Social media in employee selection and recruitment

Richard N. Landers · Gordon B. Schmidt
Editors

Social Media
in Employee
Selection and
Recruitment
Theory, Practice, and Current Challenges


Social Media in Employee Selection
and Recruitment



Richard N. Landers • Gordon B. Schmidt
Editors

Social Media in Employee
Selection and Recruitment
Theory, Practice, and Current Challenges


Editors
Richard N. Landers
Department of Psychology
Old Dominion University
Norfolk, VA, USA

Gordon B. Schmidt
Division of Organizational Leadership

and Supervision
Indiana University-Purdue University
Fort Wayne
Fort Wayne, IN, USA

ISBN 978-3-319-29987-7
ISBN 978-3-319-29989-1
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-29989-1

(eBook)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016938158
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors
or omissions that may have been made.
Printed on acid-free paper
This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature
The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland

I dedicate this book to Owen, who will
probably find it delicious.
—Richard Landers
This book is dedicated to my wife and our
family of Wiegands, Smiths, and Schmidts;
especially my mother, Priscilla; sister, Brenda;
and the memory of my father, Eugene.
—Gordon Schmidt



Contents

Part I
1

Social Media in Employee Selection and Recruitment:
An Overview ............................................................................................
Richard N. Landers and Gordon B. Schmidt

Part II
2

3

4

Introduction
3

Current Applications

Social Media as a Personnel Selection and Hiring Resource:
Reservations and Recommendations.....................................................
H. Kristl Davison, Mark N. Bing, Donald H. Kluemper,
and Philip L. Roth
Theoretical Propositions About Cybervetting:
A Common Antecedents Model .............................................................
Julia L. Berger and Michael J. Zickar
An Uncertainty Reduction Approach to Applicant
Information-Seeking in Social Media: Effects on Attributions
and Hiring ................................................................................................
Caleb T. Carr

15

43

59

5

Social Media Use: Antecedents and Outcomes of Sharing..................
Nathan Weidner, Kimberly E. O’Brien, and Kevin T. Wynne

79

6

Game-Thinking Within Social Media to Recruit

and Select Job Candidates...................................................................... 103
Andrew B. Collmus, Michael B. Armstrong,
and Richard N. Landers

vii


viii

Contents

Part III

Practical Guidelines

7

Social Media, Big Data, and Employment Decisions:
Mo’ Data, Mo’ Problems? ...................................................................... 127
Sarah Guilfoyle, Shawn M. Bergman, Christopher Hartwell,
and Jonathan Powers

8

Comparing the Social Media in the United States
and BRIC Nations, and the Challenges Faced
in International Selection ....................................................................... 157
Brandon Shields and Julia Levashina

9

Social Media and Employee Recruitment:
Chasing the Run Away Bandwagon ...................................................... 175
Yalcin Acikgoz and Shawn M. Bergman

10

How to Stay Current in Social Media to Be Competitive
in Recruitment and Selection ................................................................. 197
Stephanie L. Black, Montressa L. Washington,
and Gordon B. Schmidt

Part IV

Challenges and Limitations

11

Impression Management and Social Media Profiles............................ 223
Nicolas Roulin and Julia Levashina

12

Applicant Reactions to Social Media in Selection:
Early Returns and Future Directions.................................................... 249
J. William Stoughton

13

Legal Concerns When Considering Social Media

Data in Selection...................................................................................... 265
Gordon B. Schmidt and Kimberly W. O’Connor

14

Online Exclusion: Biases That May Arise When Using Social
Media in Talent Acquisition ................................................................... 289
Enrica N. Ruggs, Sarah Singletary Walker, Anita Blanchard,
and Shahar Gur

15

Is John Smith Really John Smith? Misrepresentations
and Misattributions of Candidates Using Social Media
and Social Networking Sites ................................................................... 307
Noelle B. Frantz, Elizabeth S. Pears, E. Daly Vaughn,
Jared Z. Ferrell, and Nikki M. Dudley


Contents

Part V
16

ix

Future Directions

Social Media in Employee Selection and Recruitment:
Current Knowledge, Unanswered Questions,

and Future Directions ............................................................................. 343
Richard N. Landers and Gordon B. Schmidt

Index ................................................................................................................. 369



Editors and Contributors

About the Editors
Richard N. Landers, Ph.D. is an Associate Professor
of Industrial/Organizational Psychology at Old
Dominion University, where he has worked since earning his Ph.D. at the University of Minnesota. His
research program focuses upon improving the use of
Internet technologies in talent management, especially
the measurement of knowledge, skills and abilities, the
selection of employees using innovative technologies,
and learning conducted via the Internet. Recent topics
have included big data, unproctored Internet-based
testing, mobile devices including smartphones and tablets, immersive 3D virtual environments and virtual
reality, game-based learning, game-based assessment,
gamification, and social media and online communities. His research and writing
has been featured in Forbes, Business Insider, Science News Daily, Popular Science,
Maclean’s, and Chronicle of Higher Education, among others. He currently serves
as Associate Editor of Computers in Human Behavior, Simulation & Gaming, and
the International Journal of Gaming and Computer-Mediated Simulations as well
as the editorial board of Technology, Knowledge and Learning. He was Old
Dominion University’s 2014 and 2015 nominee for the State Council for Higher
Education in Virginia Rising Star Outstanding Faculty Award. He is also an author
of a statistics textbook, A Step-by-Step Introduction to Statistics for Business.

Finally, he maintains a science-popularization blog spreading news about technology, business, and psychology at .
Richard N. Landers, Ph.D., Department of Psychology, Old Dominion University,
Norfolk, VA, USA

xi


xii

Editors and Contributors

Gordon B. Schmidt, Ph.D. is an Assistant Professor
of Organizational Leadership & Supervision at Indiana
University-Purdue University Fort Wayne. He received
his Ph.D. in Organizational Psychology from Michigan
State University in 2012. His primary research interests relate to how social media can significantly impact
the worker-organization relationship. Recent work has
looked at legal aspects of employment terminations
due to worker social media behavior. He has examined
the use of compensated crowdsourcing sites, such as
Amazon Mechanical Turk, by organizations. He has
also examined how social media can play a part in virtual leadership and virtual team behavior. He has an
upcoming book chapter on how social media can be a medium for organizational
politics. He is well connected with the field of I/O Psychology through social media,
being a top 10 contributor on the I/O Psychologist social media site My.SIOP, a
moderator of the I/O Psychology subreddit, and running a Twitter account devoted
to disseminating knowledge on psychology, management, higher education, and
technology ( />Gordon B. Schmidt, Ph.D., Division of Organizational Leadership and Supervision, Indiana University-Purdue University Fort Wayne, Fort Wayne, IN, USA

Editors and Contributors

xiii

Contributors
Yalcin Acikgoz, M.A. has received his M.A. in
Industrial/Organizational Psychology and Human
Resource Management in Appalachian State
University. Currently pursuing his Ph.D. in Middle
East Technical University, Mr. Acikgoz’s research
focuses on using social media for employee recruitment and applicant withdrawal from the job application process. Mr. Acikgoz also works as a workforce
analyst in a public sector organization in Turkey.
Yalcin Acikgoz, M.A., Department of Psychology,
Middle East Technical University, Cankaya, Ankara,
Turkey
Michael B. Armstrong, M.S. is a doctoral student
studying industrial-organizational psychology at Old
Dominion University. He received his Bachelor of Arts
degree in psychology from Western Kentucky
University in 2013 and his Master of Science degree in
industrial-organizational psychology from Old
Dominion University in 2015. Michael’s research
focuses on the use of the Internet and technology to
enhance organizational training, assessment, employee
selection, and workplace motivation. He has coauthored and published several journal articles and
book chapters on the use of gamification and games to
improve outcomes in the workplace.
Michael B. Armstrong, M.S., Department of Psychology, Old Dominion University,
Norfolk, VA, USA
Julia L. Berger, Ph.D. is an industrial-organizational

psychologist currently working in one of the largest
nonprofit healthcare organizations in the Midwest. Her
primary research interests involve personnel selection,
psychometrics, and attitudes, such as employee
engagement and satisfaction. She has presented her
research at international and regional conferences.
Julia L. Berger, Ph.D., Human Resources—
Organizational Development, ProMedica, Toledo,
OH, USA


xiv

Editors and Contributors

Shawn M. Bergman, Ph.D. is the founding Director
of the Office of Research Consultation, Director of the
HR and Analytics Research Lab, and Associate
Director for the Center for Analytics Research and
Education at Appalachian State University and the
President of B&F Consulting. His research focuses on
using social media and analytics to meet organizational
objectives, legal issues surrounding the use of social
media for employment decisions, and applying analytics to human resources. He has served on multiple panels at national conferences discussing the use of social
media in organizational settings.
Shawn M. Bergman, Ph.D., Department of Psychology, Appalachian State
University, Boone, NC, USA
Mark N. Bing, Ph.D. is an Associate Professor of
Management at the University of Mississippi. From
2001 to 2005, he served as the US Navy’s SUBSCREEN

Principal Investigator. His research interests include
personnel selection, personality measurement, test faking, CWBs, and research methods. He has served on
various journal editorial boards, such as the Journal of
Applied Psychology and Organizational Research
Methods. His work has been published in journals such
as the Journal of Applied Psychology, Organizational
Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Journal of
Management, and Organizational Research Methods.
He is a fellow of SIOP and the APA.
Mark N. Bing, Ph.D., Department of Management, School of Business
Administration, University of Mississippi, University, MS, USA


Editors and Contributors

xv

Stephanie L. Black, M.B.A. has experience working
with corporations in various executive positions and as
an owner of various businesses. Her academic background started at Southern Methodist University with a
B.A. in Foreign Languages and Ibero-American studies. She then received an M.I.M./M.B.A. from the
American Graduate School of International Business.
Presently, she is finishing her Ph.D. in Management at
the University of Texas at San Antonio, and she holds
a dual appointment in the Department of Management
at the University at Albany in entrepreneurship and in
the Department of Life Sciences for the commercialization of technology. In this role, she enjoys working
with students preparing them to be better global minded business leaders and
researching in the use of technology in the workforce, minority entrepreneurship,
sustainability, and small business development. She is also active within the business community, where she strives to help small businesses to become more innovative, entrepreneurial, and profitable.

Stephanie L. Black Department of Management, School of Business, University at
Albany, Albany, NY, USA
Anita Blanchard, Ph.D. is an Associate Professor of
Psychology and Organization Science at the University
of North Carolina at Charlotte. Dr. Blanchard studies
how information and communication technology
affects communities and organizations as well as the
people within them, including the health and functioning of the people, their organizations, and their communities. She is particularly interested in the feelings
of community that develop in online groups. Her new
research interest includes feelings of groupness online,
particularly the social and technological components
that affect communication partners’ feelings of entitativity in traditional computer communication and new
social media.
Anita Blanchard, Ph.D., Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina
at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, USA


xvi

Editors and Contributors

Caleb T. Carr, Ph.D. (Ph.D., Michigan State
University) conducts research addressing how new
media alter communicative processes, including how
social media are used for organizational uncertainty
reduction, in group collaborations, and to create and
maintain identity online. He is currently an Assistant
Professor of Communication at Illinois State University.
Caleb T. Carr, Ph.D., School of Communication,
Illinois State University, Normal, IL, USA

Andrew B. Collmus is a Ph.D. student in the IndustrialOrganizational Psychology program at Old Dominion
University. He holds a Bachelor of Science degree in
psychology with an I/O concentration that he earned at
Colorado State University. Andrew’s research focuses
on assessment and technology. He is a student member
of SIOP, APA, SHRM, and APS.
Andrew B. Collmus Department of Psychology, Old
Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, USA

H. Kristl Davison, Ph.D. is an Instructor of Management
at the University of Memphis. Her research interests
include employment discrimination, gender and diversity issues, organizational justice and ethics, counterproductive workplace behavior, applicant faking, and
personnel selection. She has published her research in
journals such as Journal of Applied Psychology,
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision
Processes, Personnel Psychology, Journal of Vocational
Behavior, Organizational Research Methods, and
Journal of Business and Psychology. She has served on
the Editorial Board of Organizational Research Methods
and chaired the Awards Committee for the Society for
Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP).
H. Kristl Davison, Ph.D., Department of Management, Fogelman College of
Business & Economics, University of Memphis, Memphis, TN, USA


Editors and Contributors

xvii

Nikki M. Dudley, Ph.D. (Ph.D., George Mason
University) is a Director and Partner at Shaker. She has
worked with numerous Fortune 100 clients, managing
large-scale projects to create cutting edge mobile and
web-based assessment solutions used in the USA and
internationally. Current research interests include innovative measurement methodologies for knowledge,
skills, and personality, job simulations, and applicant
reactions, and she has multiple publications on these
topics. She has also received the Edwin A. Fleishman
Award for her research on knowledge and skill measurement and the G. Klopfer Award for distinguished
contribution to the literature in personality.
Nikki M. Dudley, Ph.D., SHAKER, Beachwood, OH, USA
Jared Z. Ferrell, M.A. is the Research and
Development Team Lead at Shaker and is currently a
Ph.D.
candidate
in
Industrial-Organizational
Psychology program at the University of Akron. He
earned his M.A. in Industrial-Organizational
Psychology from the University of Akron in 2011.
Jared has been involved in the development and validation of numerous pre-hire assessments across a wide
variety of industries and roles. He has also presented at
numerous professional conferences and published in
peer-reviewed journals, as well as books on personnel
selection. His research interests include applicant reactions to assessments, social networking websites, and
legal issues pertaining to personnel selection.
Jared Z. Ferrell, M.A., SHAKER, Beachwood, OH, USA

xviii

Editors and Contributors

Noelle B. Frantz, M.A. studied IndustrialOrganizational Psychology at the University of Akron
where she earned a master’s degree and is currently
completing her dissertation, the last requirement for
earning a Ph.D. In her time at Shaker, Noelle has served
both researcher and consultant roles. With a background in engineering coursework and research, Noelle
brings a different perspective to the development of
science-based solutions designed to meet clients’ selection and assessment needs. Her research interests
include assessment through science and innovation,
targeted selection, performance management, and the
use of technology to enhance business management.
Noelle B. Frantz, M.A., SHAKER, Beachwood, OH, USA
Sarah Guilfoyle, M.A. is a graduate of the IndustrialOrganizational Psychology and Human Resource
Management (IOHRM) master’s program at
Appalachian State University. While working toward
her degree, Sarah was an active member of the Society
for Human Resource Management (SHRM) and
worked to build the Center for Analytics Research and
Education (CARE) at Appalachian State University.
She also presented on big data and social media at a
local Industrial-Organizational Psychology conference. Sarah is currently pursuing an M.B.A. at
Appalachian State University.

Sarah Guilfoyle, M.A., Department of Psychology, Appalachian State University,
Boone, NC, USA
Shahar Gur is a Ph.D. student in Organizational
Science at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte.

She holds a bachelor’s degree in psychology from
UNC Chapel Hill. Her research focuses on prosocial
behaviors and group interactions.
Shahar Gur Organizational Science, University of
North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, USA


Editors and Contributors

xix

Christopher Hartwell, Ph.D. is an Assistant Professor
in the management department of the Jon M. Huntsman
School of Business at Utah State University. He received
his Ph.D. in Organizational Behavior and Human
Resource Management from Purdue University. His
research interests include employee selection, performance management, social media in the workplace, and
leadership. Chris also has more than 8 years of professional work experience in the field of human resources,
including recruiting, selection, performance management, compensation and benefits administration, and
employee training and development. He is a certified HR
professional through both the Society for Human
Resource Management and the HR Certification Institute.
Christopher Hartwell, Ph.D., Management Department, Jon M. Huntsman School
of Business, Utah State University, Logan, UT, USA
Donald H. Kluemper, Ph.D. is an Assistant Professor
of Management and Director of the Institute for
Leadership Excellence and Development (iLEAD) at
the University of Illinois at Chicago. Don’s research
centers around the topics of individual differences,
workplace mistreatment, and leadership. His work has

been published in outlets such as the Journal of Applied
Psychology, Journal of Management, Personnel
Psychology, Organizational Behavior and Human
Decision Processes, Journal of Organizational
Behavior, and Leadership Quarterly. In addition, some
of Don’s research on social networking websites has
been featured in media outlets such as the Wall Street
Journal, Time Magazine, and National Public Radio.
Donald H. Kluemper, Ph.D., Department of Managerial Studies, University of
Illinois–Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA


xx

Editors and Contributors

Julia Levashina, Ph.D. is an Associate Professor at
Kent State University. She is teaching and conducting
research across a range of areas in human resource
management. She has conducted empirical research on
faking and faking detection in structured employment
interviews, the use of the response elaboration technique and bogus items to detect and decrease faking in
biodata measures, and the use of blatant extreme
responding and unlikely virtue scales in personality
tests. She has published her research in management
and psychology journals including the Journal of
Applied Psychology, Personnel Psychology, and
International Journal of Selection and Assessment.
Julia Levashina, Ph.D., College of Business Administration, Kent State University,
Kent, OH, USA

Kimberly E. O’Brien, Ph.D. is an assistant professor
of psychology at Central Michigan University. Her
research on social media has mainly focused on the
negative outcomes of social networking misuse. Her
research program, more broadly, includes organizational citizenship behavior, counterproductive behavior, and job stress. She considers herself a champion
for using appropriate statistical analyses and has given
workshops on moderated mediation, item response
theory, and relative weight analysis. She received her
Ph.D. in industrial/organizational psychology from the
University of South Florida in 2008.
Kimberly E. O’Brien, Ph.D., Department of Psychology, Central Michigan
University, Mount Pleasant, MI, USA
Kimberly W. O’Connor is a licensed Indiana attorney
and a professor in the Department of Organizational
Leadership and Supervision at Indiana UniversityPurdue University Fort Wayne. Her research areas
include employment law, Internet law, and corporate
social responsibility.
Kimberly W. O’Connor, Division of Organizational
Leadership and Supervision, Indiana UniversityPurdue University Fort Wayne, Fort Wayne, IN, USA


Editors and Contributors

xxi

Elizabeth S. Pears, M.A. is an IndustrialOrganizational Psychology Ph.D. candidate at the
University of Akron. She received her bachelor’s
degree in psychology from Washington and Lee
University and her master’s degree in IndustrialOrganizational Psychology from the University of
Akron. Elizabeth has been with Shaker since August

2014. Her research interests include performance management, coaching, selection, and assessments.
Elizabeth S. Pears, M.A., SHAKER, Beachwood, OH, USA
Jonathan Powers, M.A. is a second-year graduate student in the Industrial/Organizational Psychology and
Human Resource Management program at Appalachian
State University. Jonathan is an active member of the
Society for Human Resource Management, is a project
leader in the HR and Analytics Research Lab, and has
worked with the Center for Analytics Research and
Education at Appalachian State University. He has
authored publications proposing the utility of text analytics in educational interventions targeting underprivileged high-school students and is currently working on
the research examining the incremental validity of
using text analytics from data gathered from social
media to predict job performance.
Jonathan Powers, M.A., Department of Psychology, Appalachian State University,
Boone, NC, USA
Philip L. Roth, Ph.D. is a professor of management at
Clemson University. Phil’s research interests involve
employee selection, including the use of social media
in employee selection. His methodological interests
center on meta-analysis. His work appears in the
Journal of Applied Psychology, Personnel Psychology,
Journal of Management, etc. He is a fellow of SIOP
and the APS. He has served as chair of the Research
Methods Division of the Academy of Management and
currently serves as member at large for the Human
Resources Division of the Academy. His Ph.D. is from
the University of Houston.
Philip L. Roth, Ph.D., Department of Management, College of Business, Clemson
University, Clemson, SC, USA

xxii

Editors and Contributors

Nicolas Roulin, Ph.D. is an Assistant Professor of
Human Resources Management in the Asper School of
Business, University of Manitoba. His research interests are organized around the interactions, strategies,
and behaviors of job market actors, especially during
the selection process. For instance, he investigates the
use and detection of impression management and faking tactics during the employment interviews, applicants’ strategies when entering competitive job
markets, and the use of social networking websites as
selection instruments. His research has been published
in journals including the Journal of Applied Psychology,
Personnel Psychology, or International Journal of
Selection and Assessment.
Nicolas Roulin, Ph.D., Asper School of Business, University of Manitoba,
Winnipeg, MB, Canada
Enrica N. Ruggs, Ph.D. is an Assistant Professor of
Psychology and Organizational Science at the
University of North Carolina at Charlotte. She received
her Ph.D. in Industrial-Organizational (I-O)
Psychology from Rice University. Dr. Ruggs examines
diversity, inclusion, and discrimination in organizations. Her research focuses on understanding the manifestations, consequences, and reduction of workplace
discrimination. Dr. Ruggs is particularly interested in
factors that influence discriminatory behavior and the
magnitude of influence of interpersonal discrimination
on organizations.
Enrica N. Ruggs, Ph.D., Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina
at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, USA

Editors and Contributors

xxiii

Brandon Shields received his B.A. in Economics and
is working toward his M.B.A. at Kent State University,
where he is spending his second year in France at the
ESC Rennes School of Business on exchange. As a
result of his concentration in human resources, his
research interests include international selection, social
media as a tool for hiring, and applicant deception.
Brandon Shields College of Business Administration,
Kent State University, Kent, OH, USA

J. William Stoughton, Ph.D. is a Principal Client
Advisor at SHL Talent Measurement of CEB. His primary responsibility is advising CEB’s new and prospective customers on talent measurement best practice
during the sales process, providing: needs diagnosis,
proposal recommendations, and presentations on
assessment technical elements. He continues to maintain an active research program on the intersection of
social networking and personnel selection. Will’s
research has been featured in popular media outlets
such as Fortune, Ars Technica, Slate, Time, NBC Radio
News, Scientific American, and National Public Radio.
Will earned his Ph.D. in Industrial-Organizational
Psychology from North Carolina State University.
J. William Stoughton, Ph.D., CEB, SHL Talent Measurement, Minneapolis,
MN, USA
E. Daly Vaughn, Ph.D. is a Senior Associate at Shaker.

He holds a Ph.D. from Auburn University and has
developed and implemented innovative, custom, weband mobile-based measures including measures of
cognitive ability, situational judgment, biodata, qualitative responses, personality, and work simulations for
a variety of Fortune 500 clients across a broad range of
industries. His research interests include studying
where innovative technology intersects with traditional
human resource functions, including gamification,
implicit attitude measurement, legal challenges introduced by new technology, and the use of social media
within a recruitment and selection context.
E. Daly Vaughn, Ph.D., SHAKER, Beachwood, OH, USA


xxiv

Editors and Contributors

Sarah Singletary Walker, Ph.D. obtained a doctorate
degree in Industrial-Organizational Psychology from
Rice University. She is an Associate Professor at the
University of Houston-Downtown. Dr. Walker’s training in industrial organizational psychology provides her
specific expertise in diversity, recruitment, selection,
training, testing, and measurement. Her research interests include diversity, discrimination remediation, leadership, employee selection, and other areas related to
human resource management. Her research has been
published in the Journal of Applied Psychology. She is a
reviewer for journals and also consults on applied projects related to recruitment, selection, and performance
appraisal for both public and private companies.
Sarah Singletary Walker, Ph.D., Department of Management and Marketing,
University of Houston-Downtown, Houston, TX, USA
Montressa L. Washington, Ph.D. has over 20 years
of management consulting experience with Fortune

100 companies. She is a management consulting veteran with expertise in human capital management,
change integration, technology assimilation, and business transformation. Montressa’s research interests
include strategic human resources, technology, innovation, and organizational behavior. Montressa has taught
at schools of business for Villanova University, Morgan
State University, and Johns Hopkins Carey Business
School. Montressa’s academic history—Ph.D., Case
Western Reserve University—Weatherhead School of Management, MBA
International Business and Marketing—Johns Hopkins University and BA
English—University of Maryland College Park.
Montressa L. Washington, Ph.D., Weatherhead School of Management, Case
Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA