Basic chemistry 1

Periodic Table of Elements
Noble
gases

Alkali metals

Alkaline
1 earth metals
1A

Halogens 18
8A

1
H

2
2A

13
3A

14
4A

15
5A

16
6A

17
7A

2
He

3
Li

4
Be

5
B

6
C

7
N

8
O

9
F

10
Ne

11
Na

12
Mg

13
Al

14
Si

15
P

16
S

17
Cl

18
Ar

19
K

3

4

5

6

7
8
9
Transition metals

10

11

12

20
Ca

21
Sc

22
Ti

23
V

24

Cr

25
Mn

26
Fe

27
Co

28
Ni

29
Cu

30
Zn

31
Ga

32
Ge

33
As

34

Se

35
Br

36
Kr

37
Rb

38
Sr

39
Y

40
Zr

41
Nb

42
Mo

43
Tc

44

Ru

45
Rh

46
Pd

47
Ag

48
Cd

49
In

50
Sn

51
Sb

52
Te

53
I

54

Xe

55
Cs

56
Ba

57
La*

72
Hf

73
Ta

74
W

75
Re

76
Os

77
Ir

78

Pt

79
Au

80
Hg

81
Tl

82
Pb

83
Bi

84
Po

85
At

86
Rn

87
Fr

88

Ra

89
Ac†

104
Rf

105
Db

106
Sg

107
Bh

108
Hs

109
Mt

110
Ds

111
Rg

112

Uub

113
Uut

*Lanthanides

58
Ce

59
Pr

60
Nd

61
Pm

62
Sm

63
Eu

64
Gd

65
Tb

66
Dy

67
Ho

68
Er

69
Tm

70
Yb

71
Lu

†Actinides

90
Th

91
Pa

92
U

93
Np

94
Pu

95
Am

96
Cm

97
Bk

98
Cf

99
Es

100
Fm

101
Md

102
No

103
Lr

118
Uuo

114 115
Uuq Uup


Study Card to Accompany Zumdahl’s Introductory Chemistry Series
Measurements and Calculations
The Commonly Used Prefixes in the
Metric System

1
p.

Table 2.2

Gases
9

Prefix

Symbol

Meaning

Power of 10 for

Scientific Notation

mega

M

1,000,000.000000001

106

kilo

k

deci

d

0.1

10Ϫ1

centi

c

0.01

10Ϫ2

milli

m

0.001

10Ϫ3

micro

m

0.000001

10Ϫ6

nano

n

0.000000001

10Ϫ9

103

Types of Crystalline Solids

Some Examples of Commonly Used Units

A dime is 1 mm thick.
A quarter is 2.5 cm in diameter.
The average height of an adult man is 1.8 m.

mass

A nickel has a mass of about 5 g.
A 120-lb woman has a mass of about 55 kg.

2

length

volume A 12-oz can of soda has a volume of about 360 mL.
A half gallon of milk is equal to about 2 L of milk.

1 cm3 ϭ 1 mL
density of H2O(l) ϭ 1.0 g/mL
density ϭ mass/volume
Avogadro’s number ϭ 6.022 ϫ 1023

Heat Required ϭ Q ϭ specific heat capacity ϫ mass ϫ ⌬T
Specific heat capacity of H2O(l) ϭ 4.184 J/g °C
Kinetic energy ϭ mv 2/2
Exothermic reactions produce heat
Endothermic reactions absorb heat

Kinds of Chemical Reactions
1
19

p.

Chemical
reactions

Oxidation–reduction
reactions

Ionic solids

Molecular solids

Atomic solids

Components
are ions.

Components
are molecules.

Components
are atoms.

Figure 14.13 The classes of crystalline solids.

Solutions

Energy

Precipitation

reactions

9
45
p.

Crystalline solids

2
p.

Table 2.6

1000

STP: 0 °C, 1 atm
Volume of 1 mole of ideal gas at STP ϭ 22.4 L
PV ϭ nRT (Ideal Gas Law)
R ϭ 0.08206 L atm/K mol
Process at constant n and T: P1V1 ϭ P2V2
(Boyle’s law)
Process at constant n and P: V1/T1 ϭ V2/T2 (Charles’s law)
Process at constant T and P: V1/n1 ϭ V2/n2
(Avogadro’s law)

Acid–base
reactions

Mass percent ϭ

mass of solute
ϫ 100% (p. 481)
mass of solution

M ϭ molarity ϭ

mol
moles of solute
ϭ
liters of solution
L

(p. 483)

Mass of solute ϭ (molar mass of solute) ϫ
(L of solution) (Molarity)
number of equivalents
Normality ϭ N ϭ
1 liter of solution
equiv
equivalents
ϭ
ϭ
(p. 499)
liter
L

Acids and Bases
Common Strong Acids: HCl, HNO3, H2SO4, HClO4, HI
Common Weak Acids: HSO4Ϫ, CH3COOH (often written

HC2H3O2), HF
Common Strong Bases: NaOH, KOH
Common Weak Bases: NH3
Kw ϭ 10Ϫ14 ϭ [Hϩ][OHϪ] (ion-product constant for water)
(p. 523)

Combustion
reactions

Synthesis reactions
(Reactants are
elements.)

Decomposition
reactions
(Products are
elements.)

Figure 7.12 Summary of classes of reactions.

Atomic Structure
Mass number (A)
(number of protons and neutrons)
23
11Na d Element symbol
Atomic number (Z)
c
(number of protons)
A Ϫ Z ϭ #n0
#pϩ Ϫ #eϪ ϭ charge

c

pH ϭ Ϫlog[Hϩ] (p. 526)
pOH ϭ Ϫlog[OHϪ] (p. 527)
pH ϩ pOH ϭ 14.00

(p. 529)

Equilibrium Constants
aA ϩ bB 4
3 cC ϩ dD, K ϭ [C]c[D]d/[A]a[B]b (p. 553)
A2B3 (s) 4
3 2A3ϩ(aq) ϩ 3B2Ϫ(aq), Ksp ϭ [A3ϩ]2[B2Ϫ]3
[X] ϭ Molarity of X


Study Card to Accompany Zumdahl’s Introductory Chemistry Series
Chemical Bonding
Number of
Electron Pairs

Bonds

Electron Pair
Arrangement

Ball-and-Stick
Model

2

2

Linear

3

3

Trigonal planar
(triangular)

Molecular
Structure

Partial Lewis
Structure

Linear

180˚

AOBOA

Trigonal planar
(triangular)

120˚

Cl

4

Tetrahedral

Tetrahedral

F

B

F

A
A

H

109.5˚

A

Be Cl

F

B
4

Ball-and-Stick
Model

A

A

8
38
p.

Table 12.4 Arrangements of Electron Pairs and the Resulting Molecular Structures for Two, Three, and Four Electron Pairs

B

A

H

C H
H

H

N H
H

A
4

3

Tetrahedral

Trigonal pyramid
109.5˚

A

B

A

A

4

2

Tetrahedral

Bent or V-shaped
109.5˚

A

B

A

O
H

H

Oxidation–Reduction Reactions

Common Lewis Dot Fragments

Oxidation is loss of electrons (OIL)
Reduction is gain of electrons (RIG)

H

N

؉1

O
؊1

N

C

C

C

N

N

O

O

F

6
58
p.

Rules for Assigning Oxidation States

1. The oxidation state of an atom in an uncombined element is 0.
2. The oxidation state of a monatomic ion is the same as its
charge.
3. Oxygen is assigned an oxidation state of Ϫ2 in most of its
covalent compounds. Important exception: peroxides
(compounds containing the O22Ϫ group), in which each oxygen
is assigned an oxidation state of Ϫ1.
4. In its covalent compounds with nonmetals, hydrogen is
assigned an oxidation state of ϩ1.
5. In binary compounds, the element with the greater
electronegativity is assigned a negative oxidation state equal
to its charge as an anion in its ionic compounds.
6. For an electrically neutral compound, the sum of the oxidation
states must be zero.
7. For an ionic species, the sum of the oxidation states must

equal the overall charge.


Table of Atomic Masses*
Element
Actinium
Aluminum
Americium
Antimony
Argon
Arsenic
Astatine
Barium
Berkelium
Beryllium
Bismuth
Bohrium
Boron
Bromine
Cadmium
Calcium
Californium
Carbon
Cerium
Cesium
Chlorine
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
Curium

Darmstadtium
Dubnium
Dysprosium
Einsteinium
Erbium
Europium
Fermium
Fluorine
Francium
Gadolinium
Gallium
Germanium

Symbol
Ac
Al
Am
Sb
Ar
As
At
Ba
Bk
Be
Bi
Bh
B
Br
Cd
Ca

Cf
C
Ce
Cs
Cl
Cr
Co
Cu
Cm
Ds
Db
Dy
Es
Er
Eu
Fm
F
Fr
Gd
Ga
Ge

Atomic
Number

Atomic
Mass

Element

89
13
95
51
18
33
85
56
97
4
83
107
5
35
48
20
98
6
58
55
17
24
27
29
96
110
105
66
99
68

63
100
9
87
64
31
32

[227]§
26.98
[243]
121.8
39.95
74.92
[210]
137.3
[247]
9.012
209.0
[264]
10.81
79.90
112.4
40.08
[251]
12.01
140.1
132.90
35.45
52.00

58.93
63.55
[247]
[271]
[262]
162.5
[252]
167.3
152.0
[257]
19.00
[223]
157.3
69.72
72.59

Gold
Hafnium
Hassium
Helium
Holmium
Hydrogen
Indium
Iodine
Iridium
Iron
Krypton
Lanthanum
Lawrencium
Lead

Lithium
Lutetium
Magnesium
Manganese
Meitnerium
Mendelevium
Mercury
Molybdenum
Neodymium
Neon
Neptunium
Nickel
Niobium
Nitrogen
Nobelium
Osmium
Oxygen
Palladium
Phosphorus
Platinum
Plutonium
Polonium
Potassium

*The values given here are to four significant figures where possible.

§A

Symbol
Au

Hf
Hs
He
Ho
H
In
I
Ir
Fe
Kr
La
Lr
Pb
Li
Lu
Mg
Mn
Mt
Md
Hg
Mo
Nd
Ne
Np
Ni
Nb
N
No
Os
O

Pd
P
Pt
Pu
Po
K

Atomic
Number

Atomic
Mass

Element

79
72
108
2
67
1
49
53
77
26
36
57
103
82
3

71
12
25
109
101
80
42
60
10
93
28
41
7
102
76
8
46
15
78
94
84
19

197.0
178.5
[265]
4.003
164.9
1.008
114.8

126.9
192.2
55.85
83.80
138.9
[260]
207.2
6.9419
175.0
24.31
54.94
[268]
[258]
200.6
95.94
144.2
20.18
[237]
58.69
92.91
14.01
[259]
190.2
16.00
106.4
30.97
195.1
[244]
[209]
39.10

Praseodymium
Promethium
Protactinium
Radium
Radon
Rhenium
Rhodium
Roentgenium
Rubidium
Ruthenium
Rutherfordium
Samarium
Scandium
Seaborgium
Selenium
Silicon
Silver
Sodium
Strontium
Sulfur
Tantalum
Technetium
Tellurium
Terbium
Thallium
Thorium
Thulium
Tin
Titanium

Tungsten
Uranium
Vanadium
Xenon
Ytterbium
Yttrium
Zinc
Zirconium

value given in parentheses denotes the mass of the longest-lived isotope.

Symbol
Pr
Pm
Pa
Ra
Rn
Re
Rh
Rg
Rb
Ru
Rf
Sm
Sc
Sg
Se
Si
Ag
Na

Sr
S
Ta
Tc
Te
Tb
Tl
Th
Tm
Sn
Ti
W
U
V
Xe
Yb
Y
Zn
Zr

Atomic
Number

Atomic
Mass

59
61
91
88

86
75
45
111
37
44
104
62
21
106
34
14
47
11
38
16
73
43
52
65
81
90
69
50
22
74
92
23
54
70

39
30
40

140.9
[145]
[231]
226
[222]
186.2
102.9
[272]
85.47
101.1
[261]
150.4
44.96
[263]
78.96
28.09
107.9
22.99
87.62
32.07
180.9
[98]
127.6
158.9
204.4
232.0

168.9
118.7
47.88
183.9
238.0
50.94
131.3
173.0
88.91
65.38
91.22


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SEVENTH EDITION

Basic Chemistry

Steven S. Zumdahl
University of Illinois

Donald J. DeCoste
University of Illinois

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Basic Chemistry,

Seventh Edition
Steven S. Zumdahl and Donald J. DeCoste
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© 2010 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 13 12 11 10 09


BRIEF CONTENTS

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

14
15
16

Chemistry: An Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1

Measurements and Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Chemical Foundations: Elements, Atoms, and Ions . . . . . . . . 74
Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Chemical Reactions: An Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Reactions in Aqueous Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Chemical Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Chemical Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Modern Atomic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Chemical Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
Liquids and Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
Acids and Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514

v


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CONTENTS

Preface

1
1.1

xvi

Chemistry: An Introduction 1
Chemistry: An Introduction 1

▲

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Dr. Ruth—Cotton Hero

1.2

What Is Chemistry? 4

1.3

Solving Problems Using a Scientific Approach 5

▲

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: A Mystifying Problem

1.4

The Scientific Method 8

1.5

Learning Chemistry 9

4

6

▲

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Chemistry: An Important

Component of Your Education 10

Chapter Review 11

2

Measurements and Calculations 14

2.1

Scientific Notation 15

2.2

Units 18

▲
2.3

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Critical Units!

19

Measurements of Length, Volume, and Mass 20

▲

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Measurement: Past, Present,

and Future 22

2.4

Uncertainty in Measurement 23

2.5

Significant Figures 24

2.6

Problem Solving and Dimensional Analysis 30

2.7

Temperature Conversions: An Approach to Problem Solving 34

▲
2.8

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Tiny Thermometers

38

Density 42
Chapter Review 46

vii


viii

Contents

3

Matter 56

3.1

Matter 57

3.2

Physical and Chemical Properties and Changes 58

3.3

Elements and Compounds 61

3.4

Mixtures and Pure Substances 62

▲

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Concrete—An Ancient Material

Made New 63

3.5

Separation of Mixtures 65
Chapter Review 67
Cumulative Review for Chapters 1–3 72

4

Chemical Foundations: Elements, Atoms,
and Ions 74

4.1

The Elements 75

4.2

Symbols for the Elements 77

▲

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Trace Elements: Small

but Crucial 78

4.3

Dalton’s Atomic Theory 80

▲

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: No Laughing Matter

81

4.4

Formulas of Compounds 81

4.5

The Structure of the Atom 82

4.6

Introduction to the Modern Concept of Atomic Structure 85

4.7

Isotopes 86

▲ ▲
4.8

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Isotope Tales

87

89

Introduction to the Periodic Table 90

▲
4.9

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: “Whair” Do You Live?

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Putting the Brakes on Arsenic

Natural States of the Elements 94

4.10 Ions 98
4.11 Compounds That Contain Ions 101
Chapter Review 105

94

Contents

5
5.1

ix

Nomenclature 114
Naming Compounds 115

▲

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Sugar of Lead

116

5.2

Naming Binary Compounds That Contain a Metal
and a Nonmetal (Types I and II) 116

5.3

Naming Binary Compounds That Contain Only
Nonmetals (Type III) 124

5.4

Naming Binary Compounds: A Review 126

▲

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Chemophilately

127

5.5

Naming Compounds That Contain Polyatomic Ions 129

5.6

Naming Acids 132

5.7

Writing Formulas from Names 134
Chapter Review 135
Cumulative Review for Chapters 4–5 142

6

Chemical Reactions: An Introduction 144

6.1

Evidence for a Chemical Reaction 145

6.2

Chemical Equations 147

6.3

Balancing Chemical Equations 151

▲

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: The Beetle That Shoots Straight

153

Chapter Review 158

7

Reactions in Aqueous Solutions 166

7.1

Predicting Whether a Reaction Will Occur 167

7.2

Reactions in Which a Solid Forms 167

7.3

Describing Reactions in Aqueous Solutions 177

7.4

Reactions That Form Water: Acids and Bases 179

7.5

Reactions of Metals with Nonmetals (Oxidation–Reduction) 182


x

Contents

7.6

Ways to Classify Reactions 186

▲

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Oxidation–Reduction Reactions

Launch the Space Shuttle 188

7.7

Other Ways to Classify Reactions 189
Chapter Review 193
Cumulative Review for Chapters 6–7 201

8

Chemical Composition

8.1

Counting by Weighing 205

204

▲

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Plastic That Talks and Listens!

8.2

Atomic Masses: Counting Atoms by Weighing 208

8.3

The Mole 210

8.4

Learning to Solve Problems 215

8.5

Molar Mass 218

8.6

Percent Composition of Compounds 225

8.7

Formulas of Compounds 227

8.8

Calculation of Empirical Formulas 229

8.9

Calculation of Molecular Formulas 236
Chapter Review 238

9

Chemical Quantities 248

9.1

Information Given by Chemical Equations 249

9.2

Mole–Mole Relationships 251

9.3

Mass Calculations 254

▲

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Cars of the Future

262

9.4

The Concept of Limiting Reactants 264

9.5

Calculations Involving a Limiting Reactant 266

9.6

Percent Yield 273
Chapter Review 275
Cumulative Review for Chapters 8–9 286

206


Contents

10

Energy

xi

288

10.1 The Nature of Energy 289
10.2 Temperature and Heat 291
10.3 Exothermic and Endothermic Processes 292
10.4 Thermodynamics 293
10.5 Measuring Energy Changes 294
▲ ▲ ▲

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Coffee: Hot and Quick(lime)
CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Nature Has Hot Plants

297
CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Firewalking: Magic or Science? 300

10.6 Thermochemistry (Enthalpy) 301
▲

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Methane: An Important

Energy Source 303

10.7 Hess’s Law 303
10.8 Quality Versus Quantity of Energy 305
10.9 Energy and Our World 306

▲

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Seeing the Light

310

10.10 Energy as a Driving Force 311
Chapter Review 315

11

295

Modern Atomic Theory 322

11.1 Rutherford’s Atom 323
11.2 Electromagnetic Radiation 324
▲ ▲

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Light as a Sex Attractant
CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Atmospheric Effects

11.3 Emission of Energy by Atoms 327
11.4 The Energy Levels of Hydrogen 328
11.5 The Bohr Model of the Atom 331
11.6 The Wave Mechanical Model of the Atom 331
11.7 The Hydrogen Orbitals 333

326

325


xii

Contents

11.8 The Wave Mechanical Model: Further Development 336
11.9 Electron Arrangements in the First Eighteen Atoms on the
Periodic Table 338

▲

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: A Magnetic Moment

341

11.10 Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table 342
▲

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: The Chemistry of Bohrium

343

11.11 Atomic Properties and the Periodic Table 347
▲

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Fireworks

349

Chapter Review 351

12

Chemical Bonding

358

12.1 Types of Chemical Bonds 359
12.2 Electronegativity 361
12.3 Bond Polarity and Dipole Moments 364
12.4 Stable Electron Configurations and Charges on Ions 365
12.5 Ionic Bonding and Structures of Ionic Compounds 368
12.6 Lewis Structures 370
▲

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: To Bee or Not to Bee

373

12.7 Lewis Structures of Molecules with Multiple Bonds 374
▲ ▲

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Hiding Carbon Dioxide

375
CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Broccoli—Miracle Food? 377

12.8 Molecular Structure 381

12.9 Molecular Structure: The VSEPR Model 382
▲

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Taste—It’s the Structure That

Counts 383

12.10 Molecular Structure: Molecules with Double Bonds 387
▲

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Minimotor Molecule

Chapter Review 391
Cumulative Review for Chapters 10–12 399

389


xiii

Contents

13

Gases 402

13.1 Pressure 403
13.2 Pressure and Volume: Boyle’s Law 407
13.3 Volume and Temperature: Charles’s Law 411
13.4 Volume and Moles: Avogadro’s Law 417

13.5 The Ideal Gas Law 419
▲

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Snacks Need Chemistry, Too!

424

13.6 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures 425
13.7 Laws and Models: A Review 429
13.8 The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases 430
13.9 The Implications of the Kinetic Molecular Theory 431
13.10 Gas Stoichiometry 432
Chapter Review 436

14

Liquids and Solids

446

14.1 Water and Its Phase Changes 448
14.2 Energy Requirements for the Changes of State 450
▲

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Whales Need Changes of State

14.3 Intermolecular Forces 454
14.4 Evaporation and Vapor Pressure 456
14.5 The Solid State: Types of Solids 458
14.6 Bonding in Solids 460

▲

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Metal with a Memory

464

Chapter Review 466

15

Solutions

474

15.1 Solubility 475
▲

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Water, Water, Everywhere,

But . . . 478

▲

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Green Chemistry

15.2 Solution Composition: An Introduction 480
15.3 Solution Composition: Mass Percent 481
15.4 Solution Composition: Molarity 483
15.5 Dilution 488

480

451


xiv

Contents

15.6 Stoichiometry of Solution Reactions 491
15.7 Neutralization Reactions 495
15.8 Solution Composition: Normality 497
Chapter Review 501
Cumulative Review for Chapters 13–15 510

16

Acids and Bases 514

16.1 Acids and Bases 515
▲

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Gum That Foams

517

16.2 Acid Strength 518
▲

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Carbonation—A Cool

Trick 521

▲

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Plants Fight Back

522

16.3 Water as an Acid and a Base 523
16.4 The pH Scale 525
▲ ▲

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Airplane Rash

526
CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Garden-Variety Acid–Base
Indicators 532

16.5 Calculating the pH of Strong Acid Solutions 532
16.6 Buffered Solutions 534
Chapter Review 535
Appendix

A1

Using Your Calculator A1
Basic Algebra A3
Scientific (Exponential) Notation A4
Graphing Functions A6

SI Units and Conversion Factors A7


Contents

Solutions to Self-Check Exercises A9
Answers to Even-Numbered End-of-Chapter Questions and
Exercises A25
Answers to Even-Numbered Cumulative Review Exercises A43
Index/Glossary A51

xv


PREFACE

T

he seventh edition of Introductory Chemistry continues toward the goals
we have pursued for the first six editions: to make chemistry interesting,
accessible, and understandable to the beginning student. For this edition, we
have included additional support for instructors and students to help
achieve these goals.
Learning chemistry can be very rewarding. And even the novice, we believe, can relate the macroscopic world of chemistry—the observation of
color changes and precipitate formation—to the microscopic world of ions
and molecules. To achieve that goal, instructors are making a sincere attempt
to provide more interesting and more effective ways to learn chemistry, and
we hope that Introductory Chemistry will be perceived as a part of that effort.
In this text we have presented concepts in a clear and sensible manner using
language and analogies that students can relate to. We have also written the

book in a way that supports active learning. In particular, the Active Learning Questions, found at the end of each chapter, provide excellent material
for collaborative work by students. In addition, we have connected chemistry to real-life experience at every opportunity, from chapter opening discussions of chemical applications to “Chemistry in Focus” features throughout the book. We are convinced that this approach will foster enthusiasm
and real understanding as the student uses this text. Highlights of the Introductory Chemistry program are described below.

New to This Edition
Building on the success of previous editions of Introductory Chemistry, the following changes have been made to further enhance the text:

Updates to the Student Text and Instructor’s
Annotated Edition
Changes to the student text and the accompanying Instructor’s Annotated
Edition are outlined below:
Instructor’s Annotated Edition The marginal annotations have been revised and expanded to include point-of-use references to print and new media.
Section 8.4: Learning to Solve Problems We have added a new section
that emphasizes the importance of conceptual problem solving in which students are shown how to think their way through a problem. The students will
learn that this “big picture approach” produces more long-term, meaningful
learning rather than simply memorizing specific steps that are soon forgotten.
Problem-Solving Approach in Examples Using the general conceptual
problem-solving approach outlined in the new Section 8.4, we have introduced a series of questions into the in-chapter Examples. This more active approach helps students think their way through the solution to the problem.
We use this approach for most of the quantitative Examples beginning in Section 8.4.

xvi


Preface

xvii

Section 9.4: The Concept of Limiting Reactants We have added a
new section that helps students better understand the concept of a limiting
reactant. Familiar examples such as making sandwiches and lemonade are

used, as well as molecular-level illustrations of chemistry reactions. Students
will learn how to think about limiting reactants before being asked to make
mass–mass calculations to determine which reactant is limiting for a given
reaction.
New Active Learning Questions We have written new Active Learning
Questions for each chapter (over 170 new problems in all). In addition, many
of the new problems include visual components such as graphs or molecularlevel illustrations.
New End-of-Chapter Questions Using the “Chemistry in Focus”
boxes We have written new end-of-chapter questions that specifically address topics covered in the “Chemistry in Focus” boxes (over 40 new questions in all).
Art Program We have revised almost every figure in the textbook to better
serve visual learners. Most of the glassware, orbitals, graphs, and flowcharts
have been redrawn.
“Chemistry in Focus” boxes Approximately 20% of the “Chemistry in
Focus” boxes in the seventh edition are new, and many more have been revised, with up-to-date topics such as hybrid cars, artificial sweeteners, and
positron emission tomography (PET).
End-of-Chapter Exercises We have replaced 20% of the end-of-chapter
questions and problems and cumulative review exercises. As before, the margin of the Annotated Instructor’s Edition includes answers to all of the SelfCheck end-of-chapter exercises, along with additional examples for all Example problems. In the student edition, answers to Self-Check Exercises and
to even-numbered exercises are provided at the back of the book.

NEW!

Enhanced Teaching Resources for the Instructor
OWL: Online Web-based Learning by Roberta Day and Beatrice Botch
of the University of Massachusetts, Amherst, and William Vining of the
State University of New York at Oneonta (ISBN-10: 0-538-73740-9; ISBN-13:
978-0-538-73740-1). Developed at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst,
and class-tested by tens of thousands of chemistry students, OWL is a fully
customizable and flexible web-based learning system. OWL supports mastery learning and offers numerical, chemical, and contextual parameterization to produce thousands of problems correlated to this text. The OWL system also features a database of simulations, tutorials, and exercises, as well as
end-of-chapter problems from the text. In addition, OWL now includes
ChemWork assignments, which help students learn key chemical concepts

while guiding them in the process to become problem solvers. (See description below.) With OWL, you get the most widely used online learning system available for chemistry with unsurpassed reliability and dedicated training and support. Also new in OWL is Go Chemistry™—27 mini-video lectures
covering key chemistry concepts that students can view onscreen or download to their portable video player to study on the go! The optional eBook


xviii Preface
in OWL (ISBN-10: 0-538-73739-5; ISBN-13: 978-0-538-73739-5) includes
the complete electronic version of the text, fully integrated and linked to
OWL homework problems. Most e-Books in OWL are interactive and offer
highlighting, notetaking, and bookmarking features that can all be saved. In
addition, the eBook includes links to Thinkwell® mini-video lectures. To
view an OWL demo and for more information, visit www.cengage.com/
owl or contact your Cengage Learning, Brooks/Cole representative.
ChemWork Offered in both OWL and Enhanced WebAssign®, ChemWork assignments offer students another opportunity to practice. These problems
are designed for students to use in one of two ways: to learn the problemsolving process (while doing actual homework problems) or as a capstone assignment to determine whether they understand how to solve problems
(perhaps in final preparation for an exam). ChemWork assignments test students’ understanding of core concepts from each chapter. Students who
solve a particular problem with no assistance can proceed directly to the answer and receive congratulations. However, students who need help can get
assistance through a series of hints. The procedure for assisting students is
modeled after the way a teacher would help with a homework problem in
his or her office. The hints are usually in the form of interactive questions
that guide students through the problem-solving process. Students cannot
receive the right answer from the system; rather it encourages them to continue working on the problem through this system of multiple hints. ChemWork is chemically and numerically parameterized so that each student in
the course receives a unique set of problems.
Enhanced WebAssign® Enhanced WebAssign, a robust, easy-to-use online
learning system, includes algorithmic textbook problems with rich media
learning resources, such as ChemWork assignments and Thinkwell® minivideo lectures. Instructors can create assignments from a ready-to-use database of textbook questions or write and customize their own exercises.
PowerLecture with ExamView® and JoinIn™ Instructor’s DVD
(ISBN-10: 0-538-73643-7; ISBN-13: 978-0-538-73643-5): PowerLecture is a
one-stop digital library and presentation tool that includes:
• Prepared Microsoft® PowerPoint® Lecture Slides that cover
all key points from the text in a convenient format that you can

enhance with your own materials or with additional interactive
video and animations from the CD-ROM for personalized, mediaenhanced lectures.
• Image Libraries in PowerPoint® and JPEG formats that contain
electronic files for all text art, most photographs, and all numbered
tables in the text. These files can be used to print transparencies or
to enhance PowerPoint® lectures.
• JoinIn™ “Clicker” Slides include questions that are written
specifically for the use of Introductory Chemistry with the classroom
response system of your choice, and allows you to seamlessly display
student answers.
• ExamView® testing software, with all the test items from the
Online Test Bank in electronic format. The electronic test bank by
Steven S. Zumdahl and Donald J. DeCoste provides over 1600
multiple-choice, true-false, short-answer, matching, and completion


Preface

xix

questions. Approximately 200 questions from the previous edition
have been made into algorithms, which enable you to create even
more customized tests.
NEW!

Enhanced Learning Resources for the Student
Student Companion Website Accessible from www.cengage.com/
chemistry/zumdahl, this site provides online study tools, including practice tests and flashcards.
GoChemistry™ for General Chemistry (27-Module Set) (ISBN-10: 0495-38228-0; ISBN-13: 978-0-495-38228-7) GoChemistry™ is a set of easy-touse essential videos that can be downloaded to your video iPod or portable
video player—ideal for the student on the go! Developed by award-winning

chemists, these new electronic tools are designed to help students quickly review essential chemistry topics. Mini-video lectures include animations and
problems for a quick summary of key concepts. Selected GoChemistry modules have e-flashcards to briefly introduce a key concept and then test student understanding of the basics with a series of questions. GoChemistry also
plays on QuickTime, iTunes, and iPhones. Modules are also available separately. To purchase, enter ISBN 0-495-38228-0 at www.ichapters.com.
OWL for General Chemistry by Roberta Day and Beatrice Botch of the
University of Massachusetts, Amherst, and William Vining of the State University of New York at Oneonta [OWL Instant Access (4 Semesters) ISBN-10:
0-495-05099-7; ISBN-13: 978-0-495-05099-5]. Developed at the University of
Massachusetts, Amherst, and class-tested by tens of thousands of chemistry
students, OWL is a fully customizable and flexible web-based learning system. OWL supports mastery learning and offers numerical, chemical, and
contextual parameterization to produce thousands of problems correlated to
this text. The OWL system also features a database of simulations, tutorials,
and exercises, as well as end-of-chapter problems from the text. In addition,
OWL now includes ChemWork assignments, which help students learn key
chemical concepts while guiding them in the process to become problem
solvers. (See description above.) With OWL, you get the most widely used
online learning system available for chemistry with unsurpassed reliability
and dedicated training and support. Also new in OWL is GoChemistry™—27
mini-video lectures covering key chemistry concepts that students can view
onscreen or download to their portable video player to study on the go! The
optional eBook in OWL (ISBN-10: 0-538-73739-5; ISBN-13: 978-0-53873739-5) includes the complete electronic version of the text, fully integrated and linked to OWL homework problems. Most e-Books in OWL are
interactive and offer highlighting, notetaking, and bookmarking features
that can all be saved. In addition, the eBook includes links to Thinkwell®
mini-video lectures. To view an OWL demo and for more information, visit
www.cengage.com/owl or contact your Cengage Learning, Brooks/Cole
representative.

Emphasis on Reaction Chemistry
We continue to emphasize chemical reactions early in the book, leaving the
more abstract material on orbitals for later chapters. In a course in which
many students encounter chemistry for the first time, it seems especially
important that we present the chemical nature of matter before we discuss

the theoretical intricacies of atoms and orbitals. Reactions are inherently


xx

Preface
interesting to students and can help us draw them to chemistry. In particular, reactions can form the basis for fascinating classroom demonstrations
and laboratory experiments.
We have therefore chosen to emphasize reactions before going on to
the details of atomic structure. Relying only on very simple ideas about the
atom, Chapters 6 and 7 represent a thorough treatment of chemical reactions, including how to recognize a chemical change and what a chemical
equation means. The properties of aqueous solutions are discussed in detail,
and careful attention is given to precipitation and acid–base reactions. In addition, a simple treatment of oxidation–reduction reactions is given. These
chapters should provide a solid foundation, relatively early in the course, for
reaction-based laboratory experiments.
For instructors who feel that it is desirable to introduce orbitals early in
the course, prior to chemical reactions, the chapters on atomic theory and
bonding (Chapters 11 and 12) can be covered directly after Chapter 4. Chapter 5 deals solely with nomenclature and can be used wherever it is needed
in a particular course.

Development of Problem-Solving Skills
Problem solving is a high priority in chemical education. We all want our
students to acquire problem-solving skills. Fostering the development of
such skills has been a central focus of the earlier editions of this text and we
have maintained this approach in this edition.
In the first chapters we spend considerable time guiding students to an
understanding of the importance of learning chemistry. At the same time,
we explain that the complexities that can make chemistry frustrating at
times can also provide the opportunity to develop the problem-solving skills
that are beneficial in any profession. Learning to think like a chemist is useful to everyone. To emphasize this idea, we apply scientific thinking to some

real-life problems in Chapter 1.
One reason chemistry can be challenging for beginning students is that
they often do not possess the required mathematical skills. Thus we have
paid careful attention to such fundamental mathematical skills as using scientific notation, rounding off to the correct number of significant figures,
and rearranging equations to solve for a particular quantity. And we have
meticulously followed the rules we have set down, so as not to confuse students.
Attitude plays a crucial role in achieving success in problem solving.
Students must learn that a systematic, thoughtful approach to problems is
better than brute force memorization. We foster this attitude early in the
book, using temperature conversions as a vehicle in Chapter 2. Throughout
the book we encourage an approach that starts with trying to represent the
essence of the problem using symbols and/or diagrams, and ends with thinking about whether the answer makes sense. We approach new concepts by
carefully working through the material before we give mathematical formulas or overall strategies. We encourage a thoughtful step-by-step approach
rather than the premature use of algorithms. Once we have provided the
necessary foundation, we highlight important rules and processes in skill development boxes so that students can locate them easily.
We have written a new section (Section 8.4: Learning to Solve Problems) so that students will better understand how to think their way through
a problem. We discuss how to solve problems in a flexible, creative way based
on understanding the fundamental ideas of chemistry and asking and answering key questions. We model this approach in the in-text Examples
throughout the text.


Preface

xxi

Many of the worked examples are followed by Self-Check Exercises,
which provide additional practice. The Self-Check Exercises are keyed to
end-of-chapter exercises to offer another opportunity for students to practice
a particular problem-solving skill or understand a particular concept.
We have expanded the number of end-of-chapter exercises. As in the

first six editions, the end-of-chapter exercises are arranged in “matched
pairs,” meaning that both problems in the pair explore similar topics. An Additional Problems section includes further practice in chapter concepts as
well as more challenging problems. Cumulative reviews, which appear after
every few chapters, test concepts from the preceding chapter block. Answers
for all even-numbered exercises appear in a special section at the end of the
student edition.

Handling the Language of Chemistry
and Applications
We have gone to great lengths to make this book “student friendly” and have
received enthusiastic feedback from students who have used it.
As in the earlier editions, we present a systematic and thorough treatment of chemical nomenclature. Once this framework is established, students can progress through the book comfortably.
Along with chemical reactions, applications form an important part
of descriptive chemistry. Because students are interested in chemistry’s impact on their lives, we have included many new “Chemistry in Focus”
boxes, which describe current applications of chemistry. These special interest boxes cover such topics as new technology to replace the incandescent lightbulb, using bees to detect drugs and bombs at airports, and analyzing isotopes in human hair to identify disaster victims’ country of
origin.

Visual Impact of Chemistry
In response to instructors’ requests to include graphic illustrations of chemical reactions, phenomena, and processes, we use a full-color design that enables color to be used functionally, thoughtfully, and consistently to help
students understand chemistry and to make the subject more inviting to
them. We have included only those photos that illustrate a chemical reaction or phenomenon or that make a connection between chemistry and the
real world. Many new photos enhance the seventh edition.

Choices of Coverage
For the convenience of instructors, four versions of the seventh edition are
available: two paperback versions and two hardbound versions. Basic
Chemistry, Seventh Edition, a paperback text, provides basic coverage of
chemical concepts and applications through acid–base chemistry and has
16 chapters. Introductory Chemistry, Seventh Edition, available in hardcover and paperback, expands the coverage to 19 chapters with the addition of equilibrium, oxidation–reduction reactions and electrochemistry,
radioactivity, and nuclear energy. Finally, Introductory Chemistry: A Foundation, Seventh Edition, a hardbound text, has 21 chapters, with the final

two chapters providing a brief introduction to organic and biological
chemistry.