A contrastive study on metonymy in english and vietnamese

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
HANOI OPEN UNIVERSITY

M.A. THESIS

A CONTRASTVE STUDY ON METONYMY IN
ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE

(NGHIÊN CỨU ĐỐI CHIẾU VỀ HOÁN DỤ TRONG
TIẾNG ANH VÀ TIẾNG VIỆT)

TRẦN PHƯƠNG THANH

Hanoi, 2016


MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
HANOI OPEN UNIVERSITY

M.A. THESIS

A CONTRASTIVE STUDY ON METONYMY IN
ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE
(NGHIÊN CỨU ĐỐI CHIẾU VỀ HOÁN DỤ TRONG
TIẾNG ANH VÀ TIẾNG VIỆT)

TRẦN PHƯƠNG THANH
Field: English Language
Code: 60220201

Supervisor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Vo Dai Quang

Hanoi, 2016


CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY
I, the undersigned, hereby certify my authority of the study project report entitled
A CONTRASTIVE STUDY ON METONYMY IN ENGLISH AND
VIETNAMESE submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree
of Master in English Language. Except where the reference is indicated, no other
person’s work has been used without due acknowledgement in the text of the
thesis.
Hanoi, 2016

Tran Phuong Thanh

Approved by
SUPERVISOR

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Vo Dai Quang
Date: 22/12/2016

i


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I have completed this thesis with the help and support from the following people.
First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Assoc. Prof.
Dr. Vo Dai Quang, my supervisor, who has patiently and constantly supported
me during the process of conducting study and whose stimulating ideas,
expertise, and suggestions are very helpful for my academic research.

I would like to acknowledge a special word of thanks to Mrs Van Anh, an English
lecturer of Hanoi College of Pharmacy and many others. If there were not their
support and encouragement, it would be impossible for me to complete the thesis.
Last but not least, I am grateful to my family, my colleagues for the sacrifice they
have devoted to the accomplishment of this academic research.

ii


ABSTRACT
This study provides a contrastive analysis of metonymy in English and
Vietnamese. Theoretically, this is a systematic study on the metonymy as a
transference mode of meaning in English. Furthermore, it is aimed at finding the
similarities and differences in the ways of using metonymy in English and
Vietnamese. Practically, this study is intended to help Vietnamese learners of
English to have more knowledge of metonymy as a transference mode of
meaning in English and Vietnamese. Therefore, they will get use of the
knowledge of metonymy to enhance their vocabulary. Contrastive analysis is the
main method based on the data collected from many books, websites and
previous studies.
The findings of the study provide evidence that metonymy is very widely used in
both spoken and written language. Using this mode of transference of meaning
brings more rhetorical color for the language. English and Vietnamese share
some similarities and differences in using metonymy. The differences in the ways
of using metonymy between English and Vietnamese are based on the different
culture and history. The results of the study are significant because they enrich
the knowledge of metonymy. As a result, learners, teachers or translators can
apply this knowledge for their career.

iii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
BofE.: Bank of English
BNC.: British National Corpus
OALDCE: Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English
ICM.: Idealized Cognitive Model
S.: Same
D.: Different

iv


LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
Table 1. Features of Metonymy and Metaphor

11

Table 2. Similarities and differences of metonymy in English and

41

Vietnamese

v


TABLE OF CONTENTS
Certificate of originality

i

Acknowledgements

ii

Abstract

iii

List of abbreviations

iv

List of tables and figures

v

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

1

1.1.

1

Rationale for the research

1.2. Aims of the research

2

1.3.

Objectives of the research

2

1.4.

Scope of the research

2

1.5.

Significance of the research

3

1.6.

Structural organization of the thesis

3

Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

4

2.1. Review of previous studies

4

2.2. Review of theoretical background

4

2.2.1Theoretical framework

5

2.2.1.1. Word meaning

5

2.2.1.2. Transference of meaning

6

2.2.1.2.1. Definition of transference of meaning

6

2.2.1.2.2. Means of meaning transference

7

2.2.2. Theoretical background

8

2.2.2.1. Metonymy as a means of meaning transference

8

2.2.2.2. Metonymy and metaphor

10

vi


2.2.2.3.The contiguity notion of metonymy

11

2.2.2.4. Types of metonymy in English

13

2.2.2.5. Types of metonymy in Vietnamese

24

2.3. Summary

34

Chapter 3: METHODOLOGY

35

3.1. Research- governing orientations

35

3.1.1. Research Questions

35

3.1.2. Research Setting

35

3.1.3. Research Approaches

35

3.1.4. Principles for data collection and data analysis

36

3.2. Research methods

37

3.2.1. Major methods and supporting methods

37

3.2.2. Data collection instruments

38

3.2.3. Data analysis techniques

39

3.3. Summary

40

Chapter 4: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

41

4.1.Similarities and differences

of metonymy in English and 41

Vietnamese
4.1.1. The similarities of metonymy in English and Vietnamese

45

4.1.1.1. In terms of their definition

46

4.1.1.2. In terms of their function

46

4.1.1.3. In terms of classification of metonymy

46

4.1.2. The differences between metonymy in English and Vietnamese

49

4.1.2.1. In terms of classification of metonymy

50

4.1.2.2. In terms of the logical thinking

50

4.1.2.3. In terms of cultural features

52

4.2. Implications in teaching and learning and translating English as a 53
foreign language
vii


4.2.1. Implications in teaching and learning English as a foreign 53

language
4.2.2. Implications in English- Vietnamese translation and vice versa

55

4.3. Summary

56

Chapter 5: CONCLUSION

57

5.1. Recapitulation

57

5.2. Concluding remarks

57

5.3. Limitation of the research

60

5.4. Recommendations/Suggestions for a further research

60

REFERENCES

62

viii


Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1.

Rationale for the research

Vocabulary plays an important part in a language. The more vocabularies we
have, the better results we get in learning a language. Among the issues related to
vocabulary, the transference of meaning is taken into consideration and studied
by many linguists all over the world. Among some mode of meaning
transference, we realize that metonymy is a very effective way to use language.
We can come across many examples of metonymy both from literature and in
everyday life. We use language very naturally in daily life but do not know about
the term metonymy. Many people have difficulties in understanding some
contexts in which metonymy are used. This is because of their lack of knowledge
about the term metonymy and its usage. Therefore, understanding the context of a
metonymy is very important. The main purpose of using metonymy is to add
rhetorical flavor to the texts. Using metonymy serves two purposes- it avoids
repeating the same phrase and it makes the sentences more interesting and
profound. Metonymy is a linguistic phenomenon that is very popular in
English and Vietnamese. There are some relationships between two languages in
terms

of

metonymy.

That

is

very

interesting

and

useful

to

find

out the beauty of the two languages and use our knowledge of metonymy in
learning and teaching language . Because of being attracted by metonymy as a
means of transference meaning, I decide to choose the metonymy as the subject
for my study. I also make some comparisons in the use of metonymy in both
English and Vietnamese.

1


1.2.

Aims of research

This is a systematic study on the metonymy as a means of meaning transference
in English. The aims of this study are:
(i)

To enhance learners’ awareness of metonymy as one means of meaning
transference

(ii)

To help learners of English enrich their vocabulary, identify and avoid
some mistakes in learning English. Teachers of English also get useful
background knowledge of metonymy as a means of meaning
transference. Therefore, they can help their students improve
vocabulary in learning English.

1.3.

Objectives of research

With the above-mentioned purposes, this study is intended to:
(i)

Point out the similarities and differences of metonymy in English and
Vietnamese.

(ii)

Put forward some suggestions for teaching, learning and translating

from English to Vietnamese and vice versa.

1.4.

Scope of research

The study will identify the different cases of metonymy in English and
Vietnamese and figure out the similarities and differences in using metonymy of
both languages. However, for the limited time and personal knowledge, this study
only concentrates on some most common cases of metonymy used in
communication and literature works of both languages.
1.5.

Significance of research

2


The result of the study is very useful for both learners and teachers of English. As
for teachers, this research is a good reference of the use of metonymy as a figure
of speech. As for students, they will have better understanding of the metonymy
and will have better result in learning English in general and learning vocabulary
in particular. This study is also helpful for translators. As for translators, they will
be more aware of the similarities and differences of metonymy in both two
languages. Therefore, they will have better translating from English to
Vietnamese and vice versa.
1.6.

Structure of the thesis

The study is divided into five chapters. The first chapter “INTRODUCTION”
outlines the background of the study. In this chapter, a brief overview of relevant
information is given about the rationale, aims, and scopes. Chapter 2, entitled
“LITERATURE REVIEW”, is an overview of some previous researches on the
same subject both in English and Vietnamese. In this chapter, it gives a
theoretical background to this study with theoretical preliminaries directly related
to the investigation of metonymy in both English and Vietnamese.
Chapter 3 – RESEARCH METHODOLOGY – focuses on the researching
approach of the study and the method to collect and analyze the data.
Chapter 4 with the title FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS summarizes the
findings in metonymy in English and Vietnamese.
Chapter 5 – CONCLUSION points out the recapitulations, the limitation of the
study, implications of the study and suggestions for further studies.

3


Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Review of previous studies
Metonymy, a means of meaning transference, has a greatly expressive value. It is
an interesting topic for studies all over the world. In fact, metonymy has been
dealt with by many famous linguists or scholars in both English and Vietnamese.
The study of metonymy in cognitive linguistics starts with the publication of the
influential book Metaphor we live by of George Lakoff and Mark Johnson in
1980. In this book, the author noted that: “metonymic concepts… are parts of the
ordinary, everyday way we think and act as well as talk” (Lakoff and
Johnson,1980: 37). However, the book emphasized the main cognitive
mechanism guiding human conceptualization was conceptual metaphor. The
major contribution to the study of metonymy in linguistics is the publication of

Metonymy in Language and Thought (1999). In this book, Panther and Radden
(1999:1) pointed out that “metonymy is a cognitive phenomenon that may be
even more fundamental than metaphor”. There are still many research papers
about metonymy in English and some other languages. Each researcher tried to
discover different aspects of metonymy. However, metonymy is still
controversial issue for many researchers. “For instance, one of the main problem
arise from the claim that metonymy operates within the same conceptual domain,
whereas metaphor connects two different conceptual domains.” (Barcelona et al,
2011) In recent years, metonymy is studied in some research works such as
Metonymy:

Hidden

Shortcuts

in

Language,

Thought

and

Communication(Littlemore, 2015). Some Vietnamese authors also investigated in
metonymy such as Metonymy in English and Vietnamese: A contrastive analysis
( Trịnh Minh Hải, 2003) and Metonymy as the transferences of meaning: a
4


contrastive analysis of English and Vietnamese (Phạm Thị Hoài Thu, 2007).

These authors have made great contributions to the theoretical background of
metonymy. From the previous studies, it can be seen that metonymy have
been discussed in many aspects, especially in comparison with metaphor.
However, there have not been many studies on metonymy in both English and
Vietnamese, which leave room for me to conduct the research thesis. For this
reason, the study attempts to deal with the similarities as well as differences in
metonymy in English and Vietnamese and give some suggestions for the
teaching, learning and translation of English.
2.2.

Review of theoretical background

2.2.1. Theoretical framework
2.2.1.1.

Word meaning

There have been many definitions of word meaning. According to the theory of
naming, one of the oldest views, a word in a language refers to an object. It can
be understood that words are only names or labels for the things. While this view
is acceptable for nouns, it is not really suitable for other parts of speech such as
adjectives, prepositions, articles, etc. Besides, this theory is only true to define
concrete objects, but it seems to be ineffective to define abstract things such as
happiness, sadness, hope, etc. That is the limitation of this theory. Therefore,
linguists try to explain the term in another way. They realize that it is necessary
to differentiate what a word denotes from what they refer to. According to this
view, word meaning can be classified into denotation and reference. Denotation
is the literal meaning or dictionary meaning of a word in contrast with its
connotative or associated meanings. Reference is a relation between objects in
which one object designates, or acts as a means by which to connect to or link to,

another object. The first object in this relation is said to refer to the second
object. The second object, the one to which the first object refers, is called
5


the referent of the first object (Wikipedia). Many theories of meaning have been
discussed in the book “An introduction to Semantics” of Nguyen Hoa (2001:1416). According to the referential (or denotational) approach, the meaning of
a word or expression is understood as what it refers to, denotes, or stands
for. The ideational (or mentalistic) theories, on the other hand, considers it
the idea, or concept associated with it in the mind of anyone who knows
and understands the word. According to the verificationist theory, the
meaning of word, is determined by the verifiability of the sentences, or
propositions, containing it, i.e. the meaning of word is verified by concrete
situation. Linguists following functionalist theory, however, divide the word
meaning into ideational meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning. In
general, there are many theories of word meaning but it seems that the meaning
of a word is not the same all the time but keeps changing in different situations.
2.2.1.2.

Transference of meaning

2.2.1.2.1.

Definition of transference of meaning

According to Nguyen Hoa (2001:64) transference of meaning refers to the
situation when one object is named and understood in terms of another. In other
words, one word can extend its meaning or narrow its meaning to refer to another
object (another referent).
There are some ways to transfer a word meaning into the new one based on

certain relations. As a result, we also have some means of transference of
meaning as the following.
2.2.1.2.2.

Means of meaning transference

There are various means of meaning transference such as metaphor, metonymy,
hyperbole, irony, etc. Metaphor, according to Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, is
a figure of speech which refers to one thing by mentioning another thing. The
6


metaphor is used to enhance rhetorical effect, provide clarity and identify hidden
similarities between two ideas. A simile is used to compare two items while a
metaphor directly equates them without using "like" or "as" as a simile. Metaphor
is defined as a means of transference of meaning based on similarity between the
two objects (the domain and the target). An object is named after another because
there are some similarities between them. Metaphor is also considered as hidden
comparison.
Metonymy, on the other hand, is a figure of speech that replaces the name of a
thing with the name of another thing closely associated. Metonymy, as a means
of meaning transference, will be discussed in detail in the next two chapters
because it is the main subject of this research.
Hyperbole, according to Wikipedia, is the use of exaggeration as a rhetorical
device or figure of speech. In rhetoric, it is also known as auxesis. In poetry and
oratory, it evokes strong feelings and impressions. As a figure of speech, it is
usually not meant literally. Hyperbole is also used for instances of exaggerations
for emphasis. Hyperboles are frequently used in casual speech as intensifiers,
such as saying "the bag weighed a ton". Hyperbole is used to emphasize the point
that the bag is very heavy. There is nothing like a literal ton here.Understanding

hyperboles and their use in context can enhance one's ability to understand the
messages

from

the

speaker.Hyperbole

can

be

used

in

a

form

ofexcitementdistress,humour and other emotions. All of these emotions depend
on the context in which the speaker uses.
According to Wikipedia, irony, in its broadest sense, is a rhetorical device,
literary technique. In this figure of speech,what appears, on the surface, to be the
case, differs radically from what is actually the case. Irony is classified into three
categories: a verbal, dramatic, and situational.
7

There are other types of transference of meaning involve litotes which is a figure
of speech that uses understatement to emphasize a point by stating a negative to
confirm a positive or combining double negatives for effectand euphemisms
which is an innocuous word or expression used in place of one that may be
offensive or describe something unpleasant. (Wikipedia)
To sum up, language in general and its components like word meaning in
particular is changing day after day. This changing of word meaning is because
of both linguistic and extra linguistic causes. The means of the meaning
transference also play an important role in the changing of word meaning. In the
next part we will discuss one of the most basic mode of meaning transference
called Metonymy.
2.2.2. Theoretical background
2.2.2.1.

Metonymy as a means of meaning transference

According to Nguyen Hoa (2001), metonymy is the transference of meaning from
one object to another based on contiguity of notions.One famous example of
metonymy is the saying, "The pen is mightier than the sword" which came from
Edward Bulwer Lytton's play Richelieu. We can see two examples of metonymy
in this sentence
•

The "pen" refers to "the written word."

•

The "sword" refers to "military aggression and force."

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, metonymy is a figure of speech in which

a thing or concept is called not by its own name but by the name of something
associated

with

that

thing

or

concept

in

meaning.

The

words metonymy and metonym come from the Greek µετωνυµία, metōnymía, "a
change of name", from µετά, metá, "after, beyond" and -ωνυµία, -ōnymía, a
8


suffix which is used to name figures of speech. People commonly use wellunderstood and easy-to-perceive aspect of something to refer to it. Metonymy as
a figure of speech is very common in everyday speech and writing. For example,
it’s very popular to refer to celebrity life and culture in the United States as
“Hollywood,” as in “Hollywood is obsessed with this new diet.” This statement
does not mean that the place has any obsession, but refers to the celebrities and
wannabe celebrities who reside there.

In Metaphors We Live By George Lakoff and Mark Johnson devote a complete
chapter to metonymy and define it: "Using one entity to refer to another that is
related to it." (1980:35-39)
Metonymy is defined by Lakoff (1987: 78) as a stand-for relation which exists in
one particular ICM (Idealized Cognitive Model). A conceptual domain, or ICM,
can be considered as a whole. Specifically, the conceptual entities, or element,
are the parts constituting the ICM as a whole. There are some background
conditions in an ICM including the “stands for” relation between two elements A
and B. In this case, one element of the ICM, B, may stand for element A. The
ICM’s metonymies may emerge in two ways (1) either a whole stands for a part
or a part stands for a whole. (2) a part stands for another part ( Kövecses, 2002:
150). Lakoff and Turner (1989) consider metonymy as a type of conceptual
mapping. Metonymy is seen as a cognitive tool used for conceptualization rather
than a linguistic strategy or a rhetorical device. In the traditional view, metonymy
is chiefly the use of a word in place of another if the meaning of words
contiguously related. In the cognitive linguistic view, metonymy is conceptual in
nature. Its main function is to provide mental access through one conceptual
entity to another. It is based on ICMs with specific conceptual relationship
among their elements (Kövecses, 2002: 160).

9


In short, according to the above definitions, metonymy is a means of transference
of meaning based on a logical or physical relation between entities. In metonymy
a thing is named by its action, its function or by some significant features.
Metonymy is one of the modes of forming the new meanings of words in the
language. Metonymy helps us think about people and things creatively. We can
substitute one thing for the other in a sentence in case the two things are
associated.

2.2.2.2.

Metonymy and Metaphor

In order to understand deeply about metonymy, it is really important to
differentiate between metonymy and metaphor which are two basic means of
transference of meaning.
Metaphor and metonymy are both figures of speech which use one word in place
of another. However, especially in cognitive science and linguistics, the two
figures of speech are very different. Roman Jakobson (2002) showed that they
represent two fundamentally different ways of processing language.
From Wikipedia, metonymy works by the contiguity(association) between two
concepts, whereas the term "metaphor" works by their analogous similarity.
When people use metonymy, they do not typically transfer qualities from one
referent to another as they do with metaphor. There is nothing press-like about
reporters or crown-like about a monarch. However "the press" and "the crown"
are both popular metonyms.
Two examples using the term "fishing" will clarify the distinction.The phrase "to
fish pearls" is an example of metonymy drawing from "fishing" the idea of taking
things from the ocean. The domain of metonymy is what is carried across from
"fishing fish" to "fishing pearls". In contrast, "fishing for information" which is
the metaphorical phrase, transfers the concept of fishing into a new domain. If
10


someone is "fishing" for information, it does not mean that the person is near the
ocean. In fact, we transpose elements of the action of fishing (waiting, hoping to
catch something that cannot be seen) into a new domain (a conversation). Hence,
metaphor is used by presenting a target set of meanings and using them to
suggest a similarity between items, actions, or events in two domains, whereas

metonymy references a specific domain. The differences between metonymy and
metaphor are described in the table which is drawn from the study of Pham Thi
Hoai Thu ( 2007:15)
Metonymy

Metaphor

A phrase that is silently related to the A whole domain mapped to another
concept

is

substituted

for

the

concept.
Similarity

Contiguity

Transfer of qualities from source to
target domain

Table 1: Features of Metonymy and Metaphor
2.2.2.3.

The contiguity notion of metonymy

Both traditional rhetorician and cognitive linguists agree with the concept that the
notion of “contiguity” (i.e. nearness or neighborhood) is the key term in
understanding of the definition of metonymy. While cognitive approaches
locate contiguity relationship at the conceptual level, traditional approaches
locate them in the real world. Lakoff (1987) locates metonymic contiguity
within the framework of ICMs (idealized cognitive models) . Croft (1993)
regards

contiguity

relations as

in

terms

of

encyclopedic

knowledge
11


representation within a domain or domain matrix; Blank (1999) and
Panther

and

Thornburg

(1999)

have a description of the

network

of

conceptual contiguity by using the notion of frame and scenario respectively.
While all of these are comparable with respect to claiming a cognitive basis, we
will consider Lakoff’s (1987) framework of idealized cognitive models (ICMs) as
the cognitive mechanism of metonymy because it captures the metonymic
processes very well.
The ICMs are regarded as the mental representations of typical situations in life
and their typical elements. The mental representations are both static and
dynamic. Concepts within ICMs are associated by “conceptual contiguity”.“An
ICM concept is meant to include not only people’s encyclopedic knowledge of a
particular domain but also the cultural model they are part of”(Radden&
Kovecses, 1999: 20).The content of an ICM is based on people’s everyday
experience, their knowledge about the world: beings, things, processes, and
actions that occur together are described in the mind as ICMs. For example, there
are Possession ICM, Production ICM, Control ICM, etc. ICMs and the network
of conceptual relationships give rise to associations in metonymic transfer. When
a specific ICM is accessed, all concepts belong to this ICM are activated. For
example:
A: How did you get to the railway station?
B: I waved down a taxi.
According to Jialing Guan (2009), speaker B wants to inform listener A that “ I

got to the railway station by hailing a taxi, having it stop and getting into it, and
then the driver drove me to the railway station and parked there, then I got out
and arrived at the railway station”.The whole process is so complicated that
it is difficult for the speaker to express it by a few words. Speaker B does
12


not give outall thesedetails of the event. It is understood that traveling from
one place to another can be considered as a whole event or more accurately, a
Travel ICM. This Travel ICM includes a series of actions. And ICM of this series
of event is described as the following:
Precondition: You have (or have access to) the vehicle.
Embarkation: You get into the vehicle and start it up.
Center: You drive (row, fly, etc.) to your destination.
Finish: You park and get out.
End point: You are at your destination. ( Lakoff, 1987:78)
Jialing Guan (2009) figures out that in everyday life, people often speak only one
part of this ICM such as the Precondition, Embarkation or Center, to refer to the
entire series of Travel ICM. Hence, this metonymic way of thinking and
speaking can curtail the process of pragmatic reasoning in information
exchange and improve its efficiency.
In general, it can be understood that ICM works as a background of metonymy
and, it plays an important part in the human communication with the world.
2.2.2.4. Types of metonymy in English
There are many ways of classifications according to the linguistics from the early
stage until now. Each pattern of classification tries to cover all cases of
metonymy. However, it is very difficult to give out a perfect classification of
metonymy. There are some types of metonymy which are ambiguous and
difficult to realize. Therefore, in the limitation of time and length of the thesis,
only some most typical types of metonymy are listed. The metonymy

13


classification is based on the close relationship between entities in everyday
experience. There are several varieties of metonymy based on many kinds of
association between objects. The following types are the most popular ones
which are collected and chosen from theories of Panther and Radden (1999),
Lakoff and Johnson (1980).
Type 1: A -part-for-whole metonymy:
The relation between a part and a whole is always easy to be seen, so that
metonymy can base on this relation to transfer the meaning of words. This is a
metonymy in which a reference to a characteristic or an important part of entity is
used to stands for the whole entity. This type of metonymy is common in
English. In this case, body parts are often used to transfer the meaning of the
whole person. We firstly look at some examples in which the words denoting the
parts can substitute for the word of the wholes.
We will have clear understanding through some examples:
(1)We don’t hire long hairs.
(2) She’s just a pretty face
(Lakoff and Johnson, 1980: 37-39)
In the above example, hair and face - parts of body stand for the whole
person.We will consider some more examples:
(3) The hired hands are here.(BofE)
(4) A simple count of heads in and out of Britain.(BofE)
In these sentences, the parts of the body are used to refer to the whole person.
Therefore, we do not understand the utterances directly but in a more imaginative
14


way thanks to the figure of speech. In the above examples, hired hands refer to

hired people. Similarly, counts of heads refer to count of people in the following
sentences.
Type 2: A whole-for-part metonymy
This is the reserve type of the part- for-whole metonymy, in which the whole is
used to refer to the part. Metonymy, in this case, is the use of the whole object to
refer to a part of the object. This type of metonymy tends to be somewhat rare in
real world data. It is not as common as the part-for-whole metonymy. Some
examples as following will make it clear.
(5) The university will change its mind next week. (BofE)
(6) The police turned up at about 5.30. (BofE)
In these examples, the whole university is used as a metonymic sense to stand for
University Council and Governing Committee, and the police refer to some
members of the police force.
Type 3: Material for object metonymy
This is a metonymy in which material is used to stand for thing made of the
material. We will consider some following examples from the Bank of English:
(7) Yoko had a separate closet just for her furs. (BofE)
(8) I went in to see the head master wearing furs and diamonds. (BofE)
In these examples, furs are used to metonymically stand for clothes made of fur.
In English, there are also many examples of this type of metonymy. For example:
A taffeta refers to a dress made of taffeta. A mink refers to a mink coat. A jersey
refers to a knitted shirt or sweater. A glass refers to container made of glass.
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