267)

Lanthanides

Actinides

Db

(268)

95.96
(97.907)
Tungsten Rhenium

75
74

Sg

(271)

Bh

(272)

Ru

101.07
Osmium
76

Os

Rh

Pd

Ir

Pt

Cu

Silver

47

Ag

102.9055 106.42 107.8682
Iridium Platinum
Gold
77
79
78

Au

190.23
192.22
195.084 196.9666
Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium
109
110
111
108

Hs

(270)

Mt

(276)

Ds

(281)

Rg

(280)

Cerium
58

Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium
59
60
61
64
63
62

140.116

140.9076

Ce

Pr

Nd

144.242

Pm

(144.91)

Sm

150.36

Eu

151.964

Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium
92
94
91
90
93
95

Th

Pa

U

Np

Pu

Am

Gd

157.25
Curium
96

Cm

232.0381 231.0359 238.0289 (237.0482) (244.664) (243.061) (247.07)

11/22/10 1:37 PM


8A
(18)
Helium
2

He

3A
(13)

4A
(14)

5A

(15)

6A
(16)

7A
(17)

4.0026

Boron
5

Carbon
6

Nitrogen
7

Oxygen
8

Fluorine
9

Neon
10

10.811
Aluminum

13

12.011
Silicon
14

14.0067 15.9994
Phosphorus Sulfur
15
16

18.9984
Chlorine
17

20.1797
Argon
18

2B
(12)

26.9815

28.0855

30.9738

32.066

35.4527

39.948

Zinc
30

Gallium
31

Germanium
32

Arsenic
33

Selenium
34

Bromine
35

Krypton
36

65.38

69.723

72.61

74.9216

78.96

79.904

83.80

Cadmium
48

Indium
49

Tin
50

Iodine
53

Xenon
54

112.411
Mercury
80

114.818
Thallium

81

118.710
Lead
82

200.59

204.3833

207.2

B

Zn

Cd

Hg

Copernicium

112

Cn

(285)

Al

Ga
In
Tl

C

Si

Ge
Sn

Pb

Tb

P

As

O
S

Se

Antimony Tellurium
51
52

Sb

121.760
Bismuth
83

Bi

Te

F

Cl

Br
I

127.60 126.9045
Polonium Astatine
84
85

Po

At

208.9804 (208.98) (209.99)

Ne
Ar
Kr

Xe

131.29
Radon
86

Rn

(222.02)

Ununtrium Ununquadium Ununpentium Ununhexium Ununseptium Ununoctium
113
114
115
116
117
118

Uut

Discovered
2004

Uuq

Discovered
1999

Terbium Dysprosium Holmium
66

67
65
158.9254

N

Dy

162.50

Ho

164.9303

Uup

Uuh

Uus

Uuo

Discovered
2004

Discovered
1999

Discovered
2010

Erbium
68

Thulium
69

Ytterbium Lutetium
71
70

167.26

168.9342

173.054 174.9668

Er

Tm

Yb

Discovered
2002

Lu

Standard Colors
for Atoms in

Molecular Models
carbon atoms
hydrogen atoms
oxygen atoms

Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium
97
100
102
98
99
101
103

nitrogen atoms

(247.07)

chlorine atoms

Bk

kotz_48288_00a_ EP2-3_SE.indd 3

Cf

Es

(251.08) (252.08)

Fm

Md

(257.10) (258.10)

No

Lr

(259.10) (262.11)

11/22/10 1:37 PM


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eighth edition

chemistry

& Chemical Reactivity
John C. Kotz
State University of New York
College at Oneonta

Paul M. Treichel
University of Wisconsin–Madison

John R. Townsend
West Chester University of Pennsylvania

Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States

kotz_48288_00c_FM_i-xxxiii.indd 1

11/23/10 1:25 PM


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Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity, Eighth Edition
John C. Kotz, Paul M. Treichel, John R. Townsend
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brief contents
18 Principles of Chemical Reactivity: Other Aspects of
Aqueous Equilibria  806

Part ONE The Basic Tools of Chemistry
1

Basic Concepts of Chemistry 



Let’s Review: The Tools of Quantitative Chemistry 

2

Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 

3

Chemical Reactions 

4

Stoichiometry: Quantitative Information about
Chemical Reactions  156

5

Principles of Chemical Reactivity:
Energy and Chemical Reactions  208



Interchapter: The Chemistry of Fuels and Energy
Resources  252

1
24

19 Principles of Chemical Reactivity: Entropy and Free
Energy  858
20 Principles of Chemical Reactivity: Electron Transfer
Reactions  894

50

110

The Structure of Atoms 

7

The Structure of Atoms and Periodic Trends 



21 The Chemistry of the Main Group Elements 
22 The Chemistry of the Transition Elements 
23 Nuclear Chemistry 

960

1016

1058

Appendices

266

A

Using Logarithms and Solving Quadratic Equations 

300

B

Some Important Physical Concepts 

Interchapter: Milestones in the Development of
Chemistry and the Modern View of Atoms and
Molecules  334

C

Abbreviations and Useful Conversion Factors 

D

Physical Constants 

8

Bonding and Molecular Structure 

E

A Brief Guide to Naming Organic Compounds 

9

Bonding and Molecular Structure: Orbital
Hybridization and Molecular Orbitals  400

F

Values for the Ionization Energies and Electron

Attachment Enthalpies of the Elements  A-18

G

Vapor Pressure of Water at Various Temperatures 

H

Ionization Constants for Aqueous Weak Acids
at 25 °C  A-20

I

Ionization Constants for Aqueous Weak Bases
at 25 °C  A-22

J

Solubility Product Constants for Some Inorganic
Compounds at 25 °C  A-23

K

Formation Constants for Some Complex Ions in
Aqueous Solution at 25 °C  A-25

L

Selected Thermodynamic Values 

10 Carbon: Not Just Another Element 


344

438

Interchapter: The Chemistry of Life: Biochemistry 

490

Part THREE States of Matter
11

Gases and Their Properties 

508

12 Intermolecular Forces and Liquids 
13 The Chemistry of Solids 


548

582

14 Solutions and Their Behavior 

616

Interchapter: The Chemistry of Modern
Materials  656

15 Chemical Kinetics: The Rates of Chemical
Reactions  668
720

17 Principles of Chemical Reactivity: The Chemistry of
Acids and Bases  756

kotz_48288_00c_FM_i-xxxiii.indd 3

A-2

A-6
A-9

A-13
A-15

A-19

A-26

M Standard Reduction Potentials in Aqueous Solution at
25°C  A-32

Part FOUR The Control of Chemical
Reactions

16 Principles of Chemical Reactivity: Equilibria 

946

Part FIVE The Chemistry of the Elements
and Their Compounds

Part TWO The Structure of Atoms
and Molecules
6

Interchapter: The Chemistry of the Environment 

N

Answers to Chapter Opening Questions and Case
Study Questions  A-36

O

Answers to Check Your Understanding Questions 

P

Answers to Review & Check Questions 

Q

Answers to Selected Interchapter Study
Questions  A-72

R

Answers to Selected Study Questions 

A-47

A-63

A-75

iii

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iv

contents
Preface 

xvii

Part ONE The Basic Tools of Chemistry 
1

Basic Concepts of Chemistry 

Gold!  1

1.1

Chemistry and Its Methods  2
Hypotheses, Laws, and Theories  3
A Closer Look: Careers in Chemistry  4
Goals of Science  5
Dilemmas and Integrity in Science  5

3

Mathematics of Chemistry  33
Exponential or Scientific Notation  33
Significant Figures  35

4

Problem Solving by Dimensional Analysis  39
Case Study: Out of Gas!  40

5

Graphs and Graphing  41

6

Problem Solving and Chemical Arithmetic  42

1

1.2

Sustainability and Green Chemistry  5
A Closer Look: Principles of Green Chemistry  6

1.3

Classifying Matter  6
States of Matter and Kinetic-Molecular Theory  7
Matter at the Macroscopic and Particulate Levels  8
Pure Substances  8
Mixtures: Homogeneous and Heterogeneous  9

1.4

Elements  10
A Closer Look: Element Names and Symbols  11

1.5

Compounds  12

1.6

Physical Properties  13
Extensive and Intensive Properties  14

1.7

Physical and Chemical Changes  15

1.8

Energy: Some Basic Principles  16
Case Study: CO2 in the Oceans  17
Conservation of Energy  18

Study Questions  44

2

Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 



The Periodic Table, the Central Icon of Chemistry  50

2.1

Atomic Structure—Protons, Electrons,
and Neutrons  51

2.2

Atomic Number and Atomic Mass  52
Atomic Number  52
Relative Atomic Mass and the Atomic Mass Unit  52
Mass Number  52

2.3

Isotopes  54
Isotope Abundance  54
Determining Atomic Mass and Isotope Abundance  54

2.4

Atomic Weight  55
Case Study: Using Isotopes: Ötzi, the Iceman of the
Alps  58

2.5

The Periodic Table  58
Developing the Periodic Table  58
A Closer Look: The Story of the Periodic Table  59
Features of the Periodic Table  61
A Brief Overview of the Periodic Table and the
Chemical Elements  62

Chapter Goals Revisited  19
Key Equation  19
Study Questions  20

50



Let’s Review: The Tools of Quantitative

Chemistry  24

2.6

Molecules, Compounds, and Formulas  66
Formulas  66
Molecular Models  68



Copper  24

2.7

1

Units of Measurement  25
Temperature Scales  25
Length, Volume, and Mass  27
A Closer Look: Energy and Food  29
Energy Units  29

Ionic Compounds: Formulas, Names, and Properties  69
Ions  69
Formulas of Ionic Compounds  73
Names of Ions  74
Properties of Ionic Compounds  76

2.8

Molecular Compounds: Formulas and Names  78

2

Making Measurements: Precision, Accuracy,
Experimental Error, and Standard Deviation  30
Experimental Error  31
Standard Deviation  32

2.9

Atoms, Molecules, and the Mole  80
Atoms and Molar Mass  80
A Closer Look: Amedeo Avogadro and His Number  81
Molecules, Compounds, and Molar Mass  82

iv

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2.10 Describing Compound Formulas  85
Percent Composition  85
Empirical and Molecular Formulas from Percent
Composition  87
Determining a Formula from Mass Data  89
Case Study: Mummies, Bangladesh, and the Formula of
Compound 606  92

Determining a Formula by Mass Spectrometry  92
A Closer Look: Mass Spectrometry, Molar Mass,
and Isotopes  93
2.11 Hydrated Compounds  94
Chapter Goals Revisited  96
Key Equations  97
Study Questions  98

3.9

Chapter Goals Revisited   147
Study Questions  148
Applying Chemical Principles: Superconductors   155

4

Stoichiometry: Quantitative Information
about Chemical Reactions  156



The Chemistry of Pyrotechnics  156

4.1

Mass Relationships in Chemical Reactions:
Stoichiometry  157

4.2

Reactions in Which One Reactant Is Present in Limited
Supply  161
A Stoichiometry Calculation with a Limiting
Reactant  161

4.3

Percent Yield  165

Applying Chemical Principles: Argon—An Amazing
Discovery   109

3

Chemical Reactions 



Black Smokers and Volcanoes  110

3.1

Introduction to Chemical Equations  111
A Closer Look: Antoine Laurent Lavoisier, 1743–1794  112

3.2

Balancing Chemical Equations  114

3.3

Introduction to Chemical Equilibrium  116

3.4

Aqueous Solutions  119
Ions and Molecules in Aqueous Solutions  119
Solubility of Ionic Compounds in Water  122

3.5

Precipitation Reactions  123
Predicting the Outcome of a Precipitation
Reaction  124
Net Ionic Equations  126

3.6

110

Acids and Bases  128
Acids and Bases: The Arrhenius Definition  128
Acids and Bases: The Brønsted–Lowry Definition  130
A Closer Look: The Hydronium Ion—The H1 Ion
in Water  131
Reactions of Acids and Bases  132
A Closer Look: Sulfuric Acid  133
Oxides of Nonmetals and Metals  134

3.7

Gas-Forming Reactions  136

3.8

Oxidation–Reduction Reactions  137
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions and Electron
Transfer  138
Oxidation Numbers  139
A Closer Look: Are Oxidation Numbers “Real”?  140
Recognizing Oxidation–Reduction Reactions  141



kotz_48288_00c_FM_i-xxxiii.indd 5

Classifying Reactions in Aqueous Solution  144
Case Study: Killing Bacteria with Silver  144

4.4 Chemical Equations and Chemical Analysis  166
Quantitative Analysis of a Mixture  167
Case Study: Green Chemistry and Atom Economy  168
Determining the Formula of a Compound by
Combustion  169
4.5

Measuring Concentrations of Compounds
in Solution  173
Solution Concentration: Molarity  173
Preparing Solutions of Known Concentration  175

A Closer Look: Serial Dilutions  178

4.6 pH, a Concentration Scale for Acids and Bases  178
4.7

Stoichiometry of Reactions in Aqueous Solution  181
Solution Stoichiometry  181
Titration: A Method of Chemical Analysis  182
Standardizing an Acid or Base  184
Determining Molar Mass by Titration  185
Titrations Using Oxidation–Reduction Reactions  186
Case Study: How Much Salt Is There in Seawater?  187

4.8

Spectrophotometry  188
Case Study: Forensic Chemistry: Titrations and Food
Tampering  189
Transmittance, Absorbance, and the Beer–Lambert
Law  189
Spectrophotometric Analysis  191
Chapter Goals Revisited  193
Key Equations  194
Study Questions  195
Applying Chemical Principles: Antacids   207

Contents

v

11/19/10 12:11 PM


5

Principles of Chemical Reactivity:
Energy and Chemical Reactions  208



Energy and Your Diet  208

5.1

Energy: Some Basic Principles  209
Systems and Surroundings  210
Directionality and Extent of Transfer of Heat: Thermal
Equilibrium  210
A Closer Look: What Is Heat?  211



Energy in the Future: Choices and Alternatives  260
Fuel Cells  260
A Hydrogen Economy  261
Biosources of Energy  262
Solar Energy  263

What Does the Future Hold for Energy?  264
Suggested Readings  264
Study Questions  264

5.2

Specific Heat Capacity: Heating and Cooling  212
Quantitative Aspects of Energy Transferred as Heat  214

5.3

Energy and Changes of State  216

5.4

The First Law of Thermodynamics  219
A Closer Look: P–V Work  221
Enthalpy  222
State Functions  222

6

5.5

Enthalpy Changes for Chemical Reactions  224

5.6

Calorimetry  226
Constant Pressure Calorimetry, Measuring DH  226

Constant Volume Calorimetry, Measuring DU  228

5.7

Enthalpy Calculations  230
Hess’s Law  230
Energy Level Diagrams  231
Standard Enthalpies of Formation  233
Enthalpy Change for a Reaction  234
A Closer Look: Hess’s Law and Equation 5.6  236

5.8

Product- or Reactant-Favored Reactions and
Thermodynamics  236
Case Study: The Fuel Controversy—Alcohol
and Gasoline  237

Part TWO The Structure of Atoms
and Molecules

Study Questions  239

Fireworks  266

6.1

Electromagnetic Radiation  267

6.2

Quantization: Planck, Einstein, Energy,
and Photons  269
Planck’s Equation  269
Einstein and the Photoelectric Effect  271
Energy and Chemistry: Using Planck’s Equation  271

6.3

Atomic Line Spectra and Niels Bohr  272
The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom  273
The Bohr Theory and the Spectra of Excited
Atoms  275

6.4 Particle–Wave Duality: Prelude to Quantum
Mechanics  278
Case Study: What Makes the Colors in Fireworks?  279
6.5

The Modern View of Electronic Structure: Wave or
Quantum Mechanics  281
Quantum Numbers and Orbitals  282
Shells and Subshells  283

6.6

The Shapes of Atomic Orbitals  284
s Orbitals  284
pOrbitals  285
dOrbitals  286

A Closer Look: More about H Atom Orbital Shapes and
Wavefunctions  287
f Orbitals  288

6.7

One More Electron Property: Electron Spin  288
The Electron Spin Quantum Number, ms  288
A Closer Look: Paramagnetism and Ferromagnetism  289
Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism  289

Applying Chemical Principles: Gunpowder   251



Interchapter
The Chemistry of Fuels and Energy
Resources  252



Supply and Demand: The Balance Sheet on Energy  253
Energy Resources  254
Energy Usage  255



Fossil Fuels   255
Coal  256
Natural Gas  257

Petroleum  257
Other Fossil Fuel Sources  257
Environmental Impacts of Fossil Fuel Use  258


vi

266



Chapter Goals Revisited  238
Key Equations  239

The Structure of Atoms 

Chapter Goals Revisited  290

A Closer Look: Quantized Spins and MRI  291
Key Equations  292
Study Questions  293
Applying Chemical Principles:
Chemistry of the Sun  299

Contents

kotz_48288_00c_FM_i-xxxiii.indd 6

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7

The Structure of Atoms and Periodic
Trends  300

8

Bonding and Molecular Structure 



Chemical Bonding in DNA  344



Rubies and Sapphires—Pretty Stones  300

8.1

Chemical Bond Formation  345

7.1

The Pauli Exclusion Principle  301

8.2

7.2

Atomic Subshell Energies and Electron
Assignments  303
Order of Subshell Energies and Assignments  303
Effective Nuclear Charge, Z *  304

7.3

Electron Configurations of Atoms  305
Electron Configurations of the Main Group
Elements  307
Electron Configurations of the Transition
Elements  310
A Closer Look: Orbital Energies, Z*, and Electron
Configurations  312

Covalent Bonding and Lewis Structures  346
Valence Electrons and Lewis Symbols for Atoms  346
Lewis Electron Dot Structures and the Octet Rule  348
Drawing Lewis Electron Dot Structures  349
A Closer Look: Useful Ideas to Consider When Drawing
Lewis Electron Dot Structures  351
Predicting Lewis Structures  351

8.3

Atom Formal Charges in Covalent Molecules
and Ions  354
A Closer Look: Comparing Oxidation Number and Formal
Charge  355

8.4

Resonance  356
A Closer Look: Resonance  357
A Closer Look: A Scientific Controversy—Are There
Double Bonds in Sulfate and Phosphate Ions?  359

8.5

Exceptions to the Octet Rule  360
Compounds in Which an Atom Has Fewer Than Eight
Valence Electrons  360
Compounds in Which an Atom Has More Than Eight
Valence Electrons  361
Molecules with an Odd Number of Electrons  362
Case Study: Hydroxyl Radicals, Atmospheric Chemistry,
and Hair Dyes  363

8.6

Molecular Shapes  364
Central Atoms Surrounded Only by Single-Bond
Pairs  364
Central Atoms with Single-Bond Pairs and Lone
Pairs  366
Multiple Bonds and Molecular Geometry  368

8.7

Bond Polarity and Electronegativity  371

Charge Distribution: Combining Formal Charge and
Electronegativity  373

8.8

Bond and Molecular Polarity  375
A Closer Look: Visualizing Charge Distributions and
Molecular Polarity—Electrostatic Potential Surfaces
and Partial Charge  378

8.9

Bond Properties: Order, Length, and Energy  381
Bond Order  381
Bond Length  382
Bond Dissociation Enthalpy  383
Case Study: Ibuprofen, A Study in Green Chemistry  385
A Closer Look: DNA—Watson, Crick, and Franklin  387

7.4

Electron Configurations of Ions  313
A Closer Look: Questions about Transition Element
Electron Configurations  314

7.5

Atomic Properties and Periodic Trends  315
Atomic Size  315
Ionization Energy  317

Electron Attachment Enthalpy and Electron
Affinity  320
Trends in Ion Sizes  322

7.6

Periodic Trends and Chemical Properties  323
Case Study: Metals in Biochemistry and Medicine  325
Chapter Goals Revisited  326
Study Questions  327
Applying Chemical Principles: The Not-so-Rare
Earths  333



Interchapter
Milestones in the Development
of Chemistry and the Modern View
of Atoms and Molecules  334



Greek Philosophers and Medieval Alchemists  335



Chemists of the 18th–19th Centuries  336

Atomic Structure: Remarkable Discoveries—1890s and
Beyond  338
A Closer Look: 20th-Century Giants of Science  342



The Nature of the Chemical Bond  343

344

Suggested Readings  343
Study Questions  343



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8.10 DNA, Revisited  388

10.3 Alcohols, Ethers, and Amines  457
A Closer Look: Petroleum Chemistry  458
Alcohols and Ethers  458
Properties of Alcohols  461

Amines  462

Chapter Goals Revisited  389
Key Equations  391
Study Questions  391
Applying Chemical Principles: Linus Pauling
and Electronegativity   399

9

Bonding and Molecular Structure: Orbital
Hybridization and Molecular Orbitals  400



The Noble Gases: Not So Inert  400

9.1

Orbitals and Theories of Chemical Bonding  401

9.2

Valence Bond Theory  402
The Orbital Overlap Model of Bonding  402
Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals  404
Multiple Bonds  411
Benzene: A Special Case of p Bonding  415

9.3

Molecular Orbital Theory  416
Principles of Molecular Orbital Theory  417
A Closer Look: Molecular Orbitals for Molecules Formed
from p-Block Elements  423
Electron Configurations for Heteronuclear Diatomic
Molecules  423
Resonance and MO Theory  424
Case Study: Green Chemistry, Safe Dyes, and Molecular
Orbitals  426
A Closer Look: Three-Center Bonds and Hybrid Orbitals
with d Orbitals  427
Chapter Goals Revisited  428
Key Equation  429

10.4 Compounds with a Carbonyl Group  464
Case Study: An Awakening with L-DOPA  464
Aldehydes and Ketones  466
Carboxylic Acids  467
A Closer Look: Glucose and Other Sugars  467
Esters  469
Amides  470
10.5 Polymers  473
Classifying Polymers  473
Addition Polymers  473
Condensation Polymers  477
A Closer Look: Copolymers and the Book Cover  477
A Closer Look: Copolymers and Engineering Plastics for
Lego Bricks and Tattoos  478
A Closer Look: Green Chemistry: Recycling PET  479

Case Study: Green Adhesives  481
Chapter Goals Revisited  482
Study Questions  482
Applying Chemical Principles: Biodiesel—An Attractive
Fuel for the Future?  489



Proteins  491
Amino Acids Are the Building Blocks of Proteins  492
Protein Structure and Hemoglobin  493
Sickle Cell Anemia  494
Enzymes, Active Sites, and Lysozyme  495



Nucleic Acids  496
Nucleic Acid Structure  496
Protein Synthesis  498
The RNA World and the Origin of Life  499



Lipids and Cell Membranes  500
A Closer Look: HIV and Reverse Transcriptase  501



Metabolism  504
Energy and ATP  504

Oxidation–Reduction and NADH  505
Respiration and Photosynthesis  505



Concluding Remarks  506

Applying Chemical Principles: Probing Molecules with
Photoelectron Spectroscopy   437



10.2 Hydrocarbons  443
Alkanes  443
Alkenes and Alkynes  449
A Closer Look: Flexible Molecules  449
Aromatic Compounds  453

viii

438

The Food of the Gods  438

10.1 Why Carbon?  439
Structural Diversity  439
Isomers  440
A Closer Look: Writing Formulas and Drawing
Structures  441
Stability of Carbon Compounds  442

A Closer Look: Chirality and Elephants  443

490



Study Questions  429

10 Carbon: Not Just Another Element 

Interchapter
The Chemistry of Life: Biochemistry 

Suggested Readings  506
Study Questions  506

Contents

kotz_48288_00c_FM_i-xxxiii.indd 8

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Part THREE States of Matter
11 Gases and Their Properties 


508

The Atmosphere and Altitude Sickness  508

11.1 Gas Pressure  510
A Closer Look: Measuring Gas Pressure  511
11.2 Gas Laws: The Experimental Basis  511
Boyle’s Law: The Compressibility of Gases  511
The Effect of Temperature on Gas Volume: Charles’s
Law  513
Combining Boyle’s and Charles’s Laws: The General
Gas Law  515
Avogadro’s Hypothesis  516
A Closer Look: Studies on Gases—Robert Boyle
and Jacques Charles  518
11.3 The Ideal Gas Law  518
The Density of Gases  519
Calculating the Molar Mass of a Gas
from P, V, and T Data  521
11.4 Gas Laws and Chemical Reactions  522
11.5 Gas Mixtures and Partial Pressures  524
11.6 The Kinetic-Molecular Theory of Gases  527
Molecular Speed and Kinetic Energy  527
A Closer Look: The Earth’s Atmosphere  528
Kinetic-Molecular Theory and the Gas Laws  531

12.3 Interactions between Molecules with a Dipole  552
Dipole–Dipole Forces  552
A Closer Look: Hydrated Salts  553
Hydrogen Bonding  554
Hydrogen Bonding and the Unusual Properties of
Water  556
Case Study: Hydrogen Bonding & Methane Hydrates:

Opportunities and Problems  558
12.4 Intermolecular Forces Involving Nonpolar
Molecules  559
Dipole-Induced Dipole Forces  559
London Dispersion Forces: Induced Dipole-Induced
Dipole Forces  560
A Closer Look: Hydrogen Bonding in Biochemistry  561
12.5 A Summary of van der Waals Intermolecular Forces  563
12.6 Properties of Liquids  564
Case Study: A Pet Food Catastrophe  565
Vaporization and Condensation  565
Vapor Pressure  568
Vapor Pressure, Enthalpy of Vaporization, and the
Clausius–Clapeyron Equation  570
Boiling Point  571
Critical Temperature and Pressure  571
Surface Tension, Capillary Action, and Viscosity  571
A Closer Look: Supercritical CO2 and Green
Chemistry  574
Chapter Goals Revisited  574

11.7 Diffusion and Effusion  532
A Closer Look: Scuba Diving—An Application of the Gas
Laws  534
11.8 Nonideal Behavior of Gases  534
Case Study: What to Do with All of That CO2? More on
Green Chemistry  536
Chapter Goals Revisited  537
Study Questions  538
Applying Chemical Principles: The Goodyear Blimp  547

Study Questions  575
Applying Chemical Principles: Chromatography   581

13 The Chemistry of Solids 


Key Equations  537

12 Intermolecular Forces and Liquids 

Key Equations  575

582

Lithium and “Green Cars”  582

13.1 Crystal Lattices and Unit Cells  583
A Closer Look: Packing Oranges and Marbles  587
13.2 Structures and Formulas of Ionic Solids  590
Case Study: High-Strength Steel and Unit Cells  592

548

Geckos Can Climb Up der Waals  548

12.1 States of Matter and Intermolecular Forces  549
12.2 Interactions between Ions and Molecules with a

Permanent Dipole  550

13.3 Bonding in Metals and Semiconductors  594
Semiconductors  596
13.4 Bonding in Ionic Compounds: Lattice Energy  598
Lattice Energy  598
Calculating a Lattice Enthalpy from Thermodynamic
Data  599
13.5 The Solid State: Other Types of Solid Materials  601
Molecular Solids  601
Network Solids  601
Amorphous Solids  601



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13.6 Phase Changes Involving Solids  602
Melting: Conversion of Solid into Liquid  602
Case Study: Graphene—The Hottest New Network
Solid  603
Sublimation: Conversion of Solid into Vapor  605
13.7 Phase Diagrams  606

Water  606
Phase Diagrams and Thermodynamics  606
Carbon Dioxide  606



Alloys: Mixtures of Metals  657



Semiconductors  659
Applications of Semiconductors: Diodes, LEDs, and
Transistors  659



Ceramics  660
Glass: A Disordered Ceramic  661
Fired Ceramics for Special Purposes: Cements, Clays,
and Refractories  663
Aerogels  663
Ceramics with Exceptional Properties  664



Biomaterials: Learning from Nature  665



The Future of Materials  666

Study Questions  609
Applying Chemical Principles: Tin Disease  615



616

Suggested Readings  667

Survival at Sea  616

Study Questions  667

14.1 Units of Concentration  618
14.2 The Solution Process  620
Liquids Dissolving in Liquids  621
A Closer Look: Supersaturated Solutions  622
Solids Dissolving in Water  622
Enthalpy of Solution  623
Enthalpy of Solution: Thermodynamic Data  625
14.3 Factors Affecting Solubility: Pressure
and Temperature  626
Dissolving Gases in Liquids: Henry’s Law  626
Temperature Effects on Solubility: Le Chatelier’s
Principle  627
Case Study: Exploding Lakes and Diet Cokes  629
14.4 Colligative Properties  630
Changes in Vapor Pressure: Raoult’s Law  630
Boiling Point Elevation  631

Freezing Point Depression  634
Osmotic Pressure  635
A Closer Look: Reverse Osmosis for Pure Water  637
Colligative Properties and Molar Mass
Determination  638
A Closer Look: Osmosis and Medicine  640
Colligative Properties of Solutions Containing
Ions  640
14.5 Colloids  643
Types of Colloids  644
Surfactants  645
Chapter Goals Revisited  646
Key Equations  647
Study Questions  648
Applying Chemical Principles: Distillation   655


x

656



Chapter Goals Revisited  608

14 Solutions and Their Behavior 

Interchapter
The Chemistry of Modern Materials 

Part FOUR The Control of Chemical
Reactions
15 Chemical Kinetics: The Rates of Chemical
Reactions  668


Where Did the Indicator Go?  668

15.1 Rates of Chemical Reactions  669
15.2 Reaction Conditions and Rate  674
15.3 Effect of Concentration on Reaction Rate  675
Rate Equations  676
The Order of a Reaction  676
The Rate Constant, k  677
Determining a Rate Equation  678
15.4 Concentration–Time Relationships: Integrated Rate
Laws  681
First-Order Reactions  681
Second-Order Reactions  683
Zero-Order Reactions  684
Graphical Methods for Determining Reaction Order
and the Rate Constant  684
Half-Life and First-Order Reactions  685
15.5 A Microscopic View of Reaction Rates  689
Collision Theory: Concentration and Reaction Rate  689
Collision Theory: Temperature and Reaction Rate  690
Collision Theory: Activation Energy  690
A Closer Look: Reaction Coordinate Diagrams  692
Collision Theory: Activation Energy
and Temperature  692

Collision Theory: Effect of Molecular Orientation on
Reaction Rate  692
The Arrhenius Equation  693
Effect of Catalysts on Reaction Rate  695

Contents

kotz_48288_00c_FM_i-xxxiii.indd 10

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15.6 Reaction Mechanisms  697
Molecularity of Elementary Steps  698
Rate Equations for Elementary Steps  699
Molecularity and Reaction Order  699
Reaction Mechanisms and Rate Equations  700
Case Study: Enzymes—Nature’s Catalysts  702
Chapter Goals Revisited  706
Key Equations  707
Study Questions  708
Applying Chemical Principles: Kinetics and Mechanisms:
A 70-Year-Old Mystery Solved   719

17.3 Water and the pH Scale  760
Water Autoionization and the Water Ionization
Constant, Kw  761
The pH Scale  763
Calculating pH  763
17.4 Equilibrium Constants for Acids and Bases  764

Ka Values for Polyprotic Acids  767
Logarithmic Scale of Relative Acid Strength, pK a  768
Relating the Ionization Constants for an Acid and Its
Conjugate Base  768
17.5 Acid–Base Properties of Salts  769

16 Principles of Chemical Reactivity:
Equilibria  720


17.2 The Brønsted-Lowry Concept of Acids and Bases
Extended  758
Conjugate Acid–Base Pairs  760

17.6 Predicting the Direction of Acid–Base Reactions  771

Dynamic and Reversible!  720

16.1 Chemical Equilibrium: A Review  721
16.2 The Equilibrium Constant and Reaction Quotient  722
Writing Equilibrium Constant Expressions  724
A Closer Look: Activities and Units of K  725
A Closer Look: Equilibrium Constant Expressions for
Gases—Kc and Kp  726
The Meaning of the Equilibrium Constant, K  726
The Reaction Quotient, Q  727
16.3 Determining an Equilibrium Constant  730
16.4 Using Equilibrium Constants in Calculations  733
Calculations Where the Solution Involves a Quadratic
Expression  734

16.5 More about Balanced Equations and Equilibrium
Constants  738
16.6 Disturbing a Chemical Equilibrium  740
Effect of the Addition or Removal of a Reactant or
Product  741
Effect of Volume Changes on Gas-Phase Equilibria  743
Effect of Temperature Changes on Equilibrium
Composition  744
Case Study: Applying Equilibrium Concepts—The Haber–
Bosch Ammonia Process  746
Chapter Goals Revisited  746

17.7 Types of Acid–Base Reactions  774
The Reaction of a Strong Acid with a Strong Base  774
The Reaction of a Weak Acid with a Strong Base  774
The Reaction of a Strong Acid with a Weak Base  775
The Reaction of a Weak Acid with a Weak Base  775
17.8 Calculations with Equilibrium Constants  776
Determining K from Initial Concentrations and
Measured pH  776
What Is the pH of an Aqueous Solution of a Weak Acid
or Base?  777
Case Study: Would You Like Some Belladonna Juice in
Your Drink?  784
17.9 Polyprotic Acids and Bases  785
17.10 Molecular Structure, Bonding, and Acid–Base
Behavior  787
Acid Strength of the Hydrogen Halides, HX  787
Comparing Oxoacids: HNO2 and HNO3  787
A Closer Look: Acid Strengths and Molecular

Structure  788
Why Are Carboxylic Acids Brønsted Acids?  789
Why Are Hydrated Metal Cations Brønsted Acids?  790
Why Are Anions Brønsted Bases?  791
17.11 The Lewis Concept of Acids and Bases  791
Cationic Lewis Acids  792
Molecular Lewis Acids  794
Molecular Lewis Bases  794

Key Equations  747
Study Questions  748

Chapter Goals Revisited  796

Applying Chemical Principles: Trivalent Carbon  755

Key Equations  796
Study Questions  797

17 Principles of Chemical Reactivity:
The Chemistry of Acids and Bases 


Applying Chemical Principles: The Leveling Effect,
Nonaqueous Solvents, and Superacids   805

756

Aspirin Is Over 100 Years Old!  756

17.1 Acids and Bases: A Review  757


kotz_48288_00c_FM_i-xxxiii.indd 11

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18 Principles of Chemical Reactivity: Other
Aspects of Aqueous Equilibria  806


Nature’s Acids  806

18.1 The Common Ion Effect  807
18.2 Controlling pH: Buffer Solutions  810
General Expressions for Buffer Solutions  812
Preparing Buffer Solutions  814
How Does a Buffer Maintain pH?  816
18.3 Acid–Base Titrations  818
Titration of a Strong Acid with a Strong Base  818
Case Study: Take a Deep Breath  819
Titration of a Weak Acid with a Strong Base  820
Titration of Weak Polyprotic Acids  824
Titration of a Weak Base with a Strong Acid  824
pH Indicators  826

18.4 Solubility of Salts  828
The Solubility Product Constant, Ksp  829
Relating Solubility and Ksp  830
A Closer Look: Minerals and Gems—The Importance of
Solubility  831
A Closer Look: Solubility Calculations  833
Solubility and the Common Ion Effect  834
The Effect of Basic Anions on Salt Solubility  837
18.5 Precipitation Reactions  839
Ksp and the Reaction Quotient, Q  839
Case Study: Chemical Equilibria in the Oceans  840
Ksp, the Reaction Quotient, and Precipitation
Reactions  841

19.3 Entropy: A Microscopic Understanding  862
Dispersal of Energy  862
Dispersal of Matter: Dispersal of Energy Revisited  864
A Summary: Entropy, Entropy Change, and Energy
Dispersal  866
19.4 Entropy Measurement and Values  866
Standard Entropy Values, S o  866
Determining Entropy Changes in Physical and
Chemical Processes  868
19.5 Entropy Changes and Spontaneity  869
In Summary: Spontaneous or Not?  872
19.6 Gibbs Free Energy  874
The Change in the Gibbs Free Energy, DG  874
Gibbs Free Energy, Spontaneity, and Chemical
Equilibrium  875
A Summary: Gibbs Free Energy (DrG and DrG o), the

Reaction Quotient (Q) and Equilibrium Constant (K ),
and Reaction Favorability  877
What Is “Free” Energy?  877
19.7 Calculating and Using Free Energy  878
Standard Free Energy of Formation  878
Calculating DrG o, the Free Energy Change for a
Reaction Under Standard Conditions  878
Free Energy and Temperature  880
Case Study: Thermodynamics and Living Things  881
Using the Relationship between DrG o and K  883
Chapter Goals Revisited  884
Key Equations  885
Study Questions  886

18.6 Equilibria Involving Complex Ions  843

Applying Chemical Principles: Are Diamonds
Forever?  893

18.7 Solubility and Complex Ions  844
Chapter Goals Revisited  846
Key Equations  847
Study Questions  848
Applying Chemical Principles: Everything That
Glitters . . .  857

19 Principles of Chemical Reactivity:
Entropy and Free Energy  858

Hydrogen for the Future?  858

19.1 Spontaneity and Energy Transfer as Heat  859
19.2 Dispersal of Energy: Entropy  861
A Closer Look: Reversible and Irreversible Processes  862


xii

20 Principles of Chemical Reactivity: Electron
Transfer Reactions  894


Battery Power  894

20.1 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions  896
Balancing Oxidation–Reduction Equations  896
20.2 Simple Voltaic Cells  903
Voltaic Cells with Inert Electrodes  906
Electrochemical Cell Notations  907
20.3 Commercial Voltaic Cells  908
Primary Batteries: Dry Cells and Alkaline Batteries  909
Secondary or Rechargeable Batteries  910
Fuel Cells  912

Contents

kotz_48288_00c_FM_i-xxxiii.indd 12

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20.4 Standard Electrochemical Potentials  913
Electromotive Force  913
Measuring Standard Potentials  913
A Closer Look: EMF, Cell Potential, and Voltage  915
Standard Reduction Potentials  915
Tables of Standard Reduction Potentials  916
Using Tables of Standard Reduction Potentials  918
Relative Strengths of Oxidizing and Reducing
Agents  919
A Closer Look: An Electrochemical Toothache  921
20.5 Electrochemical Cells under Nonstandard
Conditions  921
The Nernst Equation  921
Case Study: Manganese in the Oceans  922

20.7 Electrolysis: Chemical Change Using Electrical
Energy  929
Electrolysis of Molten Salts  929
Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions  931
A Closer Look: Electrochemistry and Michael
Faraday  934
20.8 Counting Electrons  934

Key Equations  936
Study Questions  937
Applying Chemical Principles: Sacrifice!  945

Carbon and Silicon  960

21.1 Element Abundances  961
21.2 The Periodic Table: A Guide to the Elements  962
Valence Electrons  962
Ionic Compounds of Main Group Elements  962
Molecular Compounds of Main Group Elements  963

21.4 The Alkali Metals, Group 1A  969
Preparation of Sodium and Potassium  970
Properties of Sodium and Potassium  970
A Closer Look: The Reducing Ability of the Alkali
Metals  972
Important Lithium, Sodium, and Potassium
Compounds  972
21.5 The Alkaline Earth Elements, Group 2A  974
Properties of Calcium and Magnesium  975
Metallurgy of Magnesium  975
A Closer Look: Alkaline Earth Metals and Biology  976
Calcium Minerals and Their Applications  976
A Closer Look: Of Romans, Limestone, and
Champagne  977
Case Study: Hard Water  978

Chapter Goals Revisited  935

Interchapter

The Chemistry of the Environment 

21 The Chemistry of the Main Group
Elements  960

21.3 Hydrogen  966
Chemical and Physical Properties of Hydrogen  966
A Closer Look: Hydrogen, Helium, and Balloons  967
Preparation of Hydrogen  968

20.6 Electrochemistry and Thermodynamics  925
Work and Free Energy  925
E o and the Equilibrium Constant  926



Part FIVE The Chemistry of the
Elements and Their Compounds

946

The Atmosphere  947
Nitrogen and Nitrogen Oxides  948
Oxygen  949
Ozone  950
Chlorofluorocarbons and Ozone  951
Carbon Dioxide  952

Climate Change  952
Greenhouse Gases  952



The Aqua Sphere (Water)  953
The Oceans  954
Drinking Water  954
A Closer Look: Chlorination of Water Supplies  956
Water Pollution  956



Green Chemistry  958

21.6 Boron, Aluminum, and the Group 3A Elements  979
Chemistry of the Group 3A Elements  979
Boron Minerals and Production of the Element  979
Metallic Aluminum and Its Production  980
Boron Compounds  982
Aluminum Compounds  983
21.7 Silicon and the Group 4A Elements  984
Silicon  984
Silicon Dioxide  985
Silicate Minerals with Chain and Ribbon
Structures  986
Silicates with Sheet Structures
and Aluminosilicates  986
Silicone Polymers  987
Case Study: Lead, Beethoven, and a Mystery Solved  988

Suggested Readings  959
Study Questions  959



kotz_48288_00c_FM_i-xxxiii.indd 13

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21.8 Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and the Group 5A Elements  989
Properties of Nitrogen and Phosphorus  989
Nitrogen Compounds  990
Case Study: A Healthy Saltwater Aquarium and the
Nitrogen Cycle  991
A Closer Look: Making Phosphorus  993
Hydrogen Compounds of Phosphorus and Other
Group 5A Elements  994
Phosphorus Oxides and Sulfides  994
Phosphorus Oxoacids and Their Salts  996
21.9 Oxygen, Sulfur, and the Group 6A Elements  998
Preparation and Properties of the Elements  998
Sulfur Compounds  999
A Closer Look: Snot-tites and Sulfur Chemistry  1001

22.6 Colors of Coordination Compounds  1043
Color  1043
The Spectrochemical Series  1044
Case Study: Accidental Discovery of a Chemotherapy
Agent  1047
22.7 Organometallic Chemistry: Compounds with
Metal–Carbon Bonds  1047
Carbon Monoxide Complexes of Metals  1047
The Effective Atomic Number Rule and Bonding in
Organometallic Compounds  1048
Ligands in Organometallic Compounds  1049
Case Study: Ferrocene—The Beginning of a Chemical
Revolution  1050
Chapter Goals Revisited  1051

21.10 The Halogens, Group 7A  1001
Preparation of the Elements  1001
Fluorine Compounds  1003
Chlorine Compounds  1004

Applying Chemical Principles: Green Catalysts   1057

Chapter Goals Revisited  1006

23 Nuclear Chemistry 

Study Questions  1007

Applying Chemical Principles: Van Arkel Triangles
and Bonding   1015

23.1 Natural Radioactivity  1059

22 The Chemistry of the Transition
Elements  1016


Study Questions  1052

Memory Metal  1016

22.1 Properties of the Transition Elements  1018
Electron Configurations  1019
Oxidation and Reduction  1019
Periodic Trends in the d-Block: Size, Density, Melting
Point  1020
A Closer Look: Corrosion of Iron  1021
22.2 Metallurgy  1023
Pyrometallurgy: Iron Production  1024
Hydrometallurgy: Copper Production  1025

1058

A Primordial Nuclear Reactor  1058

23.2 Nuclear Reactions and Radioactive Decay  1060
Equations for Nuclear Reactions  1060
Radioactive Decay Series  1061

Other Types of Radioactive Decay  1063
23.3 Stability of Atomic Nuclei  1065
The Band of Stability and Radioactive Decay  1065
Nuclear Binding Energy  1067
23.4 Rates of Nuclear Decay  1070
Half-Life  1070
Kinetics of Nuclear Decay  1071
Radiocarbon Dating  1073
23.5 Artificial Nuclear Reactions  1075
A Closer Look: The Search for New Elements  1076
23.6 Nuclear Fission  1078

22.3 Coordination Compounds  1026
Complexes and Ligands  1026
Formulas of Coordination Compounds  1029
Naming Coordination Compounds  1031
A Closer Look: Hemoglobin  1032

23.7 Nuclear Fusion  1080

22.4 Structures of Coordination Compounds  1034
Common Coordination Geometries  1034
Isomerism  1034

23.9 Applications of Nuclear Chemistry  1083
Nuclear Medicine: Medical Imaging  1083
A Closer Look: Technetium-99m  1084
Nuclear Medicine: Radiation Therapy  1085
Analytical Methods: The Use of Radioactive Isotopes as
Tracers  1085

Analytical Methods: Isotope Dilution  1085
Space Science: Neutron Activation Analysis and the
Moon Rocks  1086
Food Science: Food Irradiation  1086

22.5 Bonding in Coordination Compounds  1038
The d Orbitals: Ligand Field Theory  1038
Electron Configurations and Magnetic Properties  1040


xiv

23.8 Radiation Health and Safety  1081
Units for Measuring Radiation  1081
Radiation: Doses and Effects  1081
A Closer Look: What Is a Safe Exposure?  1083

Contents

kotz_48288_00c_FM_i-xxxiii.indd 14

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Case Study: Nuclear Medicine and
Hyperthyroidism  1087
Chapter Goals Revisited  1088
Key Equations  1088
Study Questions  1089
Applying Chemical Principles: The Age of

Meteorites   1094

H

Ionization Constants for Aqueous Weak Acids
at 25 °C  A-20

I

Ionization Constants for Aqueous Weak Bases
at 25 °C  A-22

J

Solubility Product Constants for Some Inorganic
Compounds at 25 °C  A-23

K

Formation Constants for Some Complex Ions in
Aqueous Solution at 25 °C  A-25

L

Selected Thermodynamic Values  A-26

M

Standard Reduction Potentials in Aqueous Solution
at 25 °C  A-32

N

Answers to Chapter Opening Questions
and Case Study Questions  A-36

A

Appendices 

A

Using Logarithms and Solving Quadratic Equations  A-2

B

Some Important Physical Concepts  A-6

C

Abbreviations and Useful Conversion Factors  A-9

O

Answers to Check Your Understanding Questions  A-47

D

Physical Constants  A-13

P

Answers to Review & Check Questions  A-63

E

A Brief Guide to Naming Organic Compounds  A-15

Q

F

Values for the Ionization Energies and Electron
Attachment Enthalpies of the Elements  A-18

Answers to Selected Interchapter
Study Questions  A-72

R

Answers to Selected Study Questions  A-75

G

Vapor Pressure of Water at Various Temperatures  A-19



Index/Glossary 

kotz_48288_00c_FM_i-xxxiii.indd 15

A-1

I-1

  Contents

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Go Chemistry Modules 
Go Chemistry® modules are mini video lectures prepared by the book author, John C. Kotz, that may include animations, problems, or eFlashcards for quick review of key concepts. They play on video iPods, iPhones, iPads, personal
video players, and iTunes and are correlated to the text by annotations in the margin. If you are using OWL, Go
Chemistry is included in the Cengage YouBook. You can download two sample modules and purchase modules individually or as a set at www.cengagebrain.com (ISBN 0-495-38228-0).
Chapter 1 Basic Concepts of Chemistry

Module 1 The Periodic Table

Chapter 2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

Module 2 Predicting Ion Charges
Module 3 Names to Formulas of Ionic Compounds
Module 4 The Mole

Chapter 3 Chemical Reactions

Module 5 Predicting the Water Solubility of Ionic
Compounds
Module 6 Writing Net Ionic Equations

Chapter 4 Stoichiometry: Quantitative Information about
Chemical Reactions

Module 7 Simple Stoichiometry
Module 8a Stoichiometry and Limiting Reactants (Part 1)
Module 8b Stoichiometry and Limiting Reactants (Part 2)
Module 9a pH (Part 1)
Module 9b pH (Part 2)

Chapter 5 Principles of Chemical Reactivity: Energy and
Chemical Reactions

Module 10 Thermochemistry and Hess’s Law

Chapter 7 The Structure of Atoms and Periodic Trends

Module 11 Periodic Trends

Chapter 8 Bonding and Molecular Structure

Module 12 Drawing Lewis Electron Dot Structures
Module 13 Molecular Polarity

Chapter 9 Bonding and Molecular Structure: Orbital
Hybridization and Molecular Orbitals

Module 14 Hybrid Atomic Orbitals

Chapter 10 Carbon: Not Just Another Element

Module 15 Naming Organic Compounds

Chapter 11 Gases and Their Properties

Module 16 Gas Laws and the Kinetic Molecular Theory

Chapter 12 Intermolecular Forces and Liquids

Module 17 Intermolecular Forces

Chapter 13 The Chemistry of Solids

Module 18 The Solid State

Chapter 14 Solutions and Their Behavior

Module 19 Colligative Properties

Chapter 15 Chemical Kinetics: The Rates of Chemical
Reactions

Module 20 Chemical Kinetics

Chapter 16 Principles of Chemical Reactivity: Equilibria

Module 21 Chemical Equilibrium

Chapter 17 Principles of Chemical Reactivity: The Chemistry
of Acids and Bases

Module 22 Equilibrium: pH of a Weak Acid

Chapter 18 Principles of Chemical Reactivity: Other Aspects
of Aqueous Equilibria

Module 23 Understanding Acid–Base Buffers

Chapter 19 Principles of Chemical Reactivity: Entropy and
Free Energy

Module 24 Gibbs Free Energy and Equilibrium

Chapter 20 Principles of Chemical Reactivity: Electron
Transfer Reactions

Module 25 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions

xvi

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preface

T

John C. Kotz

he authors of this book have
many years of experience
teaching general chemistry
and other areas of chemistry at the
college level. Although we have
been at different institutions, both
large and small, during our careers,
we share several goals. One is to provide a broad overview of the principles of chemistry, the reactivity of
the chemical elements and their
compounds, and the applications of
chemistry. To reach that goal with
our students, we have tried to show
the close relation between the observations chemists make of chemical
and physical changes in the laboratory and in nature and
the way these changes are viewed at the atomic and molecular level.
Another of our goals has been to convey a sense that
chemistry not only has a lively history but is also dynamic,
with important new developments occurring every year.
Furthermore, we want to provide some insight into the
chemical aspects of the world around us. Indeed, a major
objective of this book is to provide the tools needed for
you to function as a chemically literate citizen. Learning
about the chemical world is just as important as understanding some basic mathematics and biology and as
important as having an appreciation for history, music,
and literature. For example, you should know what materials are important to our economy, some of the reactions in plants and animals and in our environment, and

the role that chemists play in protecting the environment. In this regard, one growing area of chemistry,
highlighted throughout this edition, is “green” or sustainable chemistry.
These goals have been translated into Chemistry &
Chemical Reactivity, a book that has been used by more than
1 million students in its first seven editions. The first edition had a copyright date of 1987, and the copyright date
for this edition is 2012. So, this is the 25th anniversary of
the book. It is its silver (Ag) anniversary!
Looking back over the previous editions, we can see
how the book has changed. There have been many new
and exciting additions to the content of the book. In ad-

dition, there have been significant
advances in the technology of communicating information, and we
have tried to take advantage of those
new approaches. A desire to make
the book even better for our students
has been the impetus behind the
preparation of each new edition.
With this edition, you will see a new
approach to problem solving, new
ways to describe contemporary uses
of chemistry, new technologies, and
improved integration with existing
technologies.

Emerging Developments in Content
Usage and Delivery: OWL,
Go Chemistry®, and the Cengage
YouBook
Our ongoing challenge as authors and educators is to

use multimedia to engage students and to help them
reach a higher level of conceptual understanding. More
than 15 years ago we incorporated electronic media into
this text with the first edition of our Interactive General
Chemistry CD, a learning tool used by thousands of students worldwide.
As technology has advanced, we have made major
changes in our integrated media program. Through several editions we redesigned the media so that students
can interact with simulations, tutorials, active figures, and
end-of-chapter questions, first through the Interactive
General Chemistry CD and then with OWL (Online Web
Learning). OWL, which was developed at the University
of Massachusetts, has been used by hundreds of thousands of students in the past few years.
More recently, we developed and integrated Go
Chemistry tutorial videos into the seventh edition and
more fully into this new edition. These tutorials are 5- to
10-minute mini lectures on topics such as solving equilibrium problems, features of the periodic table, naming
compounds, polar molecules, writing net ionic equations, and identifying intermolecular forces.
xvii

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xviii


Preface

What’s New in This Edition

1.All Example problems in the book illustrate a NEW approach to problem solving. Each Example problem is broken
down into the following categories:
Problem, What Do You Know?, Strategy,
Solution, Think About Your Answer, and
Check Your Understanding. The “Check
Your Understanding” questions are
largely a revision of the Exercises from
previous editions. Being included in the
Example format should make them a
more useful tool.
2. New Interactive Examples in OWL allow
students to work approximately 70 examples from the book multiple times in
slightly different versions to encourage
thinking their way through the example
instead of passively reading through to
the solution.
3.At the end of almost every section
in a chapter there are NEW multiple
choice Review & Check questions. These
are meant to be done in a few minutes to
check the understanding of the section.
In the Cengage YouBook these questions
are interactive quizzes with feedback.
(These questions could also be used in
class by instructors to assess student
understanding through electronic student response systems.)
4.Strategy Maps are a NEW feature of
this edition. There are approximately
60 maps accompanying Example problems throughout the book. These are
visual representations of the pathways to

solving problems.
5.Except for Chapter 1, each chapter has
NEW extended Study Questions
called Applying Chemical Principles.
These help students apply principles
learned across several chapters to realworld problems. Topics include the discovery of the noble gases, the discovery of elements on the sun, antacids,
gunpowder, the rare earth elements,
dating meteorites, and lighter-than-air
ships.

General Strategy Map
State the Problem:
Read the problem carefully.

Data/Information:
What do you know?

Strategy: Develop a plan.

Solution: Execute the plan.

Sequence of operations
needed to solve this
problem.
Answer: Is your answer
reasonable and in the correct
units?

6.There are 2210 end-of-chapter Study
Questions in the book in addition to the

Check Your Understanding, Review &
Check, and Applying Chemical Principles
questions. Over 1900 of these questions
are available in OWL, more than double
the number of questions available in
OWL in the previous edition.
7. Another NEW feature is a discussion of
the Principles of Green Chemistry are
noted in Chapter 1. This is followed by 10
articles on green chemistry throughout
the book. See, for example, an explanation
of atom economy (page 168), the synthesis
of ibuprofen (page 385), and lithium and
green cars (page 586). The development
of this NEW feature was assisted by Professor Michael Cann of the University of
Scranton, a green chemistry authority.
8.This edition of the book is also available
as a Cengage YouBook, a digital textbook.
This includes all the same content as the
print book, but it also has clickable videos,
animations, Guided Tours of figures with

In addition, an entirely new digital textbook—the Cengage YouBook—has been developed for this edition. The
Cengage YouBook is a fully electronic, full-color version of
the book with extensive interactivity. You can use it with
your desktop or laptop computer, to read the text, access
useful databases, watch videos of chemical reactions, take
a Guided Tour of a book figure, and much more.

kotz_48288_00c_FM_i-xxxiii.indd 18

tutorials, three-dimensional molecular
models, and quick quiz Review & Check
questions. Those who choose the Cengage
YouBook will also have access to strategy
maps with audio/video explanations done
by one of the authors or by Salman Khan,
who has published hundreds of video
tutorials on the Internet in many areas of
science.
9.The Interchapters on energy, biochemistry, materials chemistry, and the environment have been revised to bring them up
to date with the latest developments.
10.There are 10 NEW chapter opening stories. See, for example, essays on gold
(page 1), energy and diet (page 208),
rubies and sapphires (page 300), chocolate (page 438), and green cars (page 582).
11. A total of 17 NEW Case Studies have
been added. These include the story of
Ötzi, the Iceman of the Alps (page 58);
free radicals and hair dye (page 363);
methane hydrates and the Gulf of
Mexico oil spill (page 538); a pet food
catastrophe (page 565); and exploding
lakes and Diet Cokes (page 629).
12.Reorganization/addition/revision of
material:
•A short introduction to energy has
been moved from Chapter 5 to
Chapter 1, and the units used in thermochemistry are introduced in the
Let’s Review portion of Chapter 1. This
will assist instructors who wish to use

this book in an “atoms-first” approach.
•The material on metallic bonding
and semiconductors has been moved
from the materials interchapter into
the chapter on solid-state chemistry
(Chapter 13).
•A short discussion on activities has
been added to the equilibrium chapter
(Chapter 16).
•Many of the illustrations have been
updated and/or redone.
•New Study Questions have been
added to a number of the chapters.

Audience for Chemistry & Chemical
Reactivity and OWL
The textbook (both as a printed book and the Cengage
YouBook digital version) and OWL are designed for introductory courses in chemistry for students interested in
further study in science, whether that science is chemis-

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  Preface



try, biology, engineering, geology, physics, or related subjects. Our assumption is that students beginning this
course have had some preparation in algebra and in general science. Although undeniably helpful, a previous
exposure to chemistry is neither assumed nor required.

Philosophy and Approach of the Chemistry
& Chemical Reactivity Program

xix

tors that lead chemical reactions to be successful in converting reactants to products. Under this topic there is
a discussion of common types of reactions, the energy
involved in reactions, and the factors that affect the
speed of a reaction. One reason for the enormous advances in chemistry and molecular biology in the last
several decades has been an understanding of molecular
structure. Therefore, sections of the book on Principles
of Bonding and Molecular Structure lay the groundwork for
understanding these developments. Particular attention
is paid to an understanding of the structural aspects of
such biologically important molecules as DNA.

© Cengage Learning/Charles D. Winters

We have had several major, but not independent, objectives since the first edition of the book. The first was
to write a book that students would enjoy reading and
that would offer, at a reasonable
level of rigor, chemistry and chemiFlexibility of Chapter
cal principles in a format and orgaOrganization
nization typical of college and uniA glance at the introductory chemversity courses today. Second, we
istry texts currently available shows
wanted to convey the utility and imthat there is a generally common
portance of chemistry by introducorder of topics used by educators.
ing the properties of the elements,
With only minor variations, we have

their compounds, and their reacfollowed that order. That is not to
tions as early as possible and by fosay that the chapters in our book
cusing the discussion as much as
cannot be used in some other order.
possible on these subjects. Finally,
We have written this book to be as
with the Go Chemistry modules and
flexible as possible. An example is
complete integration of OWL, we
the flexibility of covering the behavhave incorporated electronic tools Flame colors by salts of boron, sodium, and
ior of gases (Chapter 11). It has
to bring students to a higher level strontium.
been placed with chapters on liqof conceptual understanding.
uids, solids, and solutions (Chapters 12–14) because it
The American Chemical Society has been urging edulogically fits with those topics. However, it can easily be
cators to put “chemistry” back into introductory chemisread and understood after covering only the first four
try courses. We agree wholeheartedly. Therefore, we have
chapters of the book.
tried to describe the elements, their compounds, and
Similarly, chapters on atomic and molecular structure
their reactions as early and as often as possible by:
(Chapters 6–9) could be used in an atoms-first approach
before the chapters on stoichiometry and common reac• Bringing material on the properties of elements and
tions (Chapters 3 and 4). To facilitate this, we have moved
compounds as early as possible into the Examples
an introduction to energy and its units to Chapter 1.
and Study Questions (and especially the Applying
Also, the chapters on chemical equilibria (Chapters
Chemical Principles questions) and to introduce new
16–18) can be covered before those on solutions and

principles using realistic chemical situations.
kinetics (Chapters 14 and 15).
• Using numerous color photographs of the elements
Organic chemistry (Chapter 10) is often left to one
and common compounds, of chemical reactions, and
of the final chapters in chemistry textbooks. However,
of common laboratory operations and industrial
we believe the importance of organic compounds in
processes.
biochemistry and in consumer products means that ma•Introducing each chapter with a problem in practical
terial should be presented earlier in the sequence of
chemistry—for example, a short discussion of the enchapters. Therefore, it follows the chapters on structure
ergy in common foods or the source of lithium in car
and bonding because organic chemistry illustrates the
batteries—that is relevant to the chapter.
application of models of chemical bonding and mo• Using numerous Case Studies and introducing new Aplecular structure. However, one can use the remainder
plying Chemical Principles study questions that delve into
of the book without including this chapter.
practical chemistry.
The order of topics in the text was also devised to
introduce as early as possible the background required
General Organization of the Book
for the laboratory experiments usually performed in
Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity has two broad themes:
introductory chemistry courses. For this reason, chapChemical Reactivity and Bonding and Molecular Structure.
ters on chemical and physical properties, common reThe chapters on Principles of Reactivity introduce the facaction types, and stoichiometry begin the book. In ad-

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