Spectroscopy of pharmaceutical solids 2006 brittain

DK5783_half-series-title.qxd

2/21/06

2:35 PM

Page A

Spectroscopy of
Pharmaceutical Solids

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC


DK5783_half-series-title.qxd

2/21/06

2:35 PM

Page B

DRUGS AND THE PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES
A Series of Textbooks and Monographs

Executive Editor

James Swarbrick
PharmaceuTech, Inc.

Pinehurst, North Carolina

Advisory Board
Larry L. Augsburger

Harry G. Brittain

University of Maryland
Baltimore, Maryland

Center for Pharmaceutical Physics
Milford, New Jersey

Jennifer B. Dressman
Johann Wolfgang Goethe University
Frankfurt, Germany

Anthony J. Hickey
University of North Carolina School of
Pharmacy
Chapel Hill, North Carolina

Jeffrey A. Hughes
University of Florida College of
Pharmacy
Gainesville, Florida

Trevor M. Jones
The Association of the
British Pharmaceutical Industry

London, United Kingdom

Vincent H. L. Lee

Ajaz Hussain
U.S. Food and Drug Administration
Frederick, Maryland

Hans E. Junginger
Leiden/Amsterdam Center
for Drug Research
Leiden, The Netherlands

Stephen G. Schulman

University of Southern California
Los Angeles, California

University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida

Jerome P. Skelly

Elizabeth M. Topp

Alexandria, Virginia

Geoffrey T. Tucker
University of Sheffield
Royal Hallamshire Hospital

Sheffield, United Kingdom

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

University of Kansas School of
Pharmacy
Lawrence, Kansas

Peter York
University of Bradford School of
Pharmacy
Bradford, United Kingdom


DK5783_half-series-title.qxd

2/21/06

2:35 PM

Page C

1. Pharmacokinetics, Milo Gibaldi and Donald Perrier
2. Good Manufacturing Practices for Pharmaceuticals: A Plan for Total
Quality Control, Sidney H. Willig, Murray M. Tuckerman,
and William S. Hitchings IV
3. Microencapsulation, edited by J. R. Nixon
4. Drug Metabolism: Chemical and Biochemical Aspects, Bernard Testa

and Peter Jenner
5. New Drugs: Discovery and Development, edited by Alan A. Rubin
6. Sustained and Controlled Release Drug Delivery Systems, edited by
Joseph R. Robinson
7. Modern Pharmaceutics, edited by Gilbert S. Banker
and Christopher T. Rhodes
8. Prescription Drugs in Short Supply: Case Histories, Michael A. Schwartz
9. Activated Charcoal: Antidotal and Other Medical Uses, David O. Cooney
10. Concepts in Drug Metabolism (in two parts), edited by Peter Jenner
and Bernard Testa
11. Pharmaceutical Analysis: Modern Methods (in two parts), edited by
James W. Munson
12. Techniques of Solubilization of Drugs, edited by Samuel H. Yalkowsky
13. Orphan Drugs, edited by Fred E. Karch
14. Novel Drug Delivery Systems: Fundamentals, Developmental Concepts,
Biomedical Assessments, Yie W. Chien
15. Pharmacokinetics: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Milo Gibaldi
and Donald Perrier
16. Good Manufacturing Practices for Pharmaceuticals: A Plan for Total
Quality Control, Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Sidney H. Willig,
Murray M. Tuckerman, and William S. Hitchings IV
17. Formulation of Veterinary Dosage Forms, edited by Jack Blodinger
18. Dermatological Formulations: Percutaneous Absorption, Brian W. Barry
19. The Clinical Research Process in the Pharmaceutical Industry, edited by
Gary M. Matoren
20. Microencapsulation and Related Drug Processes, Patrick B. Deasy
21. Drugs and Nutrients: The Interactive Effects, edited by Daphne A. Roe
and T. Colin Campbell
22. Biotechnology of Industrial Antibiotics, Erick J. Vandamme
23. Pharmaceutical Process Validation, edited by Bernard T. Loftus

and Robert A. Nash
24. Anticancer and Interferon Agents: Synthesis and Properties, edited by
Raphael M. Ottenbrite and George B. Butler
25. Pharmaceutical Statistics: Practical and Clinical Applications,
Sanford Bolton

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC


DK5783_half-series-title.qxd

2/21/06

2:35 PM

Page D

26. Drug Dynamics for Analytical, Clinical, and Biological Chemists,
Benjamin J. Gudzinowicz, Burrows T. Younkin, Jr.,
and Michael J. Gudzinowicz
27. Modern Analysis of Antibiotics, edited by Adjoran Aszalos
28. Solubility and Related Properties, Kenneth C. James
29. Controlled Drug Delivery: Fundamentals and Applications, Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, edited by Joseph R. Robinson and Vincent H. Lee
30. New Drug Approval Process: Clinical and Regulatory Management,
edited by Richard A. Guarino
31. Transdermal Controlled Systemic Medications, edited by Yie W. Chien
32. Drug Delivery Devices: Fundamentals and Applications, edited by

Praveen Tyle
33. Pharmacokinetics: Regulatory • Industrial • Academic Perspectives,
edited by Peter G. Welling and Francis L. S. Tse
34. Clinical Drug Trials and Tribulations, edited by Allen E. Cato
35. Transdermal Drug Delivery: Developmental Issues and Research
Initiatives, edited by Jonathan Hadgraft and Richard H. Guy
36. Aqueous Polymeric Coatings for Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms,
edited by James W. McGinity
37. Pharmaceutical Pelletization Technology, edited by Isaac Ghebre-Sellassie
38. Good Laboratory Practice Regulations, edited by Allen F. Hirsch
39. Nasal Systemic Drug Delivery, Yie W. Chien, Kenneth S. E. Su,
and Shyi-Feu Chang
40. Modern Pharmaceutics: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
edited by Gilbert S. Banker and Christopher T. Rhodes
41. Specialized Drug Delivery Systems: Manufacturing and Production
Technology, edited by Praveen Tyle
42. Topical Drug Delivery Formulations, edited by David W. Osborne
and Anton H. Amann
43. Drug Stability: Principles and Practices, Jens T. Carstensen
44. Pharmaceutical Statistics: Practical and Clinical Applications,
Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Sanford Bolton
45. Biodegradable Polymers as Drug Delivery Systems, edited by
Mark Chasin and Robert Langer
46. Preclinical Drug Disposition: A Laboratory Handbook, Francis L. S. Tse
and James J. Jaffe
47. HPLC in the Pharmaceutical Industry, edited by Godwin W. Fong
and Stanley K. Lam
48. Pharmaceutical Bioequivalence, edited by Peter G. Welling,
Francis L. S. Tse, and Shrikant V. Dinghe
49. Pharmaceutical Dissolution Testing, Umesh V. Banakar

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC


DK5783_half-series-title.qxd

2/21/06

2:35 PM

Page E

50. Novel Drug Delivery Systems: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
Yie W. Chien
51. Managing the Clinical Drug Development Process, David M. Cocchetto
and Ronald V. Nardi
52. Good Manufacturing Practices for Pharmaceuticals: A Plan for Total
Quality Control, Third Edition, edited by Sidney H. Willig
and James R. Stoker
53. Prodrugs: Topical and Ocular Drug Delivery, edited by Kenneth B. Sloan
54. Pharmaceutical Inhalation Aerosol Technology, edited by
Anthony J. Hickey
55. Radiopharmaceuticals: Chemistry and Pharmacology, edited by
Adrian D. Nunn
56. New Drug Approval Process: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
edited by Richard A. Guarino
57. Pharmaceutical Process Validation: Second Edition, Revised
and Expanded, edited by Ira R. Berry and Robert A. Nash

58. Ophthalmic Drug Delivery Systems, edited by Ashim K. Mitra
59. Pharmaceutical Skin Penetration Enhancement, edited by
Kenneth A. Walters and Jonathan Hadgraft
60. Colonic Drug Absorption and Metabolism, edited by Peter R. Bieck
61. Pharmaceutical Particulate Carriers: Therapeutic Applications, edited by
Alain Rolland
62. Drug Permeation Enhancement: Theory and Applications, edited by
Dean S. Hsieh
63. Glycopeptide Antibiotics, edited by Ramakrishnan Nagarajan
64. Achieving Sterility in Medical and Pharmaceutical Products, Nigel A. Halls
65. Multiparticulate Oral Drug Delivery, edited by Isaac Ghebre-Sellassie
66. Colloidal Drug Delivery Systems, edited by Jörg Kreuter
67. Pharmacokinetics: Regulatory • Industrial • Academic Perspectives,
Second Edition, edited by Peter G. Welling and Francis L. S. Tse
68. Drug Stability: Principles and Practices, Second Edition, Revised
and Expanded, Jens T. Carstensen
69. Good Laboratory Practice Regulations: Second Edition, Revised
and Expanded, edited by Sandy Weinberg
70. Physical Characterization of Pharmaceutical Solids, edited by
Harry G. Brittain
71. Pharmaceutical Powder Compaction Technology, edited by
Göran Alderborn and Christer Nyström
72. Modern Pharmaceutics: Third Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by
Gilbert S. Banker and Christopher T. Rhodes
73. Microencapsulation: Methods and Industrial Applications, edited by
Simon Benita

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

DK5783_half-series-title.qxd

2/21/06

2:35 PM

Page F

74. Oral Mucosal Drug Delivery, edited by Michael J. Rathbone
75. Clinical Research in Pharmaceutical Development, edited by Barry Bleidt
and Michael Montagne
76. The Drug Development Process: Increasing Efficiency and Cost
Effectiveness, edited by Peter G. Welling, Louis Lasagna,
and Umesh V. Banakar
77. Microparticulate Systems for the Delivery of Proteins and Vaccines,
edited by Smadar Cohen and Howard Bernstein
78. Good Manufacturing Practices for Pharmaceuticals: A Plan for Total
Quality Control, Fourth Edition, Revised and Expanded, Sidney H. Willig
and James R. Stoker
79. Aqueous Polymeric Coatings for Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms:
Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by James W. McGinity
80. Pharmaceutical Statistics: Practical and Clinical Applications,
Third Edition, Sanford Bolton
81. Handbook of Pharmaceutical Granulation Technology, edited by
Dilip M. Parikh
82. Biotechnology of Antibiotics: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
edited by William R. Strohl
83. Mechanisms of Transdermal Drug Delivery, edited by Russell O. Potts

and Richard H. Guy
84. Pharmaceutical Enzymes, edited by Albert Lauwers and Simon Scharpé
85. Development of Biopharmaceutical Parenteral Dosage Forms, edited by
John A. Bontempo
86. Pharmaceutical Project Management, edited by Tony Kennedy
87. Drug Products for Clinical Trials: An International Guide to Formulation
• Production • Quality Control, edited by Donald C. Monkhouse
and Christopher T. Rhodes
88. Development and Formulation of Veterinary Dosage Forms:
Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Gregory E. Hardee
and J. Desmond Baggot
89. Receptor-Based Drug Design, edited by Paul Leff
90. Automation and Validation of Information in Pharmaceutical Processing,
edited by Joseph F. deSpautz
91. Dermal Absorption and Toxicity Assessment, edited by Michael S. Roberts
and Kenneth A. Walters
92. Pharmaceutical Experimental Design, Gareth A. Lewis, Didier Mathieu,
and Roger Phan-Tan-Luu
93. Preparing for FDA Pre-Approval Inspections, edited by Martin D. Hynes III
94. Pharmaceutical Excipients: Characterization by IR, Raman, and NMR
Spectroscopy, David E. Bugay and W. Paul Findlay
95. Polymorphism in Pharmaceutical Solids, edited by Harry G. Brittain

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC


DK5783_half-series-title.qxd

2/21/06

2:35 PM

Page G

96. Freeze-Drying/Lyophilization of Pharmaceutical and Biological Products,
edited by Louis Rey and Joan C. May
97. Percutaneous Absorption: Drugs–Cosmetics–Mechanisms–Methodology,
Third Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Robert L. Bronaugh
and Howard I. Maibach
98. Bioadhesive Drug Delivery Systems: Fundamentals, Novel Approaches,
and Development, edited by Edith Mathiowitz, Donald E. Chickering III,
and Claus-Michael Lehr
99. Protein Formulation and Delivery, edited by Eugene J. McNally
100. New Drug Approval Process: Third Edition, The Global Challenge,
edited by Richard A. Guarino
101. Peptide and Protein Drug Analysis, edited by Ronald E. Reid
102. Transport Processes in Pharmaceutical Systems, edited by
Gordon L. Amidon, Ping I. Lee, and Elizabeth M. Topp
103. Excipient Toxicity and Safety, edited by Myra L. Weiner
and Lois A. Kotkoskie
104. The Clinical Audit in Pharmaceutical Development, edited by
Michael R. Hamrell
105. Pharmaceutical Emulsions and Suspensions, edited by Francoise Nielloud
and Gilberte Marti-Mestres
106. Oral Drug Absorption: Prediction and Assessment, edited by
Jennifer B. Dressman and Hans Lennernäs
107. Drug Stability: Principles and Practices, Third Edition, Revised
and Expanded, edited by Jens T. Carstensen and C. T. Rhodes

108. Containment in the Pharmaceutical Industry, edited by James P. Wood
109. Good Manufacturing Practices for Pharmaceuticals: A Plan for Total
Quality Control from Manufacturer to Consumer, Fifth Edition, Revised
and Expanded, Sidney H. Willig
110. Advanced Pharmaceutical Solids, Jens T. Carstensen
111. Endotoxins: Pyrogens, LAL Testing, and Depyrogenation, Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, Kevin L. Williams
112. Pharmaceutical Process Engineering, Anthony J. Hickey
and David Ganderton
113. Pharmacogenomics, edited by Werner Kalow, Urs A. Meyer
and Rachel F. Tyndale
114. Handbook of Drug Screening, edited by Ramakrishna Seethala
and Prabhavathi B. Fernandes
115. Drug Targeting Technology: Physical • Chemical • Biological Methods,
edited by Hans Schreier
116. Drug–Drug Interactions, edited by A. David Rodrigues
117. Handbook of Pharmaceutical Analysis, edited by Lena Ohannesian
and Anthony J. Streeter
118. Pharmaceutical Process Scale-Up, edited by Michael Levin

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC


DK5783_half-series-title.qxd

2/21/06

2:35 PM

Page H

119. Dermatological and Transdermal Formulations, edited by
Kenneth A. Walters
120. Clinical Drug Trials and Tribulations: Second Edition, Revised
and Expanded, edited by Allen Cato, Lynda Sutton, and Allen Cato III
121. Modern Pharmaceutics: Fourth Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by
Gilbert S. Banker and Christopher T. Rhodes
122. Surfactants and Polymers in Drug Delivery, Martin Malmsten
123. Transdermal Drug Delivery: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
edited by Richard H. Guy and Jonathan Hadgraft
124. Good Laboratory Practice Regulations: Second Edition, Revised
and Expanded, edited by Sandy Weinberg
125. Parenteral Quality Control: Sterility, Pyrogen, Particulate, and Package
Integrity Testing: Third Edition, Revised and Expanded, Michael J. Akers,
Daniel S. Larrimore, and Dana Morton Guazzo
126. Modified-Release Drug Delivery Technology, edited by
Michael J. Rathbone, Jonathan Hadgraft, and Michael S. Roberts
127. Simulation for Designing Clinical Trials: A PharmacokineticPharmacodynamic Modeling Perspective, edited by Hui C. Kimko
and Stephen B. Duffull
128. Affinity Capillary Electrophoresis in Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics,
edited by Reinhard H. H. Neubert and Hans-Hermann Rüttinger
129. Pharmaceutical Process Validation: An International Third Edition,
Revised and Expanded, edited by Robert A. Nash and Alfred H. Wachter
130. Ophthalmic Drug Delivery Systems: Second Edition, Revised
and Expanded, edited by Ashim K. Mitra
131. Pharmaceutical Gene Delivery Systems, edited by Alain Rolland
and Sean M. Sullivan
132. Biomarkers in Clinical Drug Development, edited by John C. Bloom

and Robert A. Dean
133. Pharmaceutical Extrusion Technology, edited by Isaac Ghebre-Sellassie
and Charles Martin
134. Pharmaceutical Inhalation Aerosol Technology: Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, edited by Anthony J. Hickey
135. Pharmaceutical Statistics: Practical and Clinical Applications,
Fourth Edition, Sanford Bolton and Charles Bon
136. Compliance Handbook for Pharmaceuticals, Medical Devices,
and Biologics, edited by Carmen Medina
137. Freeze-Drying/Lyophilization of Pharmaceutical and Biological Products:
Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Louis Rey
and Joan C. May
138. Supercritical Fluid Technology for Drug Product Development, edited by
Peter York, Uday B. Kompella, and Boris Y. Shekunov
139. New Drug Approval Process: Fourth Edition, Accelerating Global
Registrations, edited by Richard A. Guarino

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC


DK5783_half-series-title.qxd

2/21/06

2:35 PM

Page I

140. Microbial Contamination Control in Parenteral Manufacturing, edited by
Kevin L. Williams
141. New Drug Development: Regulatory Paradigms for Clinical Pharmacology
and Biopharmaceutics, edited by Chandrahas G. Sahajwalla
142. Microbial Contamination Control in the Pharmaceutical Industry, edited by
Luis Jimenez
143. Generic Drug Product Development: Solid Oral Dosage Forms, edited by
Leon Shargel and Izzy Kanfer
144. Introduction to the Pharmaceutical Regulatory Process, edited by
Ira R. Berry
145. Drug Delivery to the Oral Cavity: Molecules to Market, edited by
Tapash K. Ghosh and William R. Pfister
146. Good Design Practices for GMP Pharmaceutical Facilities, edited by
Andrew Signore and Terry Jacobs
147. Drug Products for Clinical Trials, Second Edition, edited by Donald
Monkhouse, Charles Carney, and Jim Clark
148. Polymeric Drug Delivery Systems, edited by Glen S. Kwon
149. Injectable Dispersed Systems: Formulation, Processing, and Performance,
edited by Diane J. Burgess
150. Laboratory Auditing for Quality and Regulatory Compliance,
Donald Singer, Raluca-Ioana Stefan, and Jacobus van Staden
151. Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients: Development, Manufacturing,
and Regulation, edited by Stanley Nusim
152. Preclinical Drug Development, edited by Mark C. Rogge and David R. Taft
153. Pharmaceutical Stress Testing: Predicting Drug Degradation, edited by
Steven W. Baertschi
154. Handbook of Pharmaceutical Granulation Technology: Second Edition,
edited by Dilip M. Parikh
155. Percutaneous Absorption: Drugs–Cosmetics–Mechanisms–Methodology,
Fourth Edition, edited by Robert L. Bronaugh and Howard I. Maibach

156. Pharmacogenomics: Second Edition, edited by Werner Kalow,
Urs A. Meyer and Rachel F. Tyndale
157. Pharmaceutical Process Scale-Up, Second Edition, edited by
Michael Levin
158. Microencapsulation: Methods and Industrial Applications, Second Edition,
edited by Simon Benita
159. Nanoparticle Technology for Drug Delivery, edited by Ram B. Gupta
and Uday B. Kompella
160. Spectroscopy of Pharmaceutical Solids, edited by Harry G. Brittain

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC


DK5783_half-series-title.qxd

2/21/06

2:35 PM

Page i

Spectroscopy of
Pharmaceutical Solids
edited by

Harry G. Brittain
Center for Pharmaceutical Physics
Milford, New Jersey, U.S.A.

New York London

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC


DK5783_Discl.fm Page 1 Monday, November 14, 2005 11:32 AM

Published in 2006 by
Taylor & Francis Group
270 Madison Avenue
New York, NY 10016
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
No claim to original U.S. Government works
Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
International Standard Book Number-10: 1-57444-893-5 (Hardcover)
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-57444-893-1 (Hardcover)
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is
quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts
have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume
responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use.
No part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and
recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.
For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com
( or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC) 222 Rosewood Drive,
Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration

for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate
system of payment has been arranged.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only
for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Catalog record is available from the Library of Congress

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

Taylor & Francis Group
is the Academic Division of Informa plc.

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC


Preface

Spectroscopic techniques have been widely used in the pharmaceutical sciences
to obtain both fundamental and applied information. During the development of
any given drug candidate, spectroscopy will be used to establish the structure of
the compound and understand its interaction with other constituents. It is also
often used as a means for evaluating the analytical characteristics of the bulk
drug substance and its formulations. It is no surprise, therefore, that solid-state
spectroscopic methods have become extremely important to successful modern
drug development.
Many scientists believe themselves to be familiar with the principles that
govern the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter, and yet their

knowledge is often based on partial truths. For instance, most would state that
for a molecule to absorb ultraviolet light, an electron must be promoted from
one energy level to another. While in some cases there is validity to this
belief, the true origin of the transition is a change in the orbital angular momentum of the molecule, and the absorption of a quantum of light causes the
transition from one molecular state to another. Genuine knowledge as to the
origin of spectroscopic phenomena might not change the routine use of a particular technique, but it would provide a basis that could lead to a more advanced
application for that technique.
The reasoning just stated has led to the need for the present volume.
However great the use of solid-state spectroscopy might be, a greater degree of
fundamental understanding is necessary to obtain maximal use out of each technique. In the present work, the underlying principles of each technique will be
sufficiently outlined to provide a thorough and proper understanding of
the physics involved, and then applications will be used to illustrate what can
be learned through the employment of the method under discussion. Whenever
possible, the examples will be drawn from the pharmaceutical literature, but
this rule will be violated whenever the author feels that an application from
another field might inspire analogous work by a pharmaceutical scientist.
iii

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC


iv

Preface

In 1995, I edited a volume entitled “Physical Characterization of Pharmaceutical Solids” in which a fairly extensive overview of methods suitable for
work at the molecular, particulate, and bulk levels was provided. Since a substantial portion of this earlier book was concerned with the use of spectroscopy
for the characterization of solids having pharmaceutical, the present volume
may be viewed as being Volume 1 in the second edition of the older book. In
the present volume, the use of spectroscopy for the characterization of pharmaceutical solids has been taken much further, and the range of topics has been

greatly extended relative to the coverage of the earlier volume.
Harry G. Brittain

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC


Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

iii

Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

ix

Part I.
1.

Introduction to Spectroscopy

Electromagnetic Radiation and Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Harry G. Brittain
Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation . . . . 1
Classical Description of Electromagnetic Radiation . . . . 3
The Quantum Theory of Electromagnetic Radiation . . . . 8
Ionization and Excitation of Atoms . . . . 12
Development of the Quantum Theory . . . . 17
Overview of Spectroscopy . . . . 28
Summary . . . . 30

References . . . . 31

Part II.

Core Electron Spectroscopy

2.

Core Electron States and X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy . . . . . 33
Harry G. Brittain
Wave Mechanical Description of the Hydrogen Atom . . . . 33
X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy . . . . 53
References . . . . 64

3.

X-Ray Photoelectron and X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy
Harry G. Brittain
X-Ray Emission Spectroscopies . . . . 67
v

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

. . . 67


vi

Contents

X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy . . . . 69
X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy . . . . 77
References . . . . 87
Part III.

Valence Electron Spectroscopy

4.

Molecular Orbital Theory and the Electronic Structure
of Molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Harry G. Brittain
Molecular Orbital (MO) Theory of Organic Molecules . . . . 91
LCAO-MO Theory . . . . 93
LCAO-MO Theory and the Spectroscopy of
Diatomic Molecules . . . . 97
MO Theory and the Spectroscopy of Polyatomic Molecules . . . . 104
General Features of the Absorption
Spectroscopy of Organic Molecules . . . . 112
References . . . . 119

5.

UV/VIS Reflectance Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Harry G. Brittain
Introduction . . . . 121
Categories of Light Reflectance . . . . 122
Theory Associated with Diffuse Reflectance Measurements . . . . 124
Instrumentation for the Measurement of Diffuse Reflectance . . . . 127
Quantitative Measurement of Color . . . . 129

Applications of UV/VIS Diffuse Reflectance Spectroscopy
to the Study of Solids Having Pharmaceutical Interest . . . . 134
Use of Adsorbed Indicators for the Evaluation
of Surface Acidity and Basicity . . . . 141
Summary . . . . 147
References . . . . 147

6.

Luminescence Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Harry G. Brittain
Introduction . . . . 151
Photophysical Processes in Isolated Organic Molecules . . . . 152
Photophysical Processes Associated with
Interacting Molecules . . . . 157
Instrumentation for the Measurement of Luminescence
Spectra . . . . 170
Photoluminescence and the Structure of
Organic Molecules . . . . 178
Studies of Luminescence in the Crystalline State . . . . 179
Photoluminescence from Molecules Adsorbed on Surfaces . . . . 184
References . . . . 198

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC


Contents

Part IV.

vii

Vibrational Level Spectroscopy

7.

Molecular Motion and Vibrational Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Harry G. Brittain
Introduction . . . . 205
Motion of Nuclei in Molecules . . . . 206
Rotation and Vibration in Diatomic Molecules . . . . 210
Vibrational Energy Levels and Spectroscopy of
Diatomic Molecules . . . . 213
Vibrational Energy Levels and Spectroscopy of the
Fundamental Transitions of Polyatomic Molecules . . . . 219
Spectroscopy of Transitions Associated with Overtones and
Combinations of Fundamental Vibrational Modes . . . . 227
Summary . . . . 231
References . . . . 232

8.

Infrared Absorption Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
David E. Bugay and Harry G. Brittain
Introduction . . . . 235
Some Fundamental Principles of IR Absorption Spectroscopy . . . . 236
Instrumentation for the Measurement of
IR Spectra in the Solid State . . . . 239
Applications of IR Spectroscopy to Areas of
Pharmaceutical Interest . . . . 246

References . . . . 265

9.

Raman Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
David E. Bugay and Harry G. Brittain
Introduction . . . . 271
Some Fundamental Principles of the Raman Effect . . . . 272
Instrumentation for Measurement of Raman
Spectra in the Solid State . . . . 278
Group Frequency Correlations in Raman Spectroscopy
and Effects of the Solid State . . . . 283
Applications of Raman Spectroscopy to
Areas of Pharmaceutical Interest . . . . 286
References . . . . 309

10.

Near-Infrared Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Robert P. Cogdill and James K. Drennen, III
Introduction . . . . 313
Fundamental Principles . . . . 315
Practice of NIR Spectroscopy . . . . 344
Applications in Pharmaceutical Solids Analysis . . . . 389
References . . . . 406

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC


viii

Contents

Part V.
11.

Nuclear Spin Level Spectroscopy

Solid-State Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectrometry . . . . . . 413
Ales Medek
Fundamental Principles of NMR . . . . 413
SSNMR of Powder Solids . . . . 420
Pharmaceutically Relevant Applications of SSNMR . . . . 427
References . . . . 538

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC


Contributors

Harry G. Brittain
U.S.A.

Center for Pharmaceutical Physics, Milford, New Jersey,
SSCI, Inc., West Lafayette, Indiana, U.S.A.

David E. Bugay
Robert P. Cogdill
Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

School of Pharmacy, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh,

James K. Drennen, III
School of Pharmacy, Duquesne University,
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
Ales Medek

Pfizer Global R&D, Groton, Connecticut, U.S.A.

ix

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC


PART I.

INTRODUCTION TO SPECTROSCOPY

1
Electromagnetic Radiation and
Spectroscopy
Harry G. Brittain
Center for Pharmaceutical Physics, Milford, New Jersey, U.S.A.

NATURE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
It had been known since ancient times that a moist atmosphere would split light
from the sun into a rainbow of colors. In 1672, Newton used an apparatus similar
to that shown in Figure 1 to demonstrate that the same type of splitting could be
effected using a glass prism as the active element. In this work, he showed
that the refractability of the light increased on passing from red to violet

and postulated a corpuscular theory for the nature of light. Unfortunately,
Newton’s great reputation discouraged others from challenging his theory, and
this situation persisted until a new wave theory was presented to the Royal
Society by Young in 1801. Needless to say, a fierce scientific and philosophical
debate ensued. In 1815, Fresnel developed a mathematical theory to interpret the
phenomenon of interference and also explained the polarization of light by
assuming that the light vibrations, which pass through a medium, are contained
in a plane transverse to the direction of propagation. The great controversy
over the wave versus corpuscular nature of light was resolved in 1850 by
Foucault, who designed a revolving-mirror apparatus that could measure the
velocity of light through different media. He conclusively demonstrated that
light travels more slowly in water than it does in air, a finding that was required
by the wave theory but incompatible with the corpuscular theory of Newton.
In 1873, Maxwell published his, “Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism,”
in which he presented the most definitive statement regarding the classical
1

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC


2

Brittain

Figure 1 Spectroscopic apparatus of the type used by Newton to observe the splitting of
sunlight into visible colors.

theory of electromagnetic radiation. In this theory, electromagnetic radiation is
described entirely by a wave theory that associated oscillating electric and magnetic fields with the radiation. Ordinary radiation traveling along the z-axis can be
treated in terms of electric (E) and magnetic (H) fields that are mutually perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation. Polarized light is then

considered to be the electromagnetic radiation whose electric and magnetic
vectors are constrained to vibrate in a single plane parallel to the z-axis. These
relationships are illustrated in Figure 2.
An electric charge has an electric field associated with it, which radiates
outward in a uniform manner from its center. If this charge moves with constant
velocity or is at rest, then the spherical symmetry of the field is preserved. If the
charge accelerates, the field will tend to lag behind, because it will take time to
accommodate itself to the changing velocity of the charge. This change causes a
disturbance in the direction of the field, which radiates out as a spherical front
into the surrounding space. This disturbance, which is propagated with a definite
velocity, c, constitutes electromagnetic radiation. It has been found that this velocity is constant for all electromagnetic radiation in a vacuum, having a value of
c ¼ 2.998 Â 108 m/sec.
By convention, electromagnetic radiation is taken to propagate along the
z-axis, and the oscillation of the electric and magnetic fields lies in the xz- and
yz-planes. The associated electric field strength vector varies sinusoidally in
phase with the oscillating dipole, and the energy spreads outward as a continuous
train of electromagnetic radiation, polarized along the direction of oscillation.

Figure 2

Illustration of the wave nature of electromagnetic radiation.

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC


Electromagnetic Radiation and Spectroscopy

3

The value of the electric field strength vector, E, along the z-axis at a given time

and position on the z-axis is given by:
E ¼ Eo cos 2p n(t À z=c)

(1)

where Eo is a vector that defines the amplitude of the electric field, and n is the
frequency of the electromagnetic radiation.
One often finds it convenient to characterize electromagnetic radiation by
the distance between equivalent points along the traveling wave, a parameter
known as the wavelength, l. In any homogenous medium of refractive index,
n, the velocity of propagation is now given by c/n. Consequently the frequency
and the wavelength are interrelated by:
c ¼ nnl

(2)

A unit that has found extensive use for the description of certain types of
electromagnetic radiation is the wavenumber, which is defined as the number
˜ , is obtained
of waves contained in a path length of 1 cm. The wavenumber, w
as the reciprocal of the wavelength, so that:
w~ ¼ 1=l ¼ n=c

(3)

As mentioned before, there is a magnetic field lying in a plane perpendicular to the electric vector, associated with the oscillating electric field, and oscillating in phase with it. The amplitude of the two fields are not independent and
are related by:
Eo =Ho ¼ (m=1)1=2

(4)

where Ho is a vector that defines the amplitude of the magnetic field, m is the magnetic permeability, and 1 is the dielectric constant of the medium in which the
radiation is propagating.
The spectrum of electromagnetic radiation is divided into various regions
for convenience, and definitions for these are given in Table 1. Most spectroscopists delineate a particular region by its wavelength interval, and it is clear from
the table that the preferred SI unit of the meter is only convenient for radiowaves.
In the ultraviolet and visible regions, one finds it more convenient instead to
specify wavelengths in units of nanometers.
Micrometers are more appropriate for the infrared (IR) region, and centimeters best describe wavelengths in the microwave portion of the spectrum.
As will be developed in succeeding chapters, each spectral region is characterized
by electromagnetic radiation having a given energy, and the magnitude of this
energy determines the nature of its interaction with atoms and molecules.
CLASSICAL DESCRIPTION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
RADIATION
In the classical world, a molecule had to contain either a permanent or transient
dipole moment in order to interact with electromagnetic radiation. A bond
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC


4

Table 1

Spectral Regions of Electromagnetic Radiation

Electromagnetic
radiation type

g-ray
X-Ray

Ultraviolet
Far
Near
Visible
Infrared
Near
Mid
Far
Microwave
Radiowave

Wavelength (m)

Wavenumber (cm21)

Frequency (Hz)

Less than 1.0 Â 10210
1.0 Â 10210 to 1.0 Â 1028

Greater than 100,000,000
1,000,000 to 100,000,000

Greater than 3.0 Â 1018
3.0 Â 1016 to 3.0 Â 1018

1.0 Â 1028 to 2.0 Â 1027
(10 to 200 nm)
2.0 Â 1027 to 4.0 Â 1027
(200 to 400 nm)

4.0 Â 1027 to 7.5 Â 1027
(400 to 750 nm)

50,000 to 1,000,000

1.5 Â 1015 to 3.0 Â 1016

25,000 to 50,000

7.5 Â 1014 to 1.5 Â 1015

13,350 to 25,000

4.0 Â 1014 to 7.5 Â 1014

7.5 Â 1027 to 2.5 Â 1026
(0.75 to 2.5 mm)
2.5 Â 1026 to 2.5 Â 1025
(2.5 to 25 mm)
2.5 Â 1025 to 4.0 Â 1024
(25 to 400 mm)
4.0 Â 1024 to 1.0 Â 100
(0.04 to 100 cm)
Greater than 1

4,000 to 13,350

1.2 Â 1014 to 4.0 Â 1014

400 to 4000

1.2 Â 1013 to 1.2 Â 1014

25 to 400

7.5 Â 1011 to 1.2 Â 1013

0.01 to 25

3.0 Â 108 to 7.5 Â 1011

Less than 0.01

Less than 3.0 Â 108
Brittain

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC


Electromagnetic Radiation and Spectroscopy

5

formed between atoms having different electronegativity values results in a
charge separation and in the formation of a permanent electric dipole. The
total electric moment, P, of a molecule involves a summation of charge
separations over all the electronic and nuclear coordinates:
X
P¼
qi r i

(5)
i

where qi defines the magnitude of charges separated by a distance ri. To a first
approximation, one can assume that the nuclear coordinates are fixed and that
inner-shell electrons have a spherical charge distribution. Therefore, the major
contribution to the total electric moment arises from the electronic cloud of the
bonding and nonbonding valence electrons. The total electric dipole moment
of a polyatomic molecule is properly obtained as the resultant from the vectorial
addition of the products of the time-averaged electronic and nuclear coordinates,
and their corresponding charges, over the entire molecule. Molecules that possess
a permanent dipole moment are said to be polar.
Neutral atoms or molecules that have a symmetrical charge distribution
cannot yield a permanent dipole moment and are termed nonpolar. However,
when such species are placed in an electric field, both the electronic and
nuclear charge distributions become distorted, resulting in an induced dipole
moment. For symmetrical atoms or molecules, the magnitude of the induced
moment is proportional to the strength of the external field. The proportionality
constant in the relationship is the polarizability (a) and will consist of contributions from the atomic and electronic polarizabilities.
The classical description as to how atoms and molecules interact with electromagnetic radiation becomes a determination as to the circumstances whereby
electric dipole absorption or emission can occur. For example, during the rotation
of a polar molecule, the change in its dipole moment will be solely a consequence
of the change in orientation. If there is no molecular electric dipole moment, then
there can be no interaction with the radiation field. If radiation is to be absorbed
or emitted, the distortion associated with a molecular vibration must give rise to a
change in the magnitude of the dipole moment. Changes in magnetic dipole
moment can also give rise to absorption or emission through an interaction
with the magnetic vector in the radiation, but the observed intensity will be
many orders of magnitude lower than for the electric dipole case. Such interactions will be seen, however, to be of central importance for nuclear magnetic
resonance and electron paramagnetic resonance.

Unfortunately for the workers in the late 1800s, the Maxwell theory was
maddeningly vague as to the intimate details of the mechanisms whereby electromagnetic radiation interacted with atoms and molecules. However, the most
important property of electromagnetic radiation was that the waves conveyed
energy. This energy (w, in units of ergs/cm) was distributed in space at the rate of:
w¼

1E2 þ mH2
8p

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(6)


6

Brittain

In this description, 1E 2 ¼ mH 2 (i.e., the amounts of electric and magnetic
energies are equal), so:
w ¼ 1E2 =4p

(7)

This energy density is carried along with the waves but is not really the parameter
of importance. What one really needs to know is the amount of energy that flows
per second across the unit area of a plane drawn perpendicular to the direction of
wave propagation. This quantity is the intensity, I. As mentioned earlier, the wave
moves through a medium with a velocity given by c/n, so integration of the motion
equation yields:

I ¼ (cw)=n

(8)

One may take advantage of the fact that w is defined by Equation (7), and
that 1 ¼ n 2, to obtain:
I ¼ cE2 =4p

(9)

Since E is defined by Equation (1), one may determine that the average intensity of
the waves is given by:
I ¼ cnE2o =8p

(10)

The classical laws of mechanical and electromagnetic theory permit a
discussion of the emission and absorption of electromagnetic radiation by a
system of electrically charged particles. According to the classical theory,
the rate of emission of radiant energy by an accelerated particle of electric
charge, q, is:
À

dE 2q2 a~ 2
¼
dt
3c3

(11)

in which 2dE/dt is the rate at which the energy, E, of the particle is converted
into radiant energy, and a˜ is the acceleration of the particle.
First, consider a special system in which a particle of charge q carries out
simple harmonic oscillation, with frequency, n, along the x-axis. The equation
describing this harmonic motion is given by:
x ¼ Xo cos (2pnt)

(12)

Differentiating Equation (12), and assuming that the amplitude factor Xo
is independent of time, we obtain an equation describing the acceleration of
this particle:
a~ ¼ À4p2 n2 X o cos (2pnt)

(13)

The average rate of emission of radiant energy by such a system is consequently:
À

dE 16p4 q2 n4 X2o
¼
dt
3c3

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(14)


Electromagnetic Radiation and Spectroscopy

7

As a result of the emission of energy, the amplitude factor Xo of the motion must
decrease with time, but if the fractional change in energy during a cycle of the
motion is small, Equation (14) retains its validity. The radiation emitted by
such a system has the frequency, n, of the emitting system. It is plane-polarized,
with the plane of the electric vector being the plane defined by the x-axis and the
direction of propagation of the light.
In case the particle carries out independent harmonic oscillations along all
three Cartesian axes, this motion would be characterized by respective frequencies of nX, nY, and nZ and amplitudes of Xo, Yo, and Zo. In that case, the total rate
of emission of radiant energy would be given as the sum of three terms similar to
the right side of Equation (14). If the motion of the particle cannot be described as
simple harmonic, it can be represented by Fourier series or as Fourier integral as a
sum or integral of harmonic terms similar to that of Equation (12). Light having a
frequency characteristic of each of these terms will then be emitted at a rate given
by Equation (14) but with the coefficient of the Fourier term being introduced in
place of Xo.
The emission of light by a system composed of several interacting electrically charged particles is handled in an analogous fashion. A Fourier analysis is
first made of the motion of the system in a given state to resolve it into harmonic
terms. For a given term, corresponding to a particular frequency of motion, n, the
coefficient resulting from the analysis (which is a function of the coordinates of
the particles) is expanded as a power series in the quantities xn/l, yn/l, and zn/l.
xn, yn, and zn are the coordinates of the particles relative to some origin, and l is
the wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation. The zeroth-degree term in this
expansion must equal zero, because the electric charge distribution of the system
does not change with time. The first-degree term of the expansion involves
(in addition to the harmonic function of time) only a function of the spatial
coordinates. The aggregate of these first-degree terms in the coordinates with
their associated time factors, summed over all frequency values occurring in the

original Fourier analysis, represents a dynamical quantity known as the electric
moment of the system. This quantity has already been defined in Equation (5).
To the degree that classical theory is applicable, the radiation emitted by a
system of several particles can be discussed by performing a Fourier analysis of
the electric moment. Corresponding to each frequency term in this representation
of P, radiation will be emitted having a frequency n. The rate of this emission is
given by an expression similar to that of Equation (14) but with the term (qXo)
being replaced by the Fourier coefficient in the electric moment expansion.
The emission of radiation by this mechanism is usually called dipole emission,
with the radiation itself sometimes being described as dipole radiation.
However, as shall be discussed in the next section, experimental developments and theoretical explanations arose around the beginning of the twentieth
century that amply demonstrated the absolute inadequacy of classical theories
to explain the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with atoms and molecules.
Hanna, in his treatise Quantum Mechanics in Chemistry, has succinctly
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC