Principles of Macroeconomics FOURTH EDITION ANSWER KEY Instructors Manual with Solutions Manual

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Instructor's Manual with Solutions Manual

Principles of Macroeconomics
FOURTH EDITION

N. Gregory Mankiw
Harvard University

Prepared by
Linda Ghent
Eastern Illinois University


Instructor’s Manual
th
Principles of Macroeconomics, 4 Edition
N. Gregory Mankiw
Prepared by Linda S. Ghent

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Preface
The instructor’s material that accompanies the five versions of Mankiw’s Principles of
Economics, Fourth Edition textbooks address the needs of both novice and experienced
instructors. To meet the needs of these two groups, this Instructor’s Manual with

Solutions Manual comprises both chapter outlines and teaching tips as well as solutions
to all of the questions and problems found in the textbook.
Linda Ghent of Eastern Illinois University prepared the main portion of each chapter
including a synopsis of what is new in this edition compared to the third edition. Her
work for each chapter also includes a list of learning objectives and key points. These
items are followed by detailed chapter outlines that focus on the content found in the
textbook. Helpful tips and icons occasionally interrupt these outlines. The bomb icon
(Warnings) indicates areas where students may have particular difficulty with the
material. The light bulb icon (Bright Ideas) offers ideas for presenting the material in a
new or more thoughtful way. Also included in each chapter of the Instructor’s Manual
are classroom activities, developed in part by Charles Stull of Kalamazoo College. Each
activity provides important details to assist in planning as well as clear instructions for
leading the activity. Recommended “Points for Discussion” connect the activity to the
relevant economic concepts discussed in the chapter.
Using these resources, an instructor can quickly review the chapter learning objectives
and chapter summaries to make sure their lecture notes cover everything in the text
chapter. In addition, the chapter outlines are designed as a base for creating lecture
notes for novice instructors. They may also be used as a complete set of notes for more
experienced instructors. Therefore, this supplement is also available electronically from
the product support Web site ().
For queries and grading, the Instructor’s Manual contains solutions to exercises from
the textbook. Dean Croushore (University of Richmond) prepared many of the solutions
for the “Quick Quizzes,” “ Questions for Review,” and “Problems and Applications”
found in the textbook.


Comparative Table of Contents
Core
Part 1: Introduction
1 Ten Principles of Economics

2 Thinking Like an Economist
3 Interdependence and the Gains from Trade
Part 2: How Markets Work
4 The Market Forces of Supply and Demand
5 Elasticity and Its Application
6 Supply, Demand, and Government Policies
Part 3: Markets and Welfare
7 Consumers, Producers, and the Efficiency of Markets
8 Application: The Costs of Taxation
9 Application: International Trade
Part 4: The Economics of the Public Sector
10 Externalities
11 Public Goods and Common Resources
12 The Design of the Tax System
Part 5: Firm Behavior and the Organization of Industry
13 The Costs of Production
14 Firms in Competitive Markets
15 Monopoly
16 Oligopoly
17 Monopolistic Competition
Part 6: The Economics of Labor Market
18 The Markets for the Factors of Production
19 Earnings and Discrimination
20 Income Inequality and Poverty
Part 7: Topics for Further Study
21 The Theory of Consumer Choice
22 Frontiers of Microeconomics
Part 8: The Data of Macroeconomics
23 Measuring a Nation’s Income
24 Measuring the Cost of Living

Part 9: The Real Economy in the Long Run
25 Production and Growth
26 Saving, Investment, and the Financial System
27 The Basic Tools of Finance
28 Unemployment
Part 10: Money and Prices in the Long Run
29 The Monetary System
30 Money Growth and Inflation
Part 11: The Macroeconomics of Open Economics
31 Open-Economy Macroeconomics: Basic Concepts
32 A Macroeconomic Theory of the Open Economy
Part 12: Short-Run Economic Fluctuations
33 Aggregate Demand and Aggregate Supply
34 The Influence of Monetary and Fiscal Policy on Aggregate Demand
35 The Short-Run Trade-off between Inflation and Unemployment
Part 13: Final Thoughts
36 Five Debates over Macroeconomic Policy

Micro
Part 1
1
2
3
Part 2
4
5
6
Part 3
7
8

9
Part 4
10
11
12
Part 5
13
14
15
16
17
Part 6
18
19
20
Part 7
21
22

Macro
Part 1
1
2
3
Part 2
4
5
6
Part 3
7

8
9

Essentials
Part 1
1
2
3
Part 2
4
5
6
Part 3
7
8
9
Part 4
10
11

Brief
Macro
Part 1
1
2
3
Part 2
4

Part 5

12
13
14

Part 4
10
11
Part 5
12
13
14
15
Part 6
16
17
Part 7
18
19
Part 8
20
21
22
Part 9
23

Part 6
15
16
Part 7
17

18
19
20
Part 8
21
22

Part 9
23
24

Part 3
5
6
Part 4
7
8
9
10
Part 5
11
12
Part 6
13
14
Part 7
15
16
17
Part 8

18


Contents
Chapter 1 Ten Principles of Economics

1

Chapter 2 Thinking Like an Economist

17

Chapter 3 Interdependence and the Gains from Trade

37

Chapter 4 The Market Forces of Supply and Demand

53

Chapter 5 Elasticity and Its Application

91

Chapter 6 Supply, Demand, and Government Policies

111

Chapter 7 Consumers, Producers, and the Efficiency of Markets

131

Chapter 8 Application: The Costs of Taxation

155

Chapter 9 Application: International Trade

175

Chapter 10 Measuring a Nation’s Income

197

Chapter 11 Measuring the Cost of Living

213

Chapter 12 Production and Growth

225

Chapter 13 Saving, Investment, and the Financial System

239

Chapter 14 The Basic Tools of Finance

257

Chapter 15 Unemployment

269

Chapter 16 The Monetary System

287

Chapter 17 Money Growth and Inflation

305

Chapter 18 Open-Economy Macroeconomics: Basic Concepts

323

Chapter 19 A Macroeconomic Theory of the Open Economy

341

Chapter 20 Aggregate Demand and Aggregate Supply

367

Chapter 21 The Influence of Monetary and Fiscal Policy
on Aggregate Demand

399

Chapter 22 The Short-Run Trade-off between Inflation

and Unemployment
Chapter 23 Five Debates over Macroeconomic Policy

421
445



1

TEN PRINCIPLES OF ECONOMICS

WHAT’S NEW IN THE FOURTH EDITION:
The discussion of Principle #3, “Rational people think at the margin,” is more thorough and has a new
example. The discussions of Principle #4, “People respond to incentives,” Principle #7, “Governments
can sometimes improve market outcomes,” and Principle #10, “Society faces a short-run trade-off
between inflation and unemployment” have been clarified. Definitions for the terms “rational,”
“incentives,” and “property rights” have been added.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
By the end of this chapter, students should understand:
¾

that economics is about the allocation of scarce resources.

¾

that individuals face trade-offs.

¾

the meaning of opportunity cost.

¾

how to use marginal reasoning when making decisions.

¾

how incentives affect people’s behavior.

¾

why trade among people or nations can be good for everyone.

¾

why markets are a good, but not perfect, way to allocate resources.

¾

what determines some trends in the overall economy.

CONTEXT AND PURPOSE:
Chapter 1 is the first chapter in a three-chapter section that serves as the introduction to the text.
Chapter 1 introduces ten fundamental principles on which the study of economics is based. In a broad
sense, the rest of the text is an elaboration on these ten principles. Chapter 2 will develop how
economists approach problems while Chapter 3 will explain how individuals and countries gain from
trade.
The purpose of Chapter 1 is to lay out ten economic principles that will serve as building blocks

for the rest of the text. The ten principles can be grouped into three categories: how people make


2 ) Chapter 1/Ten Principles of Economics
decisions, how people interact, and how the economy works as a whole. Throughout the text, references
will be made repeatedly to these ten principles.

KEY POINTS:
1. The fundamental lessons about individual decisionmaking are that people face trade-offs among
alternative goals, that the cost of any action is measured in terms of forgone opportunities, that
rational people make decisions by comparing marginal costs and marginal benefits, and that people
change their behavior in response to the incentives they face.
2. The fundamental lessons about interactions among people are that trade can be mutually beneficial,
that markets are usually a good way of coordinating trades among people, and that the government
can potentially improve market outcomes if there is some sort of market failure or if the market
outcome is inequitable.
3. The fundamental lessons about the economy as a whole are that productivity is the ultimate source
of living standards, that money growth is the ultimate source of inflation, and that society faces a
short-run trade-off between inflation and unemployment.

CHAPTER OUTLINE:
I.

Introduction
Begin by pointing out that economics is a subject that students must confront in their
daily lives. Point out that they already spend a great deal of their time thinking about
economic issues: prices, buying decisions, use of their time, etc.
A.

The word “economy” comes from the Greek word oikonomos meaning “one who

manages a household.”

B.

This makes some sense because in the economy we are faced with many decisions (just
as a household is).

C.

Fundamental economic problem: resources are scarce.

You will want to start the semester by explaining to students that part of learning
economics is understanding a new vocabulary. Economists generally use very precise
(and sometimes different) definitions for words that are commonly used outside of
the economics discipline. Therefore, it will be helpful to students if you follow the
definitions provided in the text as much as possible.
D.

Definition of scarcity: the limited nature of society’s resources.

E.

Definition of economics: the study of how society manages its scarce resources.


Chapter 1/Ten Principles of Economics ) 3

Because most college freshmen and sophomores have limited experiences with
viewing the world from a cause-and-effect perspective, do not underestimate how
challenging these principles will be for the student.

As you discuss the ten principles, make sure that students realize that it is okay if
they do not grasp each of the concepts completely or find each of the arguments
fully convincing. These ideas will be explored more completely throughout the text.

II.

How People Make Decisions

Table 1
A.

Principle #1: People Face Trade-offs
1.

“There is no such thing as a free lunch.” Making decisions requires trading one
goal for another.

2.

Examples include how students spend their time, how a family decides to spend
its income, how the U.S. government spends tax dollars, and how regulations
may protect the environment at a cost to firm owners.

3.

A special example of a trade-off is the trade-off between efficiency and equity.

4.
B.

a.

Definition of efficiency: the property of society getting the
maximum benefits from its scarce resources.

b.

Definition of equity: the property of distributing economic
prosperity fairly among the members of society.

c.

For example, tax dollars paid by wealthy Americans and then distributed
to those less fortunate may improve equity but lower the return to hard
work and therefore reduce the level of output produced by our
resources.

d.

This implies that the cost of this increased equity is a reduction in the
efficient use of our resources.

Recognizing that trade-offs exist does not indicate what decisions should or will
be made.

Principle #2: The Cost of Something Is What You Give Up to Get It
1.

Making decisions requires individuals to consider the benefits and costs of some
action.

2.

What are the costs of going to college?


4 ) Chapter 1/Ten Principles of Economics

3.

a.

We cannot count room and board (at least all of the cost) because the
student would have to pay for food and shelter even if he was not in
school.

b.

We would want to count the value of the student’s time because he
could be working for pay instead of attending classes and studying.

Definition of opportunity cost: whatever must be given up in order to
obtain some item.

One of the hardest ideas for students to grasp is that “free” things are not truly free.
Thus, you will need to provide students with numerous examples of such “free”
things with hidden costs, especially the value of time.
C.

Principle #3: Rational People Think at the Margin

1.

2.

D.

Economists generally assume that people are rational.
a.

Definition of rational: systematically and purposefully doing the
best you can to achieve your objectives.

b.

Consumers want to purchase the bundle of goods and services that
allows them the greatest level of satisfaction given their incomes and the
prices they face.

c.

Firms want to produce the level of output that maximizes the profits they
earn.

Many decisions in life involve incremental decisions: Should I remain in school
this semester? Should I take another course this semester? Should I study an
additional hour for tomorrow’s exam?
a.

Definition of marginal changes: small incremental adjustments to
a plan of action.

b.

Example: Suppose that flying a 200-seat plane across the country costs
the airline $100,000, which means that the average cost of each seat is
$500. Suppose that the plane is minutes from departure and a passenger
is willing to pay $300 for a seat. Should the airline sell the seat for $300?
In this case, the marginal cost of an additional passenger is very small.

c.

Another example: Why is water so cheap while diamonds are expensive?
Because water is plentiful, the marginal benefit of an additional cup is
small. Because diamonds are rare, the marginal benefit of an extra
diamond is high.

Principle #4: People Respond to Incentives
1.

Definition of incentive: something that induces a person to act.

2.

Because rational people make decisions by weighing costs and benefits, their
decisions may change in response to incentives.


Chapter 1/Ten Principles of Economics ) 5

a.

When the price of a good rises, consumers will buy less of it because its
cost has risen.

b.

When the price of a good rises, producers will allocate more resources to
the production of the good because the benefit from producing the good
has risen.

3.

Many public policies change the costs and benefits that people face. Sometimes
policymakers fail to understand how policies alter incentives and behavior.

4.

Example: Seat belt laws increase the use of seat belts and lower the incentives
of individuals to drive safely. This leads to an increase in the number of car
accidents. This also leads to an increased risk for pedestrians.

If you include any incentive-based criteria on your syllabus, discuss it now. For
example, if you reward class attendance (or penalize students who do not attend
class), explain to students how this change in the marginal benefit of attending class
(or marginal cost of missing class) can be expected to alter their behavior.
III.

How People Interact
A.

Principle #5: Trade Can Make Everyone Better Off
1.

Trade is not like a sports competition, where one side gains and the other side
loses.

2.

Consider trade that takes place inside your home. Your family is likely to be
involved in trade with other families on a daily basis. Most families do not build
their own homes, make their own clothes, or grow their own food.

3.

Countries benefit from trading with one another as well.

4.

Trade allows for specialization in products that countries (or families) can do
best.
Activity 1—Getting Dressed in the Global Economy

Type:
Topics:
Materials needed:
Time:
Class limitations:

In-class assignment
Specialization, interdependence, self-interest, consumer choice,

international trade
None
20 minutes
Works in any class size

Purpose
The advantages of specialization and division of labor are very clear in this example. The
worldwide links of the modern economy are also illustrated. We depend on thousands of
people we don’t know, won’t see, and don’t think of in order to get dressed each morning.
Self-interest follows naturally from interdependence. Wages, profits, and rents give people
the incentive to perform these varied tasks. We depend on them to clothe us and they
depend on our purchases for their incomes.


6 ) Chapter 1/Ten Principles of Economics

Instructions
Ask the class to answer the following questions. Give them time to write an answer to each
question, then discuss their answers before moving on to the next question. The first
question can be answered with a brief phrase. The second question is the core of the
assignment and takes several minutes. Ask them to list as many categories of workers as
possible. The third question introduces demand concepts; most of the determinants of
demand can be introduced during this discussion. For the fourth question, ask the class to
look at the country-of-origin tags sewn in their garments.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Where did your clothes come from?

Who worked to produce your clothes?
What things do you consider when buying a garment?
Where were your clothes produced (what countries)?

Common Answers and Points for Discussion
1.
Where did your clothes come from?
There are many possible ways to answer, but many students will say “the mall” or another
retail outlet. Some may say “a factory,” “a sweatshop,” or “a foreign country.”
Mention the importance of markets here (this can be emphasized by asking, “Is anyone
wearing something made by themselves, a friend, or a relative?”) and discuss distribution
versus production.
2.

Who worked to produce your clothes?

There is no end to the possible answers; garment and textile workers are obvious but most
students will also list workers dealing with raw materials, transportation, management,
design, or machinery. Some may think more broadly to investors, road crews, bankers,
engineers, or accountants.
3.

What things do you consider when buying a garment?

Most answers focus on preferences (fit, style, quality, color). Price is cited less frequently. Ask
about the importance of price until someone volunteers that income is important. Prices of
substitute goods should also be discussed. Expectations of price changes may also be
mentioned.
4.

Where were your clothes produced (what countries)?

A large number of countries will be represented, even in small classes. Asia is always well
represented. Latin American and European goods appear in smaller numbers. African
products are conspicuously absent.
This pattern shows the limits of simple explanations such as “cheap labor.” Briefly discuss the
importance of comparative advantage and specialization.


Chapter 1/Ten Principles of Economics ) 7
B.

Principle #6: Markets Are Usually a Good Way to Organize Economic Activity
1.

Many countries that once had centrally planned economies have abandoned this
system and are trying to develop market economies.

2.

Definition of market economy: an economy that allocates resources
through the decentralized decisions of many firms and households as
they interact in markets for goods and services.

3.

Market prices reflect both the value of a product to consumers and the cost of
the resources used to produce it.

Explain to students that when households and firms do what is best for themselves,

they often end up doing what is best for society, as if guided by market forces—or an
invisible hand. Spend some time and emphasize the magic of the market. Use
numerous examples to show students that the market most often allocates resources
to their highest valued use.

C.

4.

When a government interferes in a market and restricts price from adjusting,
household and firm decisions are not based on the proper information. Thus,
these decisions may be inefficient.

5.

Centrally planned economies have failed because they did not allow the market
to work.

6.

FYI: Adam Smith and the Invisible Hand
a.

Adam Smith’s 1776 work suggested that although individuals are
motivated by self-interest, an invisible hand guides this self-interest into
promoting society’s economic well-being.

b.

Smith’s astute perceptions will be discussed more fully in the chapters to

come.

Principle #7: Governments Can Sometimes Improve Market Outcomes
1.

The invisible hand will only work if the government enforces property rights.
a.

Definition of property rights: the ability of an individual to own
and exercise control over scarce resources.

2.

There are two broad reasons for the government to interfere with the economy:
the promotion of efficiency and equity.

3.

Government policy can be most useful when there is market failure.
a.

Definition of market failure: a situation in which a market left on
its own fails to allocate resources efficiently.


8 ) Chapter 1/Ten Principles of Economics
4.

5.

IV.

Examples of Market Failure
a.

Definition of externality: the impact of one person’s actions on
the well-being of a bystander.

b.

Definition of market power: the ability of a single economic actor
(or small group of actors) to have a substantial influence on
market prices.

c.

Because a market economy rewards people for their ability to produce
things that other people are willing to pay for, there will be an unequal
distribution of economic prosperity.

Note that the principle states that the government can improve market
outcomes. This is not saying that the government always does improve market
outcomes.

How the Economy as a Whole Works
A.

B.

C.

Principle #8: A Country’s Standard of Living Depends on Its Ability to Produce Goods and
Services
1.

Differences in living standards from one country to another are quite large.

2.

Changes in living standards over time are also great.

3.

The explanation for differences in living standards lies in differences in
productivity.

4.

Definition of productivity: the quantity of goods and services produced
from each hour of a worker’s time.

5.

High productivity implies a high standard of living.

6.

Thus, policymakers must understand the impact of any policy on our ability to
produce goods and services.

Principle #9: Prices Rise When the Government Prints Too Much Money
1.

Definition of inflation: an increase in the overall level of prices in the
economy.

2.

When the government creates a large amount of money, the value of money
falls.

3.

Examples: Germany after World War I (in the early 1920s) and the United States
in the 1970s.

Principle #10: Society Faces a Short-Run Trade-off between Inflation and Unemployment
1.

Most economists believe that the short-run effect of a monetary injection is lower
unemployment and higher prices.


Chapter 1/Ten Principles of Economics ) 9

D.

a.

An increase in the amount of money in the economy stimulates spending

and increases the quantity of goods and services sold in the economy.
The increase in the quantity of goods and services sold will cause firms
to hire additional workers.

b.

An increase in the demand for goods and services leads to higher prices
over time.

2.

Some economists question whether this relationship still exists.

3.

The short-run trade-off between inflation and unemployment plays a key role in
the analysis of the business cycle.

4.

Definition of business cycle: fluctuations in economic activity, such as
employment and production.

5.

Policymakers can exploit this trade-off by using various policy instruments, but
the extent and desirability of these interventions is a subject of continuing
debate.

FYI: How to Read this Book

1.

Economics is very useful to understand, but it can be a difficult subject to grasp.

2.

There are five tips to make reading and understanding the material in
the book easier.
a.

Summarize, don’t highlight.

b.

Test yourself. At the end of each section of the text, you will find a
“Quick Quiz.” Answers to these “Quick Quizzes” can be found in the back
of this textbook.

c.

Practice, practice, practice.

d.

Go online and use the website for this text.

e.

Study in groups.

f.

Don’t forget the real world.


10 ) Chapter 1/Ten Principles of Economics

Activity 2—So Many Things to Do, So Little Time
Type:
Topics:
Materials needed:
Time:
Class limitations:

In-class assignment
Trade-offs, opportunity cost, thinking at the margin, incentives
None
10 minutes
Works in any class size

Give students a list of activities with corresponding time requirements: sleep, 8 hours; sleep,
6 hours; eat breakfast, 30 minutes; ride a bike, 1 hour; go hiking, 2 hours; study, 3 hours;
study, 2 hours; go to class, 4 hours; go to class, 6 hours; watch TV, 2 hours; watch TV, 6
hours; take a nap, 1 hour; work, 8 hours; work, 4 hours; etc.
Make sure that there are many choices and that there are many pleasurable experiences—too
much for a 24-hour period.
Ask students which Principle of Economics this illustrates.
If they do not say 1, 2, 3, and 4, help them see that this exercise has trade-offs in the choices
they make, that each choice has an opportunity cost, that deciding whether or not to sleep 4
more hours may depend on whether you have already slept for 6, and that choices may be

influenced by the incentives the student faces. For example, a student who is about to be
placed on academic probation has an incentive to study harder.

SOLUTIONS TO TEXT PROBLEMS:
Quick Quizzes
The answers to the Quick Quizzes can also be found near the end of the textbook.
1.

The four principles of economic decision making are: (1) people face trade-offs; (2) the cost of
something is what you give up to get it; (3) rational people think at the margin; and (4) people
respond to incentives. People face trade-offs because to get one thing that they like, they
usually have to give up another thing that they like. The cost of something is what you give up
to get it, not just in terms of monetary costs but all opportunity costs. Rational people think at
the margin by taking an action if and only if the marginal benefit exceeds the marginal cost.
People respond to incentives because they choose activities by comparing benefits to costs;
therefore, a change in these benefits or costs may cause their behavior to change.

2.

The three principles concerning people’s economic interactions are: (1) trade can make everyone
better off; (2) markets are usually a good way to organize economic activity; and (3)
governments can sometimes improve market outcomes. Trade can make everyone better off
because it allows countries to specialize in what they do best and to enjoy a wider variety of
goods and services. Markets are usually a good way to organize economic activity because the
invisible hand leads markets to desirable outcomes. Governments can sometimes improve
market outcomes because markets may fail to allocate resources efficiently due to an externality
or market power.


Chapter 1/Ten Principles of Economics ) 11

3.

The three principles that describe how the economy as a whole works are: (1) a country’s
standard of living depends on its ability to produce goods and services; (2) prices rise when the
government prints too much money; and (3) society faces a short-run trade-off between inflation
and unemployment. A country’s standard of living depends largely on the productivity of its
workers, which in turn depends on the education of its workers and the access its workers have
to the necessary tools and technology. Prices rise when the government prints too much money
because more money in circulation reduces the value of money, causing inflation. Society faces
a short-run trade-off between inflation and unemployment that is only temporary. Policymakers
have some short-term ability to exploit this relationship using various policy instruments.

Questions for Review
1.

Examples of trade-offs include time trade-offs (such as studying one subject over another or
studying at all compared to engaging in social activities) and spending trade-offs (such as
whether to use your last 15 dollars to purchase a pizza or to buy a study guide for that tough
economics course).

2.

The opportunity cost of seeing a movie includes the monetary cost of admission plus the time
cost of going to the theater and attending the show. The time cost depends on what else you
might do with that time; if it is staying home and watching TV, the time cost may be small, but if
it is working an extra three hours at your job, the time cost is the money you could have earned.

3.

The marginal benefit of a glass of water depends on your circumstances. If you have just run a

marathon or you have been walking in the desert sun for three hours, the marginal benefit is
very high. But if you have been drinking a lot of liquids recently, the marginal benefit is quite low.
The point is that even the necessities of life, like water, do not always have large marginal
benefits.

4.

Policymakers need to think about incentives so they can understand how people will respond to
the policies they put in place. The text's example of seat belt laws shows that policy actions can
have unintended consequences. If incentives matter a lot, they may lead to a very different type
of policy; for example, some economists have suggested putting knives in steering columns so
that people will drive much more carefully! While this suggestion is silly, it highlights the
importance of incentives.

5.

Trade among countries is not a game with some losers and some winners because trade can
make everyone better off. By allowing specialization, trade between people and trade between
countries can improve everyone's welfare.

6.

The "invisible hand" of the marketplace represents the idea that even though individuals and
firms are all acting in their own self-interest, prices and the marketplace guide them to do what is
good for society as a whole.

7.

The two main causes of market failure are externalities and market power. An externality is the
impact of one person’s actions on the well-being of a bystander, such as from pollution or the

creation of knowledge. Market power refers to the ability of a single person (or small group of
people) to unduly influence market prices, such as in a town with only one well or only one cable
television company. In addition, a market economy also leads to an unequal distribution of
income.


12 ) Chapter 1/Ten Principles of Economics
8.

Productivity is important because a country's standard of living depends on its ability to produce
goods and services. The greater a country's productivity (the amount of goods and services
produced from each hour of a worker's time), the greater its standard of living will be.

9.

Inflation is an increase in the overall level of prices in the economy. Inflation is caused by
increases in the quantity of a nation's money.

10.

Inflation and unemployment are negatively related in the short run. Thus, reducing inflation
entails costs to society in the form of higher unemployment in the short run.

Problems and Applications
1.

a.

A family deciding whether to buy a new car faces a trade-off between the cost of the car
and other things they might want to buy. For example, buying the car might mean they

must give up going on vacation for the next two years. So the real cost of the car is the
family's opportunity cost in terms of what they must give up.

b.

For a member of Congress deciding whether to increase spending on national parks, the
trade-off is between parks and other spending items or tax cuts. If more money goes
into the park system, that may mean less spending on national defense or on the police
force. Or, instead of spending more money on the park system, taxes could be reduced.

c.

When a company president decides whether to open a new factory, the decision is based
on whether the new factory will increase the firm's profits compared to other
alternatives. For example, the company could upgrade existing equipment or expand
existing factories. The bottom line is: Which method of expanding production will
increase profit the most?

d.

In deciding how much to prepare for class, a professor faces a trade-off between the
value of improving the quality of the lecture compared to other things she could do with
her time, such as working on additional research.

2.

When the benefits of something are psychological, such as going on a vacation, it is not easy to
compare benefits to costs to determine if it is worth doing. But there are two ways to think about
the benefits. One is to compare the vacation with what you would do in its place. If you did not
go on vacation, would you buy something like a new set of golf clubs? Then you can decide if

you would rather have the new clubs or the vacation. A second way is to think about how hard
you had to work to earn the money to pay for the vacation. You can then decide if the
psychological benefits of the vacation were worth the psychological cost of working.

3.

If you are thinking of going skiing instead of working at your part-time job, the cost of skiing
includes its monetary and time costs, which includes the opportunity cost of the wages you are
giving up by not working. If the choice is between skiing and going to the library to study, then
the cost of skiing is its monetary and time costs including the cost of getting lower grades in your
courses.

4.

If you spend $100 now instead of saving it for a year and earning 5 percent interest, you are
giving up the opportunity to spend $105 a year from now.

5.

The fact that you have already sunk $5 million is not relevant to your decision anymore, because
that money is gone. What matters now is the chance to earn profits at the margin. If you spend
another $1 million and can generate sales of $3 million, you'll earn $2 million in marginal profit,


Chapter 1/Ten Principles of Economics ) 13
so you should do so. You are right to think that the project has lost a total of $3 million ($6
million in costs and only $3 million in revenue) and you should not have started it. That is true,
but if you do not spend the additional $1 million, you will not have any sales and your losses will
be $5 million. So what matters is not the total profit, but the profit you can earn at the margin.
In fact, you wouldd pay up to $3 million to complete development; any more than that, and you

will not be increasing profit at the margin.
6.

Harry suggests looking at whether productivity would rise or fall. Productivity is certainly
important, since the more productive workers are, the lower the cost per gallon of potion. Ron
wants to look at average cost. But both Harry and Ron are missing the other side of the
equation⎯revenue. A firm wants to maximize its profits, so it needs to examine both costs and
revenues. Thus, Hermione is right⎯it is best to examine whether the extra revenue would
exceed the extra costs. Hermione is the only one who is thinking at the margin.

7.

a.

The provision of Social Security benefits lowers an individual’s incentive to save for
retirement. The benefits provide some level of income to the individual when he or she
retires. This means that the individual is not entirely dependent on savings to support
consumption through the years in retirement.

b.

Since a person gets fewer after-tax Social Security benefits the greater his or her
earnings are, there is an incentive not to work (or not work as much) after age 65. The
more you work, the lower your after-tax Social Security benefits will be. Thus, the
taxation of Social Security benefits discourages work effort after age 65.

a.

When welfare recipients have their benefits cut off after two years, they have a greater
incentive to find jobs than if their benefits were to last forever.

b.

The loss of benefits means that someone who cannot find a job will get no income at all,
so the distribution of income will become less equal. But the economy will be more
efficient, because welfare recipients have a greater incentive to find jobs. Thus, the
change in the law is one that increases efficiency but reduces equity.

8.

9.

By specializing in each task, you and your roommate can finish the chores more quickly. If you
divided each task equally, it would take you more time to cook than it would take your
roommate, and it would take him more time to clean than it would take you. By specializing, you
reduce the total time spent on chores.
Similarly, countries can specialize and trade, making both better off. For example, suppose it
takes Spanish workers less time to make clothes than French workers, and French workers can
make wine more efficiently than Spanish workers. Then Spain and France can both benefit if
Spanish workers produce all the clothes and French workers produce all the wine, and they
exchange wine for clothes.

10.

a.

To produce the right number of CDs by the right artists and deliver them to the right
people requires an enormous amount of information. You need to know about production
techniques and costs in the CD industry. You need to know each person's musical tastes
and which artists they want to hear. If you make the wrong decisions, you will be

producing too many CDs by artists that people do not want to hear, and not enough by
others.

b.

Your decisions about CDs will carry over to other decisions. You have to make the right
number of CD players for people to use. If you make too many CDs and not enough
cassette tapes, people with cassette players will be stuck with CDs they cannot play. The


14 ) Chapter 1/Ten Principles of Economics
probability of making mistakes is very high. You will also be faced with tough choices
about the music industry compared to other parts of the economy. If you produce more
sports equipment, you will have fewer resources for making CDs. So all decisions about
the economy influence your decisions about CD production.
11.

Countries that have corrupt police and court systems do not enforce individual property rights,
including the rights over the goods and services produced by households and firms. Firms will not
choose to produce products and individuals will choose not to work if there is no guarantee that
they will receive payment for their efforts. Therefore, these countries end up with a lower
standard of living.

12.

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

f.

Efficiency:
Equity
Efficiency:
Efficiency:
Equity
Efficiency:

a.

If everyone were guaranteed the best health care possible, much more of our nation's
output would be devoted to medical care than is now the case. Would that be efficient?
If you believe that doctors have market power and restrict health care to keep their
incomes high, you might think efficiency would increase by providing more health care.
But more likely, if the government mandated increased spending on health care, the
economy would be less efficient because it would give people more health care than they
would choose to pay for. From the point of view of equity, if poor people are less likely to
have adequate health care, providing more health care would represent an improvement.
Each person would have a more even slice of the economic pie, though the pie would
consist of more health care and less of other goods.

13.

b.

The market failure comes from the market power of the cable TV firm.
An externality arises because secondhand smoke harms nonsmokers.
The market failure occurs because of Standard Oil's market power.
There is an externality because of accidents caused by drunk drivers.

When workers are laid off, equity considerations argue for the unemployment benefits
system to provide them with some income until they can find new jobs. After all, no one
plans to be laid off, so unemployment benefits are a form of insurance. But there is an
efficiency problem⎯why work if you can get income for doing nothing? The economy is
not operating efficiently if people remain unemployed for a long time, and unemployment
benefits encourage unemployment. Thus, there is a trade-off between equity and
efficiency. The more generous unemployment benefits are, the less income is lost by an
unemployed person, but the more that person is encouraged to remain unemployed. So
greater equity reduces efficiency.

14.

Because average income in the United States has roughly doubled every 35 years, we are likely
to have a better standard of living than our parents, and a much better standard of living than
our grandparents. This is mainly the result of increased productivity, so that an hour of work
produces more goods and services than it used to. Thus, incomes have continuously risen over
time, as has the standard of living.

15.

If Americans save more and it leads to more spending on factories, there will be an increase in
production and productivity, because the same number of workers will have more equipment to
work with. The benefits from higher productivity will go to both the workers, who will get paid
more because they are producing more, and the factory owners, who will get a return on their
investments. There is no such thing as a free lunch, however, because when people save more,
they are giving up spending. They get higher incomes at the cost of buying fewer goods.


Chapter 1/Ten Principles of Economics ) 15

16.

To make an intelligent decision about whether to reduce inflation, a policymaker would need to
know what causes inflation and unemployment, as well as what determines the trade-off
between them. This means that the policymaker needs to understand how households and firms
will adjust to a decrease in the money supply. How much will spending decline? How much will
firms lower output? Any attempt to reduce inflation will likely lead to higher unemployment in the
short run. A policymaker thus faces a trade-off between the benefits of lower inflation compared
to the cost of higher unemployment.

17.

Answers will vary.



2

THINKING LIKE AN ECONOMIST

WHAT’S NEW IN THE FOURTH EDITION:
The presentation of the production possibilities frontier has been extensively rewritten and augmented.
There is a new FYI box on “Who Studies Economics?” There is a new In the News feature on “Superbowl
Economics.” There is also a new Case Study about Greg Mankiw’s job as the chairman of the Council of
Economic Advisers.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
By the end of this chapter, students should understand:
¾

how economists apply the methods of science.

¾

how assumptions and models can shed light on the world.

¾

two simple models—the circular flow and the production possibilities frontier.

¾

the difference between microeconomics and macroeconomics.

¾

the difference between positive and normative statements.

¾

the role of economists in making policy.

¾

why economists sometimes disagree with one another.

CONTEXT AND PURPOSE:
Chapter 2 is the second chapter in a three chapter section that serves as the introduction of the text.
Chapter 1 introduced ten principles of economics that will be revisited throughout the text. Chapter 2
develops how economists approach problems while Chapter 3 will explain how individuals and countries

gain from trade.
The purpose of Chapter 2 is to familiarize students with how economists approach economic
problems. With practice, they will learn how to approach similar problems in this dispassionate systematic
way. They will see how economists employ the scientific method, the role of assumptions in model
building, and the application of two specific economic models. Students will also learn the important
distinction between two roles economists can play: as scientists when we try to explain the economic
world and as policymakers when we try to improve it.

17


18 ) Chapter 2/Thinking Like an Economist

KEY POINTS:
1. Economists try to address their subject with a scientist’s objectivity. Like all scientists, they make
appropriate assumptions and build simplified models in order to understand the world around them.
Two simple economic models are the circular-flow diagram and the production possibilities frontier.
2. The field of economics is divided into two subfields: microeconomics and macroeconomics.
Microeconomists study decisionmaking by households and firms and the interaction among
households and firms in the marketplace. Macroeconomists study the forces and trends that affect
the economy as a whole.
3. A positive statement is an assertion about how the world is. A normative statement is an assertion
about how the world ought to be. When economists make normative statements, they are acting
more as policy advisers than scientists.
4. Economists who advise policymakers offer conflicting advice either because of differences in scientific
judgments or because of differences in values. At other times, economists are united in the advice
they offer, but policymakers may choose to ignore it.

CHAPTER OUTLINE:
I.

The Economist as Scientist
A.

B.

Economists follow the scientific method.
1.

Observations help us to develop theory.

2.

Data can be collected and analyzed to evaluate theories.

3.

Using data to evaluate theories is more difficult in economics than in physical
science because economists are unable to generate their own data and must
make do with whatever data are available.

4.

Thus, economists pay close attention to the natural experiments offered by
history.

Assumptions make the world easier to understand.
1.

Example: to understand international trade, it may be helpful to start out

assuming that there are only two countries in the world producing only two
goods. Once we understand how trade would work between these two
countries, we can extend our analysis to a greater number of countries and
goods.

2.

One important role of a scientist is to understand which assumptions one should
make.

3.

Economists often use assumptions that are somewhat unrealistic but will have
small effects on the actual outcome of the answer.


Chapter 2/Thinking Like an Economist ) 19

C.

Economists use economic models to explain the world around us.

To illustrate to the class how simple but unrealistic models can be useful, bring a
road map to class. Point out how unrealistic it is. For example, it does not show
where all of the stop signs, gas stations, or restaurants are located. It assumes that
the earth is flat and two-dimensional. But, despite these simplifications, a map
usually helps travelers get from one place to another. Thus, it is a good model.
1.

Most economic models are composed of diagrams and equations.

2.

The goal of a model is to simplify reality in order to increase our understanding.
This is where the use of assumptions is helpful.

Activity 1 — Realism and Models: An Analogy
Type:
Topics:
Materials needed:
Time:
Class limitations:

In-class demonstration
Models
Airplane kit, sheet of paper, whirl-a-gig wing toy (Note: the whirl-agig wing toy is a helicopter wing on a stick; it is often sold in museum
gift shops as well as toy stores.)
5 minutes
Works in any class size

Ask the class if a realistic model is better than an unrealistic model.
Show them the airplane model kit. Describe some of the details included in model (rivets,
canopy, struts, etc.). Shake the box to rattle the large number of parts. This is a fairly
realistic model, although obviously not a real airplane. Its complexity adds realism, but at a
cost; assembling the model is very time consuming. Drop the box on the floor. Tell the class,
“This model, even when completed, cannot fly.”
Take a sheet of paper and fold it into a paper airplane. Show the class this new model. Its
virtues include simplicity and ease of assembly, but it is less realistic than the airplane model
kit. Throw the airplane and explain, “While less detailed, this model can glide through the
air.”

Show the students the whirl-a-gig wing toy. This model looks nothing like an airplane – just a
T-shaped piece of wood. Yet, this model does something that the other two models cannot
do: it actually generates lift. This toy demonstrates the same aerodynamic principles as a real
airplane wing. Twirl the stick between your palms and the whirl-a-gig wing toy will fly over
your head.
Economic models are like the whirl-a-gig wing toy. They are much less complex than the real
world, but they can show how markets actually work.