fundamentals of applied acarology

Manjit  Singh Dhooria

Fundamentals
of Applied
Acarology


Fundamentals of Applied Acarology


Manjit Singh Dhooria

Fundamentals of Applied
Acarology


Manjit Singh Dhooria
Department of Entomology
Punjab Agricultural University
Ludhiana, Punjab, India

ISBN 978-981-10-1592-2    ISBN 978-981-10-1594-6 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-1594-6
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016953350
© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016
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My Wife: Rajinder Dhooria
My Sons:
1. Ramanjot Dhooria: Reena, Sarah and Geet
2. Taranjot Dhooria: Saveena and Mannat


Preface

Acarology, the study of mites and ticks, is a subdiscipline of Zoology and is many
times considered in the field of Entomology (the study of insects). Mites and ticks
are distributed throughout the world and inhabit almost every ecosystem (both terrestrial and aquatic). More than 55,000 species of mites and ticks are already
described, and the number of undescribed species may reach about 20-fold as mite
fauna in most of the world regions are still poorly explored. Mites and ticks directly
affect humans as pests of different crops, fruit plants, vegetable crops and field
crops; as parasites of human beings, veterinary animals, poultry and pets; as pests
of stored grains and other products, mushrooms and cheese; and as parasites of
honeybees. Mite infestations are responsible for economic losses worth billions of

dollars in terms of reduced crop yields and lowered quality of produce. Some species of mites serve as vectors of various plant diseases. Ticks cause losses through
blood feeding and by transmitting Lyme disease, babesiosis, Rocky Mountain fever,
tularaemia and many other diseases among man and animals. House-dust mite allergies and tick bite allergies are also common in many parts of the world.
Our knowledge of biology, ecology and the importance of mites has largely
expanded. At the same time, the actual and potential economic importance of these
creatures continues to grow worldwide, and their success in colonizing the new
regions makes them an ongoing quarantine threat in many parts of the world. There
is a great necessity of an up-to-date compilation of basic and applied knowledge on
mites and their proper management that is otherwise found scattered in a variety of
languages and literature throughout the world.
The present book, Fundamentals of Applied Acarology, is written keeping in
view nonavailability of any standard text dealing in different aspects of acarology at
one place. Separate chapters in this book are devoted to the importance of acarology, historical account, acarine technology, morphology and anatomy of Acari; and
feeding, development and reproduction providing knowledge on diapause and water
balance. The book includes a recent classification of subclass Acari, and illustrations are provided for the identification of 107 important families of Acari. The role
of mites in breaking down soil organic matter and affecting the quality of water
bodies is discussed in detail. Molecular developments in relation to mites and ticks
are also discussed. The role of mites and ticks in quarantines of plants and animals,
forensic/criminal investigations and the importance of accidental acarophagy are
also discussed in detail. Transmission of plant diseases by mite vectors is
vii


viii

Preface

thoroughly discussed. Safe usage of pesticides based on their mode of action
(IRAC’s groups), development of acaricide resistance and measures to mitigate it
are also discussed.

Mite pests of fruit trees, vegetable plants, floricultural plants and field crops;
mite problems in greenhouses/polyhouses; mite problems encountered under
organic cultivation of plants and their management through minimum usage of pesticides are emphasized in different chapters. The role of different predaceous mites
in controlling plant pests like thrips, aphids and scale insects is elaborately discussed. Biological control of phytophagous mites is discussed in detail.
Different animal parasitic mites and ticks are discussed from veterinary and
medical point of view.
At the end of each chapter, many important references for further reading and
electronic references (ER) in the form of YouTube links and other weblinks are
given to understand fully how these tiny creatures look like and behave, feed and
reproduce, the nature of damage they cause to plants and animals and measures to
mitigate them. At the end, a glossary of important taxonomic and integrated pest
management terms is provided which makes understanding the contents in a more
suitable way creating great lust for knowing more and more about these creatures.
I am grateful to the late Dr G.P. ChannaBasavanna and Dr S.K. Gupta, both
­distinguished acarologists from India, who encouraged me and lent their moral
­support for writing such a book on applied aspects. I also sincerely acknowledge
Dr Uri Gerson of Israel and Dr K. Ramaraju of India, eminent acarologists, for their
useful suggestions.
The knowledge contained in the book may prove very useful for ‘General and
Applied Acarology’ course for graduate and postgraduate levels, teachers and
researchers in entomology, pest control advisors, professional entomologists, pesticide industry managers, policy planners and others having interest in mites and
ticks.
Ludhiana, India

M.S. Dhooria


About the Book

Acarology, the study of mites and ticks, is a subdiscipline of Zoology and is many

times considered in the field of Entomology (the study of insects). Mites and ticks
are distributed throughout the world and inhabit almost every ecosystem (both terrestrial and aquatic) including grassland soils. More than 55,000 species of mites
and ticks are already described, but the number of undescribed species may reach
up to 20-fold as mite fauna in most of the world regions are still poorly explored.
Mites and ticks directly affect humans as pests of different crops, fruit plants, vegetable crops and field crops; as parasites of human beings, veterinary animals, poultry and pets; as pests of stored grains and other products, mushrooms and cheese;
and as parasites of honeybees. Mite infestations are responsible for economic losses
worth billions of dollars in terms of reduced crop yields and lowered quality of
produce. Many species of mites serve as vectors of various plant diseases; some
species of ticks cause losses through blood feeding and by transmitting Lyme disease, babesiosis, Rocky Mountain fever, tularaemia and many other diseases among
man and animals. House-dust mite allergies and tick bite allergies are also common
in many parts of the world.
The present book, Fundamentals of Applied Acarology, is written keeping in
view nonavailability of any standard text dealing in different aspects of acarology at
one place. Separate chapters in this book are devoted to the importance of acarology; historical account; acarine technology; morphology and anatomy of Acari; and
feeding, development and reproduction providing knowledge on diapause and water
balance. Molecular developments in relation to mites and ticks are also discussed.
The role of mites and ticks in quarantines of plants and animals, forensic/criminal investigations, and the importance of accidental acarophagy are discussed in
detail in different chapters. Safe usage of pesticides based on their mode of action
(IRAC’s groups), development of acaricide resistance and measures to mitigate it
are also discussed.
Mite pests of fruit trees, vegetable plants, floricultural plants and field crops;
mite problems in greenhouses/polyhouses; mite problems encountered under
organic cultivation of plants and their management through minimum usage of pesticides are emphasized in different chapters. The role of different predaceous mites
in controlling plant pests like thrips, aphids and scale insects is elaborately discussed. Biological control of phytophagous mites is discussed in detail.

ix


x

About the Book

Different animal parasitic mites and ticks are discussed from veterinary and
medical point of view. Many YouTube and other weblinks explain in an interesting
way emphasizing the importance of salient information on these creatures and measures to combat them.
At the end of each chapter, many important references for further reading and
electronic references (ER) in the form of YouTube links and other weblinks are
given to understand fully how these tiny creatures look like and behave, feed and
reproduce, the nature of damage they cause to plants and animals and measures to
mitigate them. Weblinks will stimulate interest in the readers for more information
about different mites and ticks.
The knowledge contained in the book may prove as best material for ‘General
and Applied Acarology’ course for graduate and postgraduate levels, teachers and
researchers in entomology, pest control advisors, professional entomologists, pesticide industry managers, policy planners and others having interest in mites and
ticks.
562-I Block, B.R.S. Nagar,
Ludhiana-141012, Punjab, India
E-mail:

M.S. Dhooria


Contents

1 Acarology and Its Importance................................................................1

Further Reading.........................................................................................7
2Historical Account of  Acarology.............................................................9

2.1Developments Prior to 1850 AD...................................................10

2.2Progress During 1851–1950 AD...................................................10

2.3Developments Since 1951............................................................11

2.4OSU Acarology Development Programme...................................12

2.5Acarological Societies..................................................................12

2.6Journals in  Acarology...................................................................16

2.7Important Books Published...........................................................17

2.8Conclusions...................................................................................18

Further Reading.........................................................................................18
3Acarine Technology..................................................................................21

3.1Collection......................................................................................22

3.1.1Plant-Associated Mites.................................................22

3.1.2Water Mites...................................................................23

3.1.3Soil Mites......................................................................24

3.1.4Parasitic Mites..............................................................25

3.1.5Collection of  Ticks........................................................27

3.2Preservation/Killing in a Medium.................................................28

3.3Preparation (Slide Mounting).......................................................28

3.3.1Preparation for  Water Mites..........................................29

3.3.2Plant-Associated Mites.................................................29

3.3.3Preparation of Ticks for Study......................................30

3.3.4Mounting Ticks on Glass Slides...................................31

3.3.5Staining.........................................................................31

3.3.6Slide Preparation Technique.........................................31

3.4Preparation for Scanning Electron Microscopy Studies (SEM)...32

3.5Preparation for Molecular Analysis Studies.................................33

3.6Photomicrography of  Mites..........................................................33

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xii

Contents

3.7Packing and Shipping Mites.........................................................33
3.7.1Specimens in  Vials........................................................33
3.7.2Shipping Microscope Slides.........................................34
3.7.3Shipping Specimens......................................................34
3.8Working with Live Mites..............................................................34
3.9Rearing Techniques.......................................................................35
3.10Sampling Methods........................................................................35
3.10.1Direct Counting............................................................35
3.10.2Imprint Counting..........................................................36
3.10.3Mite-Brushing Machine................................................36
3.10.4Beating Foliage.............................................................36

3.10.5Washing Technique.......................................................36
3.11Acaricide Testing Techniques.......................................................36
3.11.1Slide-Dip Method.........................................................37
3.11.2Leaf-Dip Method..........................................................37
3.11.3Residual Leaf Disc Assays............................................37
3.11.4Ovolarvicide Tests........................................................37
3.12Conclusions...................................................................................38
Further Reading.........................................................................................38

4Morphology and  Anatomy of  Acari........................................................41

4.1External Morphology....................................................................42

4.1.1Integument....................................................................42

4.1.2Differences Between Hard Ticks
and Soft Ticks...............................................................44

4.1.3Body Divisions.............................................................45

4.1.4Sensory Receptors........................................................51

4.2Internal Anatomy..........................................................................55

4.2.1Digestive System..........................................................55

4.2.2Central Nervous System...............................................56

4.2.3Circulatory System.......................................................56

4.2.4Excretion.......................................................................56

4.2.5Respiratory System.......................................................57

4.2.6Reproductive System....................................................57

4.2.7Musculature..................................................................57

4.3Conclusions...................................................................................58

Further Reading.........................................................................................58
5Classification of  Subclass Acari..............................................................63

5.1Superorder Parasitiformes............................................................64

5.1.1Order Opilioacarida......................................................64

5.1.2Order Holothyrida.........................................................65

5.1.3Order Mesostigmata......................................................65

5.1.4Order Ixodida................................................................66


Contents

xiii

5.2Superorder Acariformes................................................................67
5.2.1Order Trombidiformes..................................................68
5.2.2Order Sarcoptiformes....................................................68
5.3Conclusions...................................................................................70
Further Reading.........................................................................................70

6Important Acarine Families....................................................................73

6.1Superorder Parasitiformes............................................................74

6.1.1Order Holothyrida.........................................................74

6.1.2Order Opilioacarida......................................................74

6.1.3Order Ixodida................................................................75

6.1.4Order Mesostigmata......................................................80

6.2Superorder Acariformes................................................................96

6.2.1Order Trombidiformes..................................................96

6.3Conclusions...................................................................................156

Further Reading.........................................................................................157
7Feeding, Development and Reproduction..............................................161

7.1Development.................................................................................162

7.1.1Eggs..............................................................................162

7.1.2Prelarva.........................................................................162

7.1.3Larvae...........................................................................163

7.1.4Nymphs.........................................................................163

7.1.5Protonymph...................................................................163

7.1.6Deutonymphs................................................................164

7.1.7Tritonymphs..................................................................164

7.1.8Adults............................................................................164

7.1.9Life cycle......................................................................164

7.2Feeding.........................................................................................166

7.2.1Ticks..............................................................................166

7.2.2
Phytophagous Mites......................................................167

7.3Reproduction.................................................................................168

7.3.1Mites.............................................................................168

7.3.2Ticks..............................................................................169

7.4Tick Ecology.................................................................................169

7.5Water Balance...............................................................................170

7.6Diapause in  Acari..........................................................................171

7.6.1Mites.............................................................................171

7.6.2Ticks..............................................................................171

7.7Conclusions...................................................................................172

Further Reading.........................................................................................172
8Molecular Biology and  Acarology..........................................................175

8.1Phylogenetic Relationship............................................................176

8.2Species Diversity..........................................................................177

8.3Molecular Markers........................................................................178


xiv

Contents

8.4Dispersal of Populations and Species...........................................180
8.5Development of Host Races and Species Link.............................180
8.6Mite Associates.............................................................................181
8.7Molecular Identification of House Dust and Storage Mites.........181
8.8Genome Sequencing of Two-Spotted Spider Mite.......................182
8.9Tick Genomics..............................................................................182
8.10Conclusions...................................................................................183
Further Reading.........................................................................................184

9Water Mites..............................................................................................187

9.1Hydrachnidia Diversity.................................................................188

9.2Feeding Habits..............................................................................188

9.3Habitat...........................................................................................189

9.4Effect of  Water Pollution..............................................................189

9.5Potential as Indicators of Environmental Safety...........................190

9.6Websites on  Water Mites...............................................................190

9.6.1Water Mites of North America......................................190

9.6.2Hydracarina.Org...........................................................191

9.6.3Key to Families and Subfamilies of Water Mites
(Hydracarina)................................................................191

9.6.4Acari1: European Water Mites Research......................191

9.7Life Cycle.....................................................................................191

9.8Role of Water Mites in Food Chain..............................................192

9.9Biological Control of Insect Pests................................................193

9.9.1Parasites........................................................................193

9.9.2Parasites of  Mosquitoes................................................193

9.9.3Predators.......................................................................194

9.10Predators of  Water Mites..............................................................194

9.11Conclusions...................................................................................194

Further Reading.........................................................................................195
10Soil Mites...................................................................................................197

10.1Oribatid Diversity.........................................................................198

10.2Distribution...................................................................................199

10.3Life History and Development.....................................................200

10.4Feeding Habits..............................................................................200

10.5Population Dynamics....................................................................201

10.6Nematophagous Mites..................................................................201

10.7Exposure to  Predators...................................................................202

10.8Effect of  Drought/Burning............................................................202

10.9Intermediate Hosts of  Tapeworms................................................202

10.10Effect of Pesticides and Industrial Wastes....................................202

10.11Effect of  Fertilizers.......................................................................203

10.12Economic Importance of Oribatid Mites......................................203

10.13Conclusions...................................................................................204

Further Reading.........................................................................................205


Contents

xv

11Quarantine Acarology.............................................................................207

11.1Acari Dispersal.............................................................................208

11.2Quarantine Pests...........................................................................209

11.3Invasive Mites and  Ticks...............................................................209

11.4Phytophagous Mites......................................................................210

11.5Bee Mites......................................................................................211

11.6Animal Parasitic Mites and Ticks.................................................211

11.7Quarantine Organizations.............................................................212

11.8Internet Resources for Information on Pest..................................213

11.9Other Internet Resources Providing Information on Mites..........214

11.10Pest Information/Fact Sheets/Field Guides..................................214

11.11Conclusions...................................................................................215

Further Reading.........................................................................................216
12Mite Pests of Horticultural Crops..........................................................219

12.1Fruits.............................................................................................220

12.1.1Temperate Fruits...........................................................220

12.1.2Tropical/Subtropical Fruits...........................................232

12.2Vegetables.....................................................................................248

12.2.1Family Alliaceae...........................................................249

12.2.2Family Convolvulaceae................................................250

12.2.3Family Cruciferaceae....................................................250

12.2.4Family Cucurbitaceae...................................................250

12.2.5Family Leguminosae.....................................................253

12.2.6Family Solanaceae........................................................254

12.2.7Family Malvaceae.........................................................259

12.2.8Family Umbelliferae.....................................................260

12.2.9Other Vegetables...........................................................261

12.3Mite Pests of Floricultural Plants.................................................263

12.3.1Bulb Mites (Rhizoglyphus spp.)....................................264

12.3.2Cyclamen Mites (Steneotarsonemus pallidus).............264

12.3.3False Spider Mites (Brevipalpus spp.)..........................264

12.3.4Lewis Mite (Eotetranychus lewisi)...............................265

12.3.5Two-Spotted Spider Mite (Tetranychus urticae)..........265

12.3.6Broad Mite (Polyphagotarsonemus latus)....................268

12.3.7Erinose Mite (Aceria hibisci)........................................269

12.3.8Aloe Gall Mite (Eriophyes aloinis)..............................269

12.3.9Southern Red Mite (Oligonychus ilicis).......................269

12.3.10Jasmine Mite (Aceria jasmini)......................................270

12.3.11Phyllocoptes fructiphilus..............................................270

12.4Conclusions...................................................................................271

Further Reading.........................................................................................271


xvi

Contents

13Mite Pests of Field Crops.........................................................................275

13.1Cereals..........................................................................................276

13.1.1Barley (Hordeum vulgare; Poaceae).............................276

13.1.2Maize (Zea mays; Poaceae)..........................................277

13.1.3Rice (Oryza sativa; Poaceae)........................................278

13.1.4Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor; Gramineae)......................278

13.1.5Wheat (Triticum aestivum; Gramineae)........................279

13.1.6Oats (Avena sativa; Poaceae).......................................281

13.2Pulses............................................................................................282

13.2.1Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan; Fabaceae).........................282

13.2.2Cowpea (Vicia spp.)......................................................284

13.2.3Black gram (Vigna mungo)...........................................285

13.2.4Green gram (Vigna radiata)..........................................285

13.2.5Winter Pulses................................................................286

13.3Fibre Crops...................................................................................286

13.3.1Cotton (Gossypium spp.; Malvaceae)...........................287

13.3.2Jute (Corchorus capsularis; Malvaceae)......................288

13.3.3Sunn Hemp (Crotalaria juncea; Fabaceae)..................289

13.4Oilseed Crops................................................................................289

13.4.1Soybeans (Glycine max; Fabaceae).............................289

13.4.2Canola (Brassica napus; Brassicaceae)........................290

13.4.3Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea; Leguminosae).............291

13.4.4Castor Bean (Ricinus communis; Euphorbiaceae)........292

13.4.5Sesame (Sesamum indicum; Pedaliaceae)....................292

13.4.6Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius; Asteraceae)..............294

13.4.7Sunflower (Helianthus annuus; Asteraceae).................294

13.4.8Jatropha (Jatropha curcas; Euphorbiaceae)..................294

13.5Plantation Crops............................................................................294

13.5.1Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum; Poaceae).............294

13.5.2Cassava (Manihot esculenta; Euphorbiaceae)..............297

13.5.3Tea (Camellia sinensis; Theaceae)...............................298

13.5.4Cardamom (Elettaria sp.; Zingiberaceae)....................300

13.5.5Areca Nut (Areca catechu; Arecaceae).........................300

13.5.6Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis; Euphorbiaceae)...............301

13.5.7Cashew (Anacardium occidentale; Anacardiaceae)......301

13.6Fodder Crops................................................................................301

13.6.1Alfalfa or Lucerne (Medicago sativa; Fabaceae)..........301

13.6.2Rye Grass (Lolium sp.; Poaceae)..................................302

13.6.3Vicia (Vicia spp.; Fabaceae)..........................................302

13.6.4Timothy (Phleum pratense; Poaceae)...........................303

13.7Conclusions...................................................................................303

Further Reading.........................................................................................304


Contents

xvii

1 4Mite Pests of Greenhouse Crops.............................................................307

14.1Mite Pests in Greenhouses............................................................308

14.1.1Spider Mites..................................................................308

14.1.2False Spider Mites........................................................309

14.1.3Tarsonemid Mites.........................................................310

14.1.4Rust Mites.....................................................................310

14.1.5Bulb Mites....................................................................311

14.2Biological Control of Mite Pests..................................................311

14.2.1Through Predatory Phytoseiid Mites............................311

14.2.2Through Predatory Insects............................................312

14.3Management of Mite Pests in Greenhouses..................................313

14.4Conclusions...................................................................................314

Further Reading.........................................................................................314
1 5Management of Mites Under Organic Farming....................................317

15.1Management of Mites in Greenhouses.........................................318

15.2Management of Mites on Organic Crops......................................319

15.3Cultural Control............................................................................320

15.4Water Management.......................................................................321

15.5Good Farm Sanitation...................................................................321

15.6Other Cultural Practices................................................................321

15.7Monitoring for Mite Pests and Their Natural Enemies................322

15.8Biological Control........................................................................322

15.9Microbiol Control.........................................................................323

15.10Chemical Control..........................................................................323

15.11Important Websites.......................................................................324

15.12Conclusions...................................................................................325

Further Reading.........................................................................................326
1 6Mite Transmission of Plant Diseases......................................................327

16.1Plant Viral Diseases Vectored by Eriophyid Mites.......................328

16.1.1Wheat Streak Mosaic Virus (WSMV)..........................329

16.1.2Wheat Spot Mosaic Virus (WSpMV)...........................330

16.1.3Ryegrass Mosaic Virus (RgMV)...................................331

16.1.4Agropyron Mosaic Virus (AMV)..................................331

16.1.5Fig Mosaic Virus (FMV)..............................................332

16.1.6Peach Mosaic................................................................332

16.1.7Cherry Mottle Leaf Virus (CMLV)...............................332

16.1.8Currant Reversion Disease............................................333

16.1.9Pigeon Pea Sterility Mosaic Disease (PPSMV)............333

16.1.10Rose Rosette Disease (RRD)........................................334

16.2Plant Viral Diseases Vectored by False Spider Mites...................334

16.2.1Citrus Leprosis..............................................................335

16.2.2Passion Fruit Green Spot Virus (PGSV).......................335

16.2.3Coffee Ring Spot Virus (CoRSV).................................336

16.2.4Orchid Fleck Virus (OFV)............................................336


xviii

Contents

16.3Plant Viral Diseases Vectored by Spider Mites.............................336
16.4Plant Fungal Diseases Vectored by Eriophyid Mites....................337
16.4.1Mango Malformation Disease (MMD).........................337
16.5Management of Mite-Vectored Plant Viral Diseases....................337
16.6Conclusions...................................................................................338
Further Reading.........................................................................................338

17Mite Pests of Mushrooms........................................................................341

17.1Pest Mites......................................................................................342

17.1.1Tyrophagus spp.............................................................342

17.1.2Tarsonemus myceliophagus..........................................343

17.1.3Red Pepper Mites (Pygmephorus spp.)........................343

17.1.4Other Mite Pests of Mushrooms...................................344

17.2Predaceous Mites..........................................................................344

17.3Management of Mushroom Mite Pests.........................................344

17.4Chemical Control of Mites...........................................................345

17.5Conclusions...................................................................................345

Further Reading.........................................................................................346
18Mite Problems of Stored Foods...............................................................349

18.1Stored Product Mites....................................................................350

18.1.1Pest Mites......................................................................350

18.1.2Predaceous Mites..........................................................355

18.1.3Parasitic Mite................................................................356

18.1.4Scavengers and  Saprobes..............................................356

18.2Temperature/Humidity Relations..................................................356

18.3Detection of  Mites........................................................................357

18.4Allergy Due to Mites in Storages.................................................357

18.5Management of Mites in Storages................................................358

18.5.1Stored Grains................................................................358

18.5.2Bulb Mites....................................................................359

18.5.3Stored Packages in Groceries.......................................360

18.6Biological Control........................................................................361

18.7Conclusions...................................................................................361

Further Reading.........................................................................................361
1 9Mites Predaceous on Pests of Agriculture..............................................363

19.1Insects...........................................................................................364

19.1.1Order Diptera................................................................364

19.1.2Order Orthoptera...........................................................365

19.1.3Order Hemiptera...........................................................366

19.1.4Order Thysanoptera......................................................369

19.1.5Order Trichoptera..........................................................370

19.1.6Order Thysanura...........................................................370

19.1.7Order Collembola.........................................................370

19.1.8Order Blattoidea............................................................371


Contents

xix

19.1.9Order Coleoptera..........................................................371
19.1.10Order Lepidoptera.........................................................373
19.1.11Order Hymenoptera......................................................374
19.2On Snails and Slugs......................................................................374
19.3On Symphylans.............................................................................375
19.4On Nematodes..............................................................................376
19.5Mite Associations on  Earthworms................................................377
19.6Conclusions...................................................................................377
Further Reading.........................................................................................378

2 0Biological Control of Phytophagous Mites............................................381

20.1Biological Control of Phytophagous Mites..................................382

20.1.1Predaceous Mites..........................................................382

20.1.2Insects Predaceous on Mites.........................................386

20.1.3Microbial Control of Phytophagous Mites...................388

20.1.4Biological Control of Weeds by Phytophagous Mites.. 390

20.2Conclusions...................................................................................394

Further Reading.........................................................................................394
21Pesticides...................................................................................................399

21.1Mite Outbreaks.............................................................................400

21.2Resurgence....................................................................................401

21.3Development of Specific Acaricidal Compounds.........................401

21.4Classification of  Acaricides..........................................................402

21.4.1Inorganic Acaricides.....................................................402

21.5Synthetic Organic Acaricides........................................................403

21.5.1Acaricides Based on Their Chemistry..........................403

21.5.2Acaricide Classification Based on Mode of Action......403

21.6Development of  Specific Acaricides.............................................405

21.6.1New Synthetic Acaricides.............................................406

21.6.2Natural Acaricides and Other Alternative Solutions.....407

21.7Role of Acaricides in IPM of Spider Mites..................................407

21.8Acaricide Resistance.....................................................................408

21.9Management of  Acaricide Resistance...........................................409

21.10Conclusions...................................................................................409

Further Reading.........................................................................................410
22Parasitic Mites on Honeybees.................................................................413

22.1Parasitic Mites..............................................................................414

22.1.1Tracheal Mite (Acarapis woodi; Tarsonemidae)...........414

22.1.2Tropilaelaps clareae.....................................................417

22.1.3Varroa jacobsoni...........................................................418

22.1.4Varroa destructor..........................................................421

22.1.5Other Mites Found on Bees..........................................423

22.2Conclusions...................................................................................423

Further Reading.........................................................................................423


xx

Contents

23Medical and  Veterinary Acarology.........................................................425

23.1Mites.............................................................................................426

23.1.1Chicken Mite (Dermanyssus gallinae;
Dermanyssidae)............................................................426

23.1.2Northern Fowl Mite (Ornithonyssus sylviarum;
Macronyssidae).............................................................427

23.1.3Tropical Rat Mite (Ornithonyssus bacoti;
Macronyssidae).............................................................427

23.1.4House Mouse Mite (Liponyssoides sanguineus;
Dermanyssidae)............................................................427

23.1.5Grain Mites (Glycyphagus domesticus; Acaridae).......428

23.1.6Straw Itch Mites (Pyemotes ventricosus;
Pyemotidae)..................................................................428

23.1.7Chiggers (Eutrombicula alfredugesi;
Trombiculidae)..............................................................429

23.1.8Burrowing Mites...........................................................429

23.1.9Non-Burrowing Mites...................................................432

23.1.10Pneumonyssus caninum; Halarachnidae.......................433

23.1.11Snake Mite (Ophionyssus natricis;
Macronyssidae).............................................................433

23.1.12House Dust Mites.........................................................434

23.1.13Other Important Mites..................................................435

23.2Ticks..............................................................................................435

23.3Conclusions...................................................................................437

Further Reading.........................................................................................438
24Forensic Acarology...................................................................................441

24.1Decomposition of  Cadaver...........................................................442

24.2Decomposition Stages of Corpse..................................................443

24.3Arthropods and Decomposing Body............................................444

24.4Megnin and  Forensic Acarology...................................................444

24.5Mite Diversity Found on Carcases................................................444

24.6Role of Freshwater Mites..............................................................446

24.7Conclusions...................................................................................446

Further Reading.........................................................................................447

25Accidental Acarophagy............................................................................449

25.1Plant-Associated Mites.................................................................450

25.2Stored Food...................................................................................451

25.2.1Stored Wheat Flour.......................................................451

25.2.2Prophylactic Measures..................................................452

25.3Dried Fruits...................................................................................453

25.4Mushrooms...................................................................................454

25.5Soil Mites......................................................................................454


Contents






xxi

25.6Cheese...........................................................................................455
25.7Meat (Including Cured Fish)........................................................456
25.8Conclusions...................................................................................456
Further Reading.........................................................................................457

26Glossary....................................................................................................461

Further Reading.........................................................................................470


About the Author

Dr M.S. Dhooria was born in 1946 and did his B.Sc. in Agriculture in 1967, and
M.Sc. in Entomology in 1969 from Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana
(Punjab), India. In 1980, did Ph. D in Entomology from Indian Agricultural
Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi (India). He was awarded Junior Research
Fellowship in M.Sc., and Senior Research Fellowship in Ph. D studies by the Indian
Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi. He has more than 36 years of
experience in teaching, research and extension in the field of Entomology. He did
research work on: biology, ecology, and management of phytophagous mites.
Taught ‘General and Applied Acarology’ course at post graduate level for many
years. Published more than 125 research publications in different national and internationally reputed journals. Contributed some book chapters and a booklet on Citrus
Mites as a special publication of ICAR. Attended several national and international
level workshops on different aspects of insects and mites. He is also a life fellow of
Entomological Society of India, New Delhi; Indian Society for the Advancement of
Insect Science, Ludhiana; and Acarological Society of India (ASI), Bangalore.
Remained as Vice President of ASI for two terms. Friendship Forum of India, New
Delhi, awarded him the Certificate of Honour and Gold Medal for his lifetime
achievements in Entomology.

xxiii


1

Acarology and Its Importance

Abstract

Acarology is the study of mites and ticks which are distributed throughout the
world and inhabit almost every ecosystem. Mites are most common arthropod
ectoparasites of vertebrates including humans. They are the largest and diverse
group within the arthropod class Arachnida with over 55,000 described species,
but the number of undescribed species may reach upto 20-fold as mite fauna in
most of the world regions are still poorly explored. Mites and ticks are of great
interest to human beings in a variety of ways and affect the humans as pests of
economic plants including vegetable crops, fruit crops, field and fibre crops, and
different ornamental plants. They also act as parasites of human beings, cattle,
poultry and pets; as pests of stored grains and processed foods; and as parasites
of honeybees. Mite infestations are responsible for economic losses worth billions of dollars in terms of reduced crop yields, lowered quality of product, and
poor health of mankind. The economic importance of mites and ticks is discussed to create more interest in these creatures.
Keywords

Acarology • Mites • Ticks
Acarology is a sub-discipline of Zoology and is sometimes included in the field of
Entomology (the study of insects), and Arachnology (the study of spiders and
related organisms). Word acarology is derived from Greek words: akari, means a
type of mite; and logos, meaning knowledge. So acarology is the study of mites and
ticks–the members of the Subclass Acari
Mites are distributed throughout the world and inhabit almost every ecosystem.
They have successfully colonized both terrestrial and aquatic habitats, and are also
very commonly found in the forests and grassland soils, and in temporary accumulations of organic debris. Mites are most common arthropod ectoparasites of vertebrates, including humans. Follicle mite (Demodex spp.), and scabies mite (Sarcoptes
© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016
M.S. Dhooria, Fundamentals of Applied Acarology,

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-1594-6_1

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1  Acarology and Its Importance

spp.) are present in association with most people throughout the world (Krantz and
Walter 2009; Evans 1992).
Mites are in fact the first land arthropods, the oldest known so far Late
Devonian. However, because of their small size, the Acari are uncommon in fossil
records. A few are known from the Carboniferous, and more from Tertiary amber
from Canada, Mexico and Europe. Insects and mites inhabited the earth long
before man appeared. They inhabited earth 350 million years ago but man got
inhabited the earth only one million years ago. The first described fossil mite,
Protacarus crani, was found in the Devonian Rhynie Chert of Scotland. Other
fossil mites have been found afterwards, especially bodies included in amber
(Walter and Proctor 1999).
Mites or Acari are the largest and diverse group within the arthropod Class
Arachnida (Subphylum Chelicerata, and Phylum Arthropoda) with over 55,000
described species. Even this number seems misleading since it is estimated that only
5–10 % of all the mite species have been formally described, but the number of
undescribed species may reach upto 20-fold as mite fauna in most of the world
regions are still poorly explored. Acari are the largest and more diverse group in the
class Arachnida. In contrast with other arachnid groups such as spiders and scorpions, mites are of smaller size 0.1–30 mm in length. Mouthparts of mites and ticks
are specialized for piercing tissues and sucking out the contents (Gupta 2012; Hoy
2011).
Mites and ticks are of great interest to human beings in a variety of ways. They

directly affect the humans as pests of different economic plants including vegetable
crops, fruit trees, field and fibre crops, and different ornamental plants (mostly in
greenhouses); as parasites of human beings, cattle, poultry and pets; as pests of
stored grains and processed food, mushrooms and cured- fish; and as pests of honeybees. Mite infestations are responsible for economic losses worth billions of dollars in terms of reduced crop yields and lowered quality of the produce (Gerson
et al. 2003). The economic importance of mites is briefly discussed here under different heads.
Plant Feeding Mites  About 7000 species of plant feeding mites are known worldwide, and about half of them belong to the Superfamily Eriophyoidea (gall, bud,
rust mites etc.). Remaining half are distributed within the Superfamily Tetranychoidea
(spider mites, flat mites, and peacock mites), and the lesser known bulb mites of the
family Acaridae.
Plant feeding mites play an important role as pests of vegetable crops, fruit trees,
ornamental plants (both under field and protected cultivation), fibre crops, forage
crops, oilseed crops and timber trees. Under many situations, lack of information
about the correct identity of mites, and inadequate knowledge regarding their biology and ecology, have hampered our ability to combat these pests. Small size and
their cryptic appearance makes them difficult to detect, and thus infestations are
many times overlooked. Once established in a new area, certain biological characteristics allow their rapid escalation to pest status. High rate of fecundity, short life


1  Acarology and Its Importance

3

cycles, a myriad of their dispersal techniques, and adaptability to diverse ecological
conditions are the main reasons for their success under different agroecosystems
(Hoy 2011). Besides, the great increase in world trade has set the stage for potentially devastating situations that may threaten the world’s agroecosystems. Plant
feeding mites like two-spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae Koch, citrus mites
Panonychus ulmi (Koch) and Panonychus citri (McGregor); and flat mite Brevipalpus
phoenicis (Geijskes) are amongst the most serious pests under diverse conditions.
Some eriophyid mites and spider mites are the vectors of several viral diseases of
some economic crops and cause economic losses in their production.
Controller of Weeds  Weeds compete cultivated plants for water and for nutritive

elements. The skeleton weeds gall mite, Aceria chondrilla (Canestrini) feeds specifically on troublesome weed, Chondrilla juncea, and reduce the damage from
weed by controlling their further spread in new areas. Some other eriophyid mties
have also been reported specifically feeding on certain other weed species resulting
in reduced use of herbicides and pesticides (Ochoa et al. 1994).
Soil Mites  Soil mites are typical representatives of soil microfauna inhabiting soil
pores and other minute soil spaces. They inhabit primarily in upper layers of soil,
and together with the collembolans are the important representatives of aerobiotic
microfauna. In grasslands (meadows, pastures etc.) and forest habitats, their representation is dominant among different microfauna. The soil mites are mainly phytophagous, fungivorus and saprophagous forms; besides predaceous and parasitic
mites. Soil mites have exceptional importance in the circulation of substances in soil
and are more resistant to desiccation in contrast to other soil microfauna. Soil or
oribatid mites are also known as beetle mites, and are especially abundant in humus
rich soil. Significance of soil mites in processing the organic matter into humus, for
the life of the soils as an organic component of ecosystem, in which they help to
maintain an equilibrium and increase the fertility of soil. Several soil mites may
play an important role in transmitting different pathogens to man. Chiggers – larvae
of family Trombiculidae, transmit rickettsia responsible for scrub typhus, and are
typical microcavernicolous inhabitants of the soil penetrating the deeper soil layers.
Some oribatid mites are utilized as intermediate hosts by cestodes of sheep and
other ruminants, like hares and rabbits (Baker and Wharton 1952; Evans 1992;
Krantz and Walter 2009; Walter and Proctor 1999).
Predatory Mites  Diverse ecological relationships among mites may be utilized in
biological control of phytophagous mites under different situations such as greenhouses/screenhouses etc. Different predaceous mites belonging to family
Phytoseiidae are considered as efficient predators of pest mites resulting in comparatively lesser use of pesticides. Commercial insectaries produce these mites for
biological control of pest mites on tomato, ornamental plants (including roses) particularly under protected cultivation and under organic cultivation. Some tydeid
mites have been reported feeding on hyphae of fungus that cause powdery mildew


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1  Acarology and Its Importance

disease. Some of the predatory mites have been reported to control successfully
aphids, thrips, and whiteflies. Straw itch mite. Pyemotes tritici (Fossat & Montagne),
have been used as a biocontrol agent against Anagastra kuhniella.which damages
stored grains and flour (Gerson et al. 2003; Gupta 2012; Hoy 2011; Zhang 2003).
Stored Products  Mites living originally in small numbers on seeds, plants, decaying vegetation, and in nests of mammals, are gradually introduced to all types of
stored products due to mans’ economic activities (food storage). Mites attack either
stored unprocessed products (grains, vegetables, fruits, meat, bulbs, hay etc.) or
prepared products (flour or flour products, cheese, dried fruits, cured-fish etc.).
Stored mites primarily belong to family Acaridae; and infestation of stored products
by mites pose great problems all over the world. Besides damaging grains, they
affect the quality of grain products. Even the stored bulbs and corms of different
ornamental plants are badly affected by mites. The mites consumed together with
infested food cause intestinal and urinary problems in animals (Gerson et al. 2003;
Hoy 2011).
Acariasis  ‘Acariasis’ in animals is caused by a variety of mites. The zoonotic species include Sarcoptes scabiei (DeGeer) – cause of sarcoptic mange (scabies) in
humans, and more than 100 other species of mammals and marsupials. Humans can
also be infested by the scabies mites of dogs, pigs, cattle, goats, sheep, hares, buffalo, camels, and some wild or zoo animals. Many members of family Psoroptidae
affect only domestic animals and result in conditions known as ‘psoroptic mange’.
Several species of chiggers or harvest mites (family Trombiculidae) are parasites of
different animals or humans. Hundreds of food storage items (including grains and
insect cultures) are faced by certain allergic reactions and pruritis caused by different mite infestations. The bites of Dermanyssus gallina (DeGeer), Liponyssoides
sanguineus Hirst, Ornithonyssus bacoti (Hirst), O. sylviarum (Canestrini &
Fanzago), and O. bursa can be painful or pruritic, and may cause irritation and
localized dermatitis (Krantz and Walter 2009; Walter and Proctor 1999).
Mushrooms and Mites  Some mites are important pests of cultivated fungi especially mushrooms. Linopodes spp. (family Eupodidae), and Tyrophagus spp. (family Acaridae), Tarsonemus spp. and Pygmephorus spp. occur in large mumbers in
commercial mushroom houses where they often destroy whole crop of mushrooms
particularly when improperly conditioned compost is used and poor sanitary conditions are followed.
Flavour Enhancer for Cheese  For centuries French and German cheese makers
have used mites, Acarus siro and Tyrophagus casei, to refine the taste of cheese.

However, it is not properly known regarding the production of typical sour taste,
loved by fans resulting from mite infestation. Quarantine authorities of USA and
other countries, however, do not allow such cheese for import.