Facts on file encyclopedia volume i the ancient world prehistoric eras to 600 CE

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
WORLD HISTORY
The Ancient World
Prehistoric Eras to 600 c.e.

VOLUME I


ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
WORLD HISTORY
Volume I
The Ancient World
Prehistoric Eras to 600 c.e.
Volume II
The Expanding World
600 c.e. to 1450
Volume III
The First Global Age
1450 to 1750
Volume IV
Age of Revolution and Empire
1750 to 1900
Volume V
Crisis and Achievement
1900 to 1950
Volume VI
The Contemporary World
1950 to the Present
Volume VII
Primary Documents
Master Index

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
WORLD HISTORY
The Ancient World
Prehistoric Eras to 600 c.e.

VOLUME I
edited by
Marsha E. Ackermann
Michael J. Schroeder
Janice J. Terry
Jiu-Hwa Lo Upshur
Mark F. Whitters


Encyclopedia of World History
Copyright © 2008 by Marsha E. Ackermann, Michael J. Schroeder, Janice J. Terry, Jiu-Hwa Lo
Upshur, and Mark F. Whitters
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Encyclopedia of world history / edited by Marsha E. Ackermann . . . [et al.].

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1. World history—Encyclopedias. I. Ackermann, Marsha E.

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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
WORLD HISTORY
Volume I
CONTENTS
About the Editors
Foreword
Historical Atlas
List of Articles
List of Contributors
Chronology
Major Themes
Articles A to Z
Resource Guide
Index

vi
vii
viii

ix
xiii
xvii
xxix
1
509
513


About the Editors
Marsha E. Ackermann received a Ph.D. in American culture from the University of Michigan. She
is the author of the award-winning book Cool Comfort: America’s Romance with Air-Conditioning
and has taught U.S. history and related topics at the University of Michigan, Michigan State University, and Eastern Michigan University.
Michael J. Schroeder received a Ph.D. in history from the University of Michigan and currently
teaches at Eastern Michigan University. Author of the textbook The New Immigrants: Mexican
Americans, he has published numerous articles on Latin American history.
Janice J. Terry received a Ph.D. from the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of
London, and is professor emeritus of Middle East history at Eastern Michigan University. Her
latest book is U.S. Foreign Policy in the Middle East: The Role of Lobbies and Special Interest
Groups. She is also a coauthor of the world history textbooks The 20th Century: A Brief Global
History and World History.
Jiu-Hwa Lo Upshur received a Ph.D. from the University of Michigan and is professor emeritus of
Chinese history at Eastern Michigan University. She is a coauthor of the world history textbooks
The 20th Century: A Brief Global History and World History.
Mark F. Whitters received a Ph.D. in religion and history from the Catholic University of America
and currently teaches at Eastern Michigan University. His publications include The Epistle of Second Baruch: A Study in Form and Message.

vi

Foreword
The seven-volume Encyclopedia of World History is a comprehensive reference to the most important events, themes, and personalities in world history. The encyclopedia covers the entire range
of human history in chronological order—from the prehistoric eras and early civilizations to our
contemporary age—using six time periods that will be familiar to students and teachers of world
history. This reference work provides a resource for students—and the general public—with content that is closely aligned to the National Standards for World History and the College Board’s
Advanced Placement World History course, both of which have been widely adopted by states and
school districts.
This encyclopedia is one of the first to offer a balanced presentation of human history for a truly
global perspective of the past. Each of the six chronological volumes begins with an in-depth essay
that covers five themes common to all periods of world history. They discuss such important issues
as technological progress, agriculture and food production, warfare, trade and cultural interactions,
and social and class relationships. These major themes allow the reader to follow the development
of the world’s major regions and civilizations and make comparisons across time and place.
The encyclopedia was edited by a team of five accomplished historians chosen for being specialists in different areas and eras of world history, as well as for having taught world history in the
classroom. They and many other experts are responsible for writing the approximately 2,000 signed
entries based on the latest scholarship. Additionally, each article is cross-referenced with relevant
other ones in that volume. A chronology is included to provide students with a chronological reference to major events in the given era. In each volume an array of full-color maps provides geographic context, while numerous illustrations provide visual contexts to the material. Each article
also concludes with a bibliography of several readily available pertinent reference works in English.
Historical documents included in the seventh volume provide the reader with primary sources, a
feature that is especially important for students. Each volume also includes its own index, while the
seventh volume contains a master index for the set.

Marsha E. Ackermann
Michael J. Schroeder
Janice J. Terry
Jiu-Hwa Lo Upshur
Mark F. Whitters
Eastern Michigan University

vii

Historical Atlas
List of Maps
The World: From Prehistory to 10,000 b.c.e.
The Beginning of Agriculture, 9000–500 b.c.e.
Civilizations in Europe and Asia, 3500–1500 b.c.e.
Ancient Mesopotamia, 3000–2000 b.c.e.
Ancient Egypt, 2795–1640 b.c.e.
Babylonian Empire, c. 1750–c. 1595 b.c.e.
Egyptian Asiatic Empire under Tuthmosis III, 1450 b.c.e.
Trade Routes of the Mycenaeans and Minoans
Ancient Palestine, 925–722 b.c.e.
Asian Empires, 600 b.c.e.
Assyrian and Babylonian Empires, 950–539 b.c.e.
The Persian Empire
Greek and Phoenician Routes, c. 500 b.c.e.
Persian Wars, 492–479 b.c.e.
Greece during the Peloponnesian War, 431–404 b.c.e.
Macedonia under Philip II, 359–336 b.c.e.
The Empire of Alexander the Great, 334–323 b.c.e.
Hellenistic World, c. 300 b.c.e.
The Punic Wars, 264–200 b.c.e.
Roman Expansion, 240 b.c.e.–30 c.e.
The Mauryan Empire, 325–260 b.c.e.
Palestine at the Time of Christ
China during the Han Dynasty, 202 b.c.e.–250 c.e.
Trade Routes of the First Century c.e.
Farthest Extent of the Roman Empire, under Emperor Hadrian, 117–138 c.e.
Crisis of the Third Century, 250–271 c.e.

The Roman Empire under the Tetrarchy, c. 300 c.e.
Parthia and the Sassanid Empire, 114–628 c.e.
The Rise of Constantine, 306–324 c.e.
Barbarian Invasions and Settlements
Byzantine Empire under Justinian, 527–567 c.e.
Major Religions in the Eastern Hemisphere, c. 600 c.e.

viii

M1
M2
M3
M4
M5
M6
M7
M8
M9
M10
M11
M12
M13
M14
M15
M16
M17
M18
M19
M20
M21

M22
M23
M24
M25
M26
M27
M28
M29
M30
M31
M32


List of Articles
A
Adrianople, Battle of (378 c.e.)
Aeneid
Aeschylus
Aesop
African city-states
African religious traditions
Ahab and Jezebel
Akhenaten and Nefertiti
Akkad
Alcibiades
Alexander the Great
Alexandria
Alexandrian literature
Ambrose
Andes: Neolithic

Antonine emperors
Anyang
apocalypticism, Jewish and
Christian
Apostles, Twelve
Arabia, pre-Islamic
Aramaeans
Archaic Greece
Arianism
Aristophanes

Aristotle
Ark of the Covenant
Armenia
Artaxerxes
Aryan invasion
Ashoka
Assyria
Athanasius
Athenian predemocracy
Augustine of Hippo
Aurelius, Marcus
Axial Age and cyclical
theories
B
Babylon, early period
Babylon, later periods
Bactria
Bamiyan Valley
Ban Biao (Pan Piao)

Baruch
Basil the Great
Benedict
Bhagavad Gita
Bible translations
Boethius

Book of the Dead
Boudicca
Brendan the Navigator
Buddhism in China
Buddhist councils
Byblos
Byzantine-Persian wars
C
Caesar, Augustus
Caesar, Julius
Cambyses II
Cappadocians
Caracalla, Edict of (212 c.e.)
Carthage
caste
Cato, Marcus Porcius (the Younger)
cave paintings
Celts
Ceylon
Chandragupta II
Chang’an
choregic poetry
Choson

Christian Dualism (Gnosticism)
Christianity, early
ix


x

List of Articles

Chrysostom, John
Cicero
classical art and architecture, Greek
Classical Period, Greek
Cleisthenes
Clement of Alexandria
Code of Justinian
Confucian Classics
Confucianism as a state ideology
Confucius
Constantine the Great
Constantinople
Coptic Christian Church
cuneiform
Cyclades
Cyril of Alexandria
Cyrus II
D
Damascus and Aleppo
Daoism (Taoism)
Darius I

David
Delphic oracle
Demosthenes
Desert Fathers and Mothers
Deuteronomy
Dharma Sutras
Diadochi
Diocletian
Dravidians
Druids and Picts
Duke of Zhou (Chou)
Dunhuang (Tun-huang)
E
Ebla
Edessa
Egeria
Egypt, culture and religion
Elam
Eleusis
Ephesus and Chalcedon, Councils of
Ephrem
Epicureanism
Era of Division (China)
Essenes
Esther, book of
Ethiopia, ancient
Etruscans
Euripides

Eusebius

Ezana
F
Fa Xian (Fa-hsien)
Fertile Crescent
First Americans
Flavian emperors
food gatherers and producers,
prehistory
G
Gandhara
Ganjin
Gaul
Gautama Buddha
Georgia, ancient
Gilgamesh
Gracchi
Great Wall of China
Greek Church
Greek city-states
Greek colonization
Greek drama
Greek mythology and pantheon
Greek oratory and rhetoric
Gregory the Great
Guangwu (Kuang-wu)
Gupta Empire
gymnasium and athletics
H
Hadrian
Hagia Sophia

Han dynasty
Hannibal
Han Wudi (Han Wu-ti)
Helena
Helen of Troy
Hellenistic art
Hellenization
heresies
Herodotus, Thucydides, and
Xenophon
Herods
Hesiod
Hezekiah
hieroglyphics
Hindu philosophy
Hippocrates, Galen, and the
Greek physicians

Hittites
Homeric epics
Hundred Schools of Philosophy
Huns
Hurrians
Hyksos
I
imperial cult, Roman
Indo-Europeans
Indus civilization
Israel and Judah
J

Jainism
Jerome
Jesus (Christ) of Nazareth
Jewish revolts
Job and theodicy
John the Baptist
Jomon culture
Josephus, Flavius
Josiah
Judah ha-Nasi
Judaism, early (heterodoxies)
Judges
Julian the Apostate
Julio-Claudian emperors
Justinian I
K
Kama Sutra
Kanishka
Kautilya
Khosrow I
Kija
Kingdom of God
King’s Highway and Way of the Sea
Kush
Kushan Empire
L
Laozi (Lao Tzu) and Zhuangzi
(Chuang Tzu)
late barbarians
Latin Church

Legalism
legionaries
Leonidas
Leo the Great
libraries, ancient


List of Articles
Libya
Linear A and B
Liu Bang (Liu Pang)
Lo-lang
Lu, Empress
Lucian
Luoyang (Loyang)
lyric poetry
M
Ma Yuan
Maccabees
Mahabharata
Maotun (Mao-t’un)
Marathon, Battle of (490 b.c.e.)
Marcellinus, Ammianus
Mari
Marius and Sulla
martyrologies
Mauryan Empire
Maximus the Confessor
Maya: Classic Period
Maya: Preclassic Period

Medes, Persians, Elamites
Megasthenes
Mencius
Meng Tian (Meng T’ien)
Meroë
Mesoamerica: Archaic and
Preclassic Periods
Mesoamerica: Classic Period
messianism
Middle Kingdom, Egypt
migration patterns of the Americas
Milan, Edict of (313 c.e.)
Minoans
Mishnah
Mittani
Mohenjo-Daro
monasticism
Moses
Mozi (Mo Tzu)
Mycenae
mystery cults
N
Nabataeans
Native Americans: chronologies
and peoples
Native Americans: regional
adaptations

xi

Nebuchadnezzar II
Neolithic age
Neoplatonism
Nero
Nestorius and the Nestorian
Church
New Comedy
New Kingdom, Egypt
Nicaea, Council of
Nineveh
Nubia

Pompeii and Herculaneum
Pompey
Pontius Pilate
pre-Socratic philosophy
prophets
Psalms
Pseudepigrapha and the Apocrypha
Ptolemies
pyramids of Giza
Pyrrhus
Pythagoras

O
Odovacar
Old Kingdom, Egypt
Olmecs
Olympic Games
Oriental Orthodox Churches

Origen
Ostracism
Ostrogoths and Lombards

Q
Qin (Ch’in) dynasty
Qumran

P
paideia
paleoanthropology
Paleolithic age
Palmyra
Panathenaic Festival
Parthenon
Pataliputra
Patriarchs, biblical
patricians
Patrick
Paul
Pax Romana
Peisistratus
Peloponnesian War
Pericles
persecutions of the church
Persepolis, Susa, and Ecbatana
Persian invasions
Persian myth
Petronius
pharaoh

Pharisees
Philip of Macedon
Philo
Phoenician colonies
pilgrimage
Platonism
polis

R
Ramayana
Ramses I
Ramses II
Ravenna
Red Eyebrow Rebellion
religious inclinations, prehistory
Roman Empire
Roman golden and silver ages
Roman historians
Roman pantheon and myth
Roman poetry
Rome: buildings, engineers
Rome: decline and fall
Rome: founding
Rome: government
Rosetta Stone
S
Sadducees
Sakyas
San and Khoi tribes
Sanskrit

Sappho
Sargon of Akkad
Sassanid Empire
Saul
scribes
Sea Peoples
Second Sophistic
Seleucid Empire
Seneca
Septimus Severus
Servant Songs of Isaiah
Shang dynasty


xii

List of Articles

Shintoism
Silk Road
Sima Qian (Ssu-ma Ch’ien)
Simeon the Stylite
Sinai, Mount
Six Schools of classical Hindu
philosophy
Socrates
Soga clan
Sogdians
Solomon
Solon

sophism
Sophocles
Spartacus
Stoicism
Suiko
Sumer
Sunzi (Sun Tzu)
Syracuse
Syriac culture and church
T
Talmud
Tantrism
Teotihuacán
Tetrarchy
Thebes

Themistocles
Theodoric
Theodosius I
Theravada and Mahayana
Buddhism
Three Kingdoms, China
Three Kingdoms, Korea
Toba (T’o-pa) dynasty
Torah
Trajan
Tripitaka
Triumvirate
Troy
Trung sisters

Turabdin
U
Ugarit
Ulfilas
Ur
V
Vardhamana Mahavira
Vedas
Vedic age
Vercingetorix
Visigoth kingdom of
Spain

W
Wang Mang
Wei Man (Wiman)
Wen and Wu
wisdom literature
X
Xerxes
Xia (Hsia) dynasty
Xiang Yu (Hsiang Yu)
Xiongnu (Hsiung-nu)
Xunzi (Hsun Tzu)
Y
Yamato clan and state
Yao, Shun, and Yu
Yayoi culture
Yellow Emperor (Huangdi
or Huang Ti)

Yellow Turban Rebellion
Yemen
Yuezhi (Yueh-chih)
Z
Zakkai, Yohanan ben
Zhang Qian (Chang Ch’ien)
Zhou (Chou) dynasty
Zoroastrianism


List of Contributors
Shelley Allsop
Deakin University

William E. Burns
George Washington University

George Raleigh Derr III
Explorer Charter School

Mehrdad Amiri
Independent Scholar

R. O’Brian Carter
Berry College

Stefano Fait
University of St. Andrews

John H. Barnhill

Independent Scholar

P. Richard Choi
Andrews University

Peter Feinman
Institute of History, Archaeology,
and Education

James S. Baugess
Columbus State Community
College

Brian A. Cogan
Molloy College

Melissa Benne
St. Charles Community College
Mark Aaron Bond
Independent Scholar
Dewayne Bryant
Regions University

Justin Corfield
Geelong Grammar School
Kevin Daugherty
Department of Resource
Development, Pokagon
Band, Potawatomi
Indians

Scott Fitzsimmons
University of Calgary, Canada
Allen Fromherz
University of St. Andrews
Silvana A. Gaeta
University of Buenos Aires
Joseph R. Gerber
Regis University

Emiliano J. Buis
University of Buenos Aires

Tim Davis
Columbus State Community
College

Mohammad Gharipour
Georgia Institute of Technology

John Barclay Burns
George Mason University

Abbe Allen DeBolt
Ohio University

Gertrude Gillette
Ava Maria University
xiii

xiv

List of Contributors

James A. Grady
Vanderbilt University

Faramarz Khojasteh
Independent Scholar

Annette Richardson
Independent Scholar

Stephen Griffin
San Diego State University

Bill Kte’pi
Independent Scholar

James Roames
University of Toronto

Lowell Handy
American Theological Library
Association

Jody Vaccaro Lewis
Dominican House of Studies,
Washington, D.C.

Aaron D. Rubin
Penn State University

Angela Kim Harkins
Fairfield University

Kirk R. MacGregor
University of Iowa

Franklin T. Harkins
Fordham University

Leo J. Mahoney
Mohave Community College

Alecia Harper
University of South Carolina
Matthew T. Herbst
University of California, San Diego
John Hobbins
Independent Scholar
Arthur Holst
Widener University
Cornelia Horn
St. Louis University
Adam R. Hornbuckle
Independent Scholar
Jeffrey M. Hunt
Brown University

Joel Itzkowitz
Wayne State University
Russell James
University of West Florida
Mark D. Janzen
University of Memphis
Vickey Kalambakal
Independent Scholar
Daniel A. Keating
Sacred Heart Seminary

Jonah B. Mancini
Trinity Evangelical Divinity
School, Hebrew University
Patit Paban Mishra
Sambalpur University
Diego I. Murguia
University of Buenos Aires

Philip C. Schmitz
Eastern Michigan University
M. J. Schroeder
Eastern Michigan University
Matt J. Schumann
Eastern Michigan University
Marc Schwarz
University of New
Hampshire
James E. Seelye, Jr.
University of Toledo

John F. Murphy, Jr.
American Military University

Grant R. Shafer
Washtenaw Community
College

Steve Napier
Miami University, Ohio

Trevor Shelley
Independent Scholar

M. O’Connor
Catholic University
of America

Eric Smith
Nebraska Christian College

Andrew Pettman
Independent Scholar

Olena V. Smyntyna
Mechnikov National
University

Robert R. Phenix, Jr.
St. Louis University

Jason A. Staples
University of Calgary

Elizabeth Purdy
Independent Scholar

Samaya L. Sukha
University of Melbourne

Sadhansu S. Rath
Sambalpur University

Janice J. Terry
Eastern Michigan University

Khodadad Rezakhani
University of California,
Los Angeles

Lana Thompson
Florida Atlantic
University


List of Contributors
William P. Toth
Bowling Green State University

John Walsh

Shinawatra University

Mark F. Whitters
Eastern Michigan University

S-C Kevin Tsai
Indiana University

Andrew J. Waskey
Dalton State University

Nurfadzilah Yahaya
National University of Singapore

Dallace W. Unger, Jr.
Colorado State University

John Zhu-En Wee
Yale University

Bruce T. Yocum
Independent Scholar

Jiu-Hwa Lo Upshur
Eastern Michigan University

Michael Wert
University of California, Irvine

Lilian H. Zirpolo

Rutgers University

xv



Chronology
2,000,000 B.C.E. First Genus Homo Emerges
First example of early humanoids emerge in Africa.
1,000,000 B.C.E. Premodern Humans Migrate out of Africa
Prehumans move from Africa into West Asia and
elsewhere.
100,000 B.C.E. Homo sapiens in East Africa
Homo sapiens communities are established in East
Africa.
40,000 B.C.E. Paleolithic Era
Paleolithic era lasts to about 10,000 when Mesolithic
era begins.
7000 B.C.E. Neolithic Era in Fertile Crescent
Neolithic societies based on agriculture emerge in the
Fertile Crescent, present-day Iraq and Syria.

4400 B.C.E. Horses Domesticated
The domestication of horses provides an important
new mode of transportation.
3500 B.C.E. Cuneiform Writing
The Sumerians, in present-day Iraq, are the first group
to develop a written script called cuneiform. Archaeologists have discovered thousands of clay tablets
with Sumerian cuneiform writing on them.
3500 B.C.E. Bronze Made

Bronze is made for the first time in a process whereby
copper is combined with tin to create a new metal
that can be used in many tools.
3500 B.C.E. Sumerian Civilization
Sumerian civilization, with city-states and agriculture
with irrigation systems, is established in the Fertile
Crescent.

6000 B.C.E. Neolithic Societies in Europe, Asia, and
Western Hemisphere
Neolithic cultures spread around the world.

3250 B.C.E. Paper Made of Papyrus Reed
The first known paper is produced in Egypt.

5500 B.C.E. Egyptians Weave Flax into Fabric
In Egypt, flax threads are woven together to create
fabric for the first time.

3200. B.C.E. South America
Beginnings of complex societies along the northern
Peruvian Pacific coast.
xvii


xviii

Chronology

3200 B.C.E. Hieroglyphic Writing

The Egyptians develop hieroglyphic writing. This
style was gradually replaced by the Greek system.

2340 B.C.E. Sargon, King of Akkad
Sargon builds Akkad as the new seat of government
and unites all of the Sumerian cities into one centrally
organized empire.

3050–2890 B.C.E. Egypt’s First Dynasty
King Menes creates the first dynasty of Egypt and
unites Egypt into a single kingdom, bringing together
the two separate Lower and Upper kingdoms.

2205–1766 B.C.E. Xia Dynasty
Founded by Emperor Yu, it is traditionally accepted
as China’s first historic dynasty.

3000 B.C.E. First Chariots
The first known use of wheels for transport occurs in
Sumer; they are used both for transport and on early
chariots.

2060 B.C.E. Third Dynasty of Ur Founded (Sumeria)
Ur-Nammu of Ur seizes power from Utukhegal and
creates a new Sumerian dynasty. Under his son Shulgi
the empire of Ur extends as far as Anatolia.

2900 B.C.E. Great Pyramid Built
The Great Pyramid of Khufu (Cheops) at Giza outside present-day Cairo is built around 2900. It takes
4,000 stonemasons and as many as 100,000 laborers

to build the pyramid.

2055 B.C.E. Mentuhotep II Reunifies Egypt
After a period of strife between the nobles and the
kings known as the First Intermediate Period, King
Mentuhotep reunites the kingdom under a new
dynasty.

2900 B.C.E. Indus Valley
Civilization begins in the Indus Valley. Most of the
peoples of the Harappan civilization live either near
or in the city of Harappa or Mohenjo-Daro.

2000 B.C.E. Great Stone Palaces at Knossos
The stone palaces at Knossos and Malia are built on
Crete at around 2000.

2700 B.C.E. Epic of Gilgamesh
In the Fertile Crescent, the epic poem on the founding
of Uruk, the first major city, is created.

2000 B.C.E. Babylonians Develop Mathematic System
The Babylonians develop a mathematical system
based on units of 60. They also divide a circle into a
360 units.

2700 B.C.E. Founding of China
Chinese mythical ruler Yellow Emperor becomes leader
of tribes along the Yellow River plain. Chinese writers
accept him as the founder of the Chinese nation.

2000 B.C.E. Preclassic Period in Maya Zones
Permanent settlements mark the emergence of the
Early Preclassic Period in the Maya zones of Mesoamerica.

2700 B.C.E. Early Minoan Culture
The Minoan civilization emerges on the island of Crete.

1991–1786 B.C.E. Amenemhat I Founds the Middle
Kingdom
Amenemhat I reduces the power of the nobles and
establishes a strong central government.

2686–2613 B.C.E. Egypt’s Third Dynasty
The Third Dynasty is founded by Pharaoh Djoser.
2613–2498 B.C.E. Egypt’s Fourth Dynasty
The Fourth Dynasty is founded by the Pharaoh
Sneferu. He builds the pyramid at Dahshur.
2350–2198 B.C.E. Three Emperors of China
Period of the mythical Three Emperors—Yao, Shun, and
Yu —whose reigns are remembered as a golden age.
2341–2181 B.C.E. Egypt’s Sixth Dynasty
During the course of the Sixth Dynasty, the powers of
the pharaoh decrease. The growing power of the nobility limits the absolute power of the Egyptian kings.

1900 B.C.E. Cotton Used for Textiles in Asia and Fishnets in Peru
Beginning around 1900 b.c.e., the Harappans begin
growing and weaving cotton into fabric; Pacific
Coast polities in central Peru continue growing and
weaving cotton into fishnets, providing a maritime

basis for the emergence of Andean civilizations.
1900 B.C.E. Mycenaeans Arrive in Greece
Around 1900 b.c.e., the Mycenaeans arrive from the
north and gain control of Greece. This is the period
of Greek history written about by Homer and known
as the Heroic period or Mycenaean age.


Chronology

xix

1900 B.C.E. Middle Minoan Culture
Minoan culture reaches its high point with the construction of great palaces at Phaistos.

1375–1360 B.C.E. Akhenaten IV
In 1379, Akhenaten IV becomes pharaoh and the
Egyptian Empire begins to weaken.

1766–1122 B.C.E. Shang Dynasty
The Shang dynasty under Tang the Successful replaces
the Xia in 1766. The 30 kings of Shang dynasty rule
a largely agricultural society that is established in the
Yellow River plain.

1300 B.C.E. Andean Civilizations
Beginnings of complex societies in the Lake Titicaca
Basin in the Andean highlands.

1792 B.C.E. Hammurabi Conquers Mesopotamia

Hammurabi extends the power of Babylon over all
of Mesopotamia and develops first codified law in
Hammurabi’s Code.
1720–1570 B.C.E. Hyskos Dynasties XV and XVI
Sensing the declining power of the Egyptian dynasties, the Hyksos invade Egypt from Syria-Palestine
and establish their capital at Avaris; they rule as if
they were Egyptian pharaohs.
1500 B.C.E. Aryans Conquer Harappan Civilization
The Harappan civilization declines before 1500 due
to natural causes. The weakened Harrappans are
quickly conquered by northern invaders from the Eurasian steppes known as Aryans. With it the Vedic age
begins.
1500–1000 B.C.E. Early Vedic Age in India
Indo-European or Aryan peoples spread across the
Indo-Gangetic plains in northern India.
1595 B.C.E. Hittites Conquer Babylon, Introduce Chariot Warfare
The Hittites, under the command of King Mursilis, combined with the Kassites, defeat the Babylonian army.
1580 B.C.E. New Kingdom of Egypt
The New Kingdom is established by the pharaoh
Ahmose who forces the Hyksos out of the Nile Delta
in 1570 b.c.e.
1540 B.C.E. Egyptians Defeat Nubians
Ahmose subjugates Nubia in present-day Sudan.
1450 B.C.E. Greeks Conquer Minoans
After trading with the Minoans for a long period of
time, the Mycenaeans conquer them.
1400 B.C.E. Iron Age in Western Asia
The use of iron by the Hittites gives them a military
advantage.

1288 B.C.E. Ramses II Fights the Hittites
Ramses II fights to regain control of the territory
seized by the Hittites. Ramses fights the Hittites at the
Battle of Kadesh.
1240 B.C.E. Philistine Kingdom Established
The Philistines establish themselves in the coastal
plain of present-day Israel.
1240–1100 B.C.E. Israelites Established
Tradition has it that the Israelites, after escaping from
Egypt, establish themselves in Canaan. The Israelites
organize into 12 tribes and take control of the land
through a combination of military victories and political assimilation.
1200 B.C.E. Olmec Civilization in Mexico and Central
America
Olmec culture flourishes from 1200 to 500 in Mesoamerica.
1186 B.C.E. Ramses III
Ramses III of the Twentieth Dynasty, the last powerful pharaoh of Egypt.
1184 B.C.E. Trojan War
Legend has it that the Greeks unite under the command of Agamemnon and attack Troy in Asia Minor.
After a long siege, the Trojans are forced to submit to
the Greeks.
1140 B.C.E. Second Babylonian Empire Begins
After an extended period of domination by the Kassites, the second Babylonian empire emerges.
1122–256 B.C.E. Zhou Dynasty in China
King Wu defeats the Shang dynasty and establishes
the Zhou dynasty.
1122–771 B.C.E. Western Zhou
After King Wu’s death, his brother the duke of
Zhou consolidates the power of the Zhou dynasty
under a feudal system that operates successfully

until 771.


xx

Chronology

1122 B.C.E. First Contact between China and Korea
Kija, a Shang prince, and his followers, fleeing the Zhou
conquerors, establish several settlements in Korea.
1100 B.C.E. Development of Phoenician Alphabet
Phoenicians inherit a script of consonants and add
vowels to form a basis for an alphabet.
1100 B.C.E. Hallstatt Culture
Iron is used for the first time in Austria. From Austria
the use of iron spreads throughout Europe.
1090 B.C.E. Nubia Becomes Independent
With the breakup of the New Kingdom, Nubia once
again becomes independent of Egypt.
1090 B.C.E. New Kingdom Dissolved
The end of the New Kingdom coincides with the end
of the Ramesid dynasty, and Egypt enters a long period
of turmoil.
1070 B.C.E. Collapse of Assyria
The Assyrian Empire collapses under the assault of
Aramaeans and Babylonians.
1050 B.C.E. Chavín Culture in Peru
Chavín civilization begins to extend over Peru.
1010 B.C.E. King Saul
Saul, the first king of the Israelites, is killed by the

Philistines and succeeded by King David.
1000 B.C.E. Middle Preclassic in Maya Zones
End of the Early Preclassic period and beginning of the
Middle Preclassic in the Maya zones of Mesoamerica.
995 B.C.E. King David Captures Jerusalem
King David captures the Jebusite city of Jerusalem
and makes the city the capital.
945–730 B.C.E. Libyans Rule Egypt
About 945, Libyan settlers, under Shishak, seize control of Egypt and found the Twenty-second Dynasty.
922 B.C.E. King Solomon
King Solomon reigns from 961 to 922. During his
reign, he consolidates the kingdom of Israel.
900 B.C.E. Etruria
The Etruscans spread in Italy, taking control and
forming a loosely connected league of cities.

814 B.C.E. Carthage Founded
Phoenicians, from present-day Lebanon, create a
colony at Carthage, in present-day Tunisia, and it
becomes an important world power in its own right.
800–300 B.C.E. Upanishads Written
Indian ascetics write a collection of 108 essays
on philosophy that are incorporated into Hindu
teachings.
800 B.C.E. Chavín Culture in Peru
Chavín culture complex emerges in Peruvian Central
Highlands and central Pacific coast regions.
780–560 B.C.E. Greek Colonies Established
The Greeks establish a series of colonies in Asia
Minor.

776 B.C.E. First Olympic Games
Sacred truces among the Greek city-states allow the
gathering of athletes for regular competitions.
770–256 B.C.E. Eastern Zhou
The Zhou capital at Hao is destroyed by invading
northern tribesmen. A new capital is established
to the east at Luoyang, starting the Eastern Zhou
period.
753 B.C.E. Rome Founded
Tradition has it that Rome was founded in 753; its
founder is Romulus, said to be the son of a princess
of Alba Longa.
747–716 B.C.E. Kushite Conquests in Egypt
The Kushite ruler Piy moves down the Nile from
present-day Sudan and conquers large parts of Egypt,
including Thebes and Memphis.
722 B.C.E. Kingdom of Israel Falls
After a three-year siege, Samaria (the capital of Israel)
falls to the Assyrians, who take some 20,000 Israelites into slavery.
707–696 B.C.E. Kushite Dynastic Rule over Egypt
King Shabako establishes rule over Egypt and adopts
many old Egyptian customs.
660 B.C.E. Empire of Japan Established
According to legend, Jimmu Tenno invades Japan’s
main island Honshu. There he establishes himself as
Japan’s first emperor. He creates the Yamato family


Chronology
and is believed to be a direct ancestor of Japan’s current emperor.

xxi

559 B.C.E. Cyrus the Great
Cyrus declares himself king of both Persia and
Media.

650–630 B.C.E. Second Messenian War
The Messenians led by Aristomenes revolt against
Sparta; after 20 years, Sparta subdues the rebellion
and reorganizes itself into a military state.

558 B.C.E. Zoroastrianism Is Founded
Zoroaster begins his work as a prophet for the religion of the Persians.

650 B.C.E. Assyrians Destroy Babylon
An attempted revolt against the Assyrians by the Babylonians results in the destruction of Babylon.

550 B.C.E. Laozi and Daoism
Laozi is the mythical founder of philosophy Daoism
and reputed author of its classic the Daodejing.

626 B.C.E. Chaldean Empire Founded by Nabopolasser
The Chaldeans take control of Babylon and establish
a new dynasty.

540–468 B.C.E. Mahavira Founds Jainism
Jainism is an extremely ascetic religion that offers an
alternative to Vedism-Hinduism.

621 B.C.E. Greek Lawgiver Draco
Athens is ruled by an oligarchy, but a nobleman,
Draco, is appointed to create a code of laws.

539 B.C.E. Cyrus Takes Jerusalem
Cyrus allows the Jews who had been conquered by
the Babylonians to return to Jerusalem after his defeat
of the Babylonians.

612 B.C.E. Nineveh Captured and Assyrian Empire Ends
Nineveh, the capital of Babylon, is captured by a
coalition of armies. The seizure of Nineveh is followed by the capture of Harran in 610, ending the
Assyrian Empire.
600–300 B.C.E. Hundred Schools of Philosophy in China
All China’s classical schools of philosophy develop
during this era of political division as the Eastern
Zhou kings lose power.
594 B.C.E. Solon Becomes Archon
Athens experiences a period of social and political upheaval and Solon, an esteemed Athenian, is
appointed ruler of Athens.
588 B.C.E. Nebuchadnezzar Takes Jerusalem; Babylonian Captivity
Nebuchadnezzar’s Babylonian army takes Jerusalem,
destroys the Jewish Temple, and takes many Jews into
captivity. He builds the Hanging Gardens of Babylon.
566 B.C.E. Gautama Buddha
Prince Siddhartha founds Buddhism, which rejects
the Vedic Hindu caste system and the Vedas.
560 B.C.E. Peisistratus Rules Athens
Following the resignation of Solon, Athens is governed by a group of leaders. One of them is Peisistratus, who makes three attempts to seize power, finally
succeeding on the third attempt.

525 B.C.E. Persians Conquer Egypt
The end of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty when the last
pharaoh is defeated by King Cambyses II of Persia.
521 B.C.E. Darius
Cyrus is succeeded by Darius I in 521. Darius spends
the first years of his administration suppressing
revolts that develop throughout the empire. Darius
reorganizes the Persian Empire into separate provinces, or satraps, each with its own governor and
tax system.
516 B.C.E. Darius Invades Indus Valley
Darius invades India, capturing the Indus Valley,
which is annexed to the Persian Empire.
509 B.C.E. Roman Republic Founded
The Roman Republic is founded, and Junius Brutus
and Tarquinius serve as the first consuls of Rome.
508 B.C.E. Athenian Democracy Established by Cleisthenes
Cleisthenes is appointed ruler, enacts fundamental
reforms that become the basis of the golden age of
Athens, and creates the assembly made up of Athenian males.
499 B.C.E. Greek City-States Revolt
The Ionian Greek city-states in Asian Minor revolt
against Persian rule.


xxii

Chronology

490 B.C.E. Battle of Marathon

The army of Athens and its allies meet the Persians on
the plains of Marathon, about 22 miles from Athens.
The decisive Greek victory at Marathon ends the
immediate Persian threat.
480 B.C.E. Thermopylae and Salamis
The Persians’ quest for world domination is stopped
for the second time, allowing the flowering of Greek
civilization, especially in Athens.
479 B.C.E. Founding of Confucianism
Confucius—China’s greatest philosopher—founds
the school of Confucianism, which becomes China’s
state philosophy in the second century b.c.e.
470–391 B.C.E. Moism Is Founded
Moism, a school of philosophy, is founded by Mozi.
It flourishes during the Hundred Schools era in China
and subsequently dies out.
460 B.C.E. Age of Pericles
The age of Pericles lasts from 461 (when Pericles
becomes the dominant politician in Athens) until 429.
It is a period of expanding democracy at home and
increasing imperialism abroad.
431–404 B.C.E. Peloponnesian War
For 27 years, Athens and Sparta engage in warfare.
The war ends with a Spartan victory.
429 B.C.E. Hippocratic Oath
Named after the famous Greek physician, the oath is
still taken by contemporary physicians.
400 B.C.E. Andean Civilizations
Decline of Chavín culture complex in Central Highlands and central Pacific coast and the rise of Pukará
polities in northern Titicaca Basin.

390 B.C.E. Axum Kingdom in East Africa
Axum kingdom based in Ethiopia expands its rule
and ultimately defeats the Kushite kingdom.
371 B.C.E. Battle at Leuctra
Sparta is defeated at the Battle of Leuctra by Epaeminondas of Thebes. The defeat shatters the myth
of Spartan invincibility and ends Sparta’s hegemony
over Greece.
359 B.C.E. Philip II
Philip II becomes regent of Macedonia and reorganizes
the army to make it one of the strongest in Greece.
334 B.C.E. Alexander the Great
Alexander the Great leads a Greek army of 35,000
soldiers into battle against the Persian army led by
Darius III at Granicus. Alexander’s troops gain the
upper hand and kill or capture half of the Persian
army, which is forced to retreat.
331 B.C.E. Battle of Gaugamela
Darius III and the Persian Empire make a final stand
in October 331 at Gaugamela near Arbela in the
heart of Assyria. Nearly 1 million men face an army
of 50,000 Macedonians under Alexander. Forced to
flee the battlefield, Darius is pursued and eventually
assassinated, thereby ending the Persian Empire.
330 B.C.E. Reforms of Shang
Lord Shang becomes chief minister of the state of Qin
in China and begins to implement legalism as its state
philosophy.
326 B.C.E. Mauryan Empire
The Maurya dynasty is founded in India by Chandragupta Maurya. It will unite most of the Indian subcontinent plus Afghanistan.

400 B.C.E. Late Preclassic in Maya Zones
The end of the Middle Preclassic period and beginning of
the Late Preclassic in the Maya zones of Mesoamerica.

321 B.C.E. Ptolemy
Ptolemy, ruler of Egypt, defeats Antigonus at the Battle of Gaza. Ptolemy is supported by Seleucus, who
goes on to reconquer Babylonia.

400 B.C.E. Decline of the Kush
Kushite kingdom with capital at Meroë, in present-day
Sudan, begins to decline.

300 B.C.E. Yayoi Culture in Japan
This neolithic culture replaces the more primitive
Jomon culture.

399 B.C.E. Socrates Dies
Socrates, the foremost Greek philosopher, who taught
Plato, author of the Republic, dies. Their work had a
major impact on Western thought.

300 B.C.E. Euclid Publishes Elements
The Greek mathematician Euclid, living in Alexandria, publishes a 13-volume work called Elements that
lays out, for the first time, the principles of geometry.


Chronology
300 B.C.E. Bantus in Western Africa
Bantus in western Africa use iron implements, skills

perhaps gained from Kushites.
269–232 B.C.E. Mauryan Empire
Ashoka expands the Mauryan Empire of India to its
maximum. He converts to Buddhism and convenes
the third Buddhist Council.
265–241 B.C.E. First Punic War
The First Punic War is fought between Rome and
Carthage over claims to Sicily.
245 B.C.E. Third Syrian War
The Third Syrian War starts when Ptolemy III’s sister is killed by his former wife. Ptolemy responds by
invading the Seleucid Empire, advancing all the way
to Bactria.
240 B.C.E. Archemides Shows Value of Pi
Archemides, the Greek mathematician, is the first to
determine the value of pi. He also successfully calculates the area of a circle.
218–201 B.C.E. Second Punic War
Carthage and Rome fight a 17-year war. It takes place
in both Italy, which is attacked by Hannibal, and then
Carthage. Rome is victorious.
221 B.C.E. Qin State Unifies China
Qin state in northwestern China establishes a
national dynasty and begins imperial age in Chinese
history.
216 B.C.E. First Macedonian War
The first Macedonian War breaks out when Philip V
of Macedonia invades Illyria. The Romans use their
superior naval forces to stop the Macedonians.
209 B.C.E. Maotun Unites Xiongnu Tribes
The Xiongnu nomadic tribes will become dominant
in the steppes and formidable foes of China for the

next three centuries.
206 B.C.E. Xiang Yu Attempts to Unify China
With the end of the Qin dynasty, Xiang emerges as
the strongest contender for leadership of China. He is
defeated by Liu Bang in 202 b.c.e.
202 B.C.E. Han Dynasty in China
Founded by commoner Liu Bang, the Han consolidates
the imperial tradition begun in the Qin dynasty.

xxiii

200 B.C.E. Bantu Migrations in Africa
Bantu migrations from western Africa into central and
southern Africa begin and last for several hundred
years; Bantus are largely agriculturalists.
195 B.C.E. Wei Man Establishes Kingdom in North
Korea
Wei Man flees China with followers and sets up rule
centered at Pyongyang in Korea. His family rules
until China annexes northern Korea in 109 b.c.e.
195–180 B.C.E. Empress Lu of China
Wife of Liu Bang, she rules as regent after his death;
she attempts but fails to establish her own dynasty.
149 B.C.E. Third Punic War
The Roman army lands at Carthage and lays siege to
the city. After a three-year siege, the Romans capture
Carthage and destroy the city.
149–148 B.C.E. Fourth Macedonian War
The Macedonians led by Andricus rebel against Roman
rule. The Romans defeat the Macedonians and make

Macedonia a province of Rome.
144 B.C.E. Aqueducts in Rome
The Romans develop an extensive aqueduct system to
bring water to Rome.
141–87 B.C.E. Han Wudi
His reign sees successful Chinese offensives against the
Xiongnu and the beginning of Chinese dominance of
Central Asia. The Silk Road flourishes and Confucianism becomes China’s state ideology.
138 B.C.E. Zhang Qian “discovers” Central Asia for
China
His epic journeys leads to Chinese interest in Central
Asia and East-West trade via the Silk Road.
111 B.C.E. Annam Conquered by Han China
Annam (North Vietnam) comes under Chinese political rule and cultural influence.
108 B.C.E. Northern Korea Conquered by Han China
It comes under Chinese political rule and cultural
influence.
100 B.C.E. Nabatean City of Petra
Nabateans, an Arab tribe, establish a thriving
commercial state at Petra in present-day southern
Jordan.


xxiv

Chronology

91–88 B.C.E. Social War
The Social War breaks out when Italians who are not
citizens of the Roman Empire revolt.

the Senate and is guilty of treason. Pompey is forced
to flee as Roman soldiers flock to Caesar, who successfully gains control of all Italy.

87 B.C.E. Sima Qian completes The Historical Records
Sima Qian writes the complete history of the Chinese
world up to his time, which becomes the exemplar of
later Chinese historical writing.

44 B.C.E. Caesar Assassinated
Caesar is assassinated by a group of Roman senators
that includes Marcus Brutus. The death of Caesar is
followed by a power struggle between Mark Antony
and Octavian.

82 B.C.E. Consul Sulla Enters Rome
Consul Sulla returns to Rome after subduing opponents of Roman rule. Sulla is elected dictator of
Rome.

43 B.C.E. Cicero Assassinated
Cicero, the great Roman orator, denounces Antony. In
retaliation, Antony orders the assassination of Cicero.

73 B.C.E. Third Servile War
The most famous slave revolt, known as the Third
Servile War, is led by the slave Spartacus, a gladiator; Spartacus and his men seize Mount Vesuvius, and
thousands of slaves flock to his support.

42 B.C.E. Antony Defeats Cassius
Mark Antony battles the forces of Cassius at Philippi.

Cassius is defeated and commits suicide. Twenty days
later, forces under Brutus are also defeated, and Brutus commits suicide.

69 B.C.E. Cleopatra
Cleopatra reigns as queen of Egypt from 69 to 30
b.c.e.

37 B.C.E. Herod the Great
Herod the Great is recognized by the Roman Senate
as king of Judaea. The Hasmonean dynasty that had
ruled Judaea until this period allies themselves with the
Parthians, who are defeated by Mark Antony’s forces.

65 B.C.E. Pompey’s Conquest
Roman forces under Pompey defeat Mithridates VI,
king of Pontus. Pompey forces Mithridates to flee to
the eastern Black Sea region and then to Armenia.
60 B.C.E. Triumvirate
Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Marcus Crassus form the
first triumvirate to rule Rome.
57 B.C.E. Caesar Defeats Tribes
Julius Caesar defeats the Celtic Helvetica tribes from
what is present-day Switzerland at Bibracate in present-day France.

31 B.C.E. Battle of Actium
Mark Antony and Octavian fight a naval battle at
Actium off Epirus in western Greece. Although the
battle is decisive, Antony and his love, Cleopatra, flee
to Egypt, where Antony’s army surrenders. Antony
and Cleopatra kill themselves soon after.

27 B.C.E. Octavian
Octavian becomes the “Augustus,” and the era of the
Roman Empire begins.
C.E. The Common Era begins with the birth of Jesus Christ,

55 B.C.E. Caesar Invades Britain
Caesar leads Roman troops across the Straits of Dover
and returns to England the next year with a larger
force to defeat the Catuvellauni and establish Roman
sovereignty over parts of England.

although Jesus probably is born between 7 and 4 b.c.e.

50 B.C.E. Kingdoms of Korea Founded
The kingdoms of Korea are founded around 50 b.c.e.
There are the Koguryo in the north, Silla in the southeast, and Pakche in the southwest.

9 C.E. German Tribes Destroy Roman Legions
Three Roman legions are defeated by a German army
led by Ariminus, thereby ensuring German independence from Rome.

49 B.C.E. Caesar Crosses the Rubicon
Julius Caesar and his army cross the Rubicon in
northern Italy. By crossing the Rubicon, Caesar defies

9 C.E. Xin Dynasty
Wang Mang usurps the Han throne, ending the Western Han dynasty and establishes the Xin dynasty.

6 C.E. Herod Deposed
Herod Archelaus is deposed by the Roman emperor

Augustus.


Chronology
18 C.E. Red Eyebrow Rebellion
Peasant rebellion in China contributes to the downfall of Wang Mang’s usurpation.
25–220 C.E. Eastern Han Dynasty
After the death of Wang Mang, the Han dynasty is
restored, called the Eastern Han.
30 or 33 C.E. Jesus Crucified
Jesus Christ is put to death by the Romans in Jerusalem.
39 C.E. Revolt of Trung Sisters
Unsuccessful revolt of Annam (North Vietnam) from
Chinese rule.
64 C.E. Rome Burns
The city of Rome is nearly destroyed in a catastrophic
fire. The fire is said to have been set by the emperor
Nero.
66 C.E. Judaea Rebels against Rome
A rebellion breaks out in Jerusalem against Roman
rule. The Romans dispatch an army from Syria to quell
the revolt, but it is destroyed on the way to Jerusalem.
68 C.E. Year of the Four Emperors
Four separate emperors rule Rome.
70 C.E. Jerusalem Falls
Titus succeeds in capturing Jerusalem; he burns Jerusalem, killing or selling into slavery tens of thousands
of Jews.
78 C.E. Kushan Empire
The Kushan dynasty is established by King Kanishka.
It extends from Afghanistan to the Indus Valley and is

the melting pot of Greco-Roman, Persian, and Indian
cultures.
79 C.E. Mount Vesuvius Explodes
Mount Vesuvius erupts, destroying the Roman cities
of Pompeii and Herculaneum.
96–180 C.E. Five Good Emperors
Starting with Emperor Marcus Nerva, Rome is ruled
by five individuals who become known as the Good
Emperors.
100 C.E. Emergence of Moche Culture in Peru
Moche culture, which is hierarchical with warriorpriest kings, emerges in Peru and flourishes until
approximately 700 c.e.

xxv

100 C.E. Terminal Preclassic Period in Maya Zones
The end of the Late Preclassic period and beginning
of the Terminal Preclassic in the Maya zones of Mesoamerica.
122 C.E. Hadrian’s Wall Is Built
The Roman emperor Hadrian orders the construction
of a defensive wall stretching 70 miles across northern England to keep out the Scottish tribes.
132 C.E. Bar Kokhba Revolt
The Jews of Jerusalem rise up in rebellion in 132 after
the Romans build a temple to Jupiter on the site of
the Jewish Temple. The revolt is led by Simon bar
Kokhba and Rabbi Akiba ben Joseph but is ultimately crushed.
167 C.E. German Tribes Invade Northern Italy
The German tribes cross the Danube River and attack
the Roman Empire.
180 C.E. Marcus Aurelius Dies

Marcus Aurelius dies and is succeeded by his son,
Commodus. Commodus is the first emperor since
Domitian to succeed by virtue of birth, rather than by
assassination.
184 C.E. Revolt of the Yellow Turbans
A peasant revolt in China contributes to the fall of the
Eastern Han dynasty.
200 C.E. Teotihuacán in Mexico
Teotihuacán, a vast urban center with pyramids and
public buildings in Mexico, flourishes to c. 600.
220 C.E. Han Dynasty ends
Last Han emperor is forced to abdicate.
220–265 C.E. Three Kingdoms in China
Era of wars between three regional states—Wei, Shu
Han, and Wu—for control of China.
250 C.E. Early Classic Period in Maya Zones
Beginning of the Early Classic Period in the highlands and lowlands of the Maya zones of Mesoamerica.
265–589 C.E. Period of Division
Northern China is ruled after 317 by nomadic dynasties of Turkic ethnicity, while southern China remains
with ethnic Chinese dynasties. Buddhism is dominant
in both north and south.