A STUDY ON ENGLISH GRAMMAR LEARNING STRATEGIES USE OF STUDENTS IN CLASS 10A8 AT DOAN HUNG HIGH SCHOOL Nghiên cứu về chiến lược học ngữ pháp Tiếng Anh của học sinh lớp 10A8 Trường THPT Đoan Hùng

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am, first of all, particularly indebted to my supervisor, Mrs. Nguyen Thi
Hoa who has enthusiastically helped and encouraged me to finish this research
project. Without her experienced guidance, valuable comments and constant
support, my research would still be far from finished.
Secondly, my sincere thanks also go to all lecturers and staff of Foreign
Language Department for their valuable lessons and precious help. Thanks to their
lesson as well as valuable help, I could overcome enormous obstacles when doing
the study.
Besides, I would like to give my profound thanks to 40 students at Doan
Hung High school who have participated in this research.
Finally, I would also like to express my deep gratitude and love to my
devoted parents, my sisters, my friends for their constant support and their
understanding. Their great encouragement and love have helped me to complete
this study.


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ABSTRACT
This thesis was carried out with an aim to assess English grammar learning
strategies use of students at Doan Hung High school.
The purposes of the thesis were to investigate the areas of current situation of
using grammar learning strategies: the student’s attitude (what strategies they often
use, the reason and degree of utilization), the student’s awareness ( advantages and
difficulties of strategies that students often use). The subjects involved in the study
were 40studentsinclass 10A8. These students were invited to join the survey and
answer the questionnaire.
The study reveals that students use six strategies (direct strategies and indirect
strategies) when learning English grammar. And direct strategies are used more
often than indirect strategies. They use strategies at medium frequency. The main

reason for choosing direct strategies is easy to use. Strategies help students learn
grammar more easily and more effectively. And the most difficulty is choosing
appropriate strategies for each task in the text book.
The study suggests that teachers should raise the students’ awareness about
using suitable strategies to each activity and give them more chances to use
strategies in learning grammar.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.......................................................................................i
ABSTRACT..............................................................................................................ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS.........................................................................................iii
LIST OF TABLES AND GRAPHS..........................................................................vi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS..................................................................................vii
PART A: INTRODUCTION......................................................................................1
1. Rationale................................................................................................................1
2. Previous studies.....................................................................................................2
2.1. In the world.........................................................................................................2
2.2. In Vietnam...........................................................................................................3
2.3. Existing problems...............................................................................................4
3.Research Purpose....................................................................................................4
4. Research Questions...............................................................................................4
5. Methodology..........................................................................................................5
5.1. Research procedure............................................................................................5
5.2. Research Methods...............................................................................................5
6. Hypotheses............................................................................................................5
7. Significance...........................................................................................................6
8. Scopes of the study................................................................................................6

9. Design of the study................................................................................................6
PART B: DEVELOPMENT......................................................................................8
CHAPTER 1: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND...................................................8
1.1. The Role of Grammar in Language Learning....................................................8
1.2. Language Learning Strategies...........................................................................9


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1.3. Main Features of Language Learning Strategies..............................................10
1.4. The Purposes of Language Learning Strategies...............................................11
1.5. Grammar Learning Strategies...........................................................................12
1.6. Classification of Grammar Learning Strategies...............................................14
1.6.1 Direct Strategies.............................................................................................17
1.6.1.1. Memory Strategies......................................................................................17
1.6.1.2. Cognitive Strategies....................................................................................17
1.6.1.3. Compensation Strategies............................................................................18
1.6.2. Indirect Strategies..........................................................................................18
1.6.2.1. Metacognitive Strategies............................................................................18
1.6.2.2. Affective Strategies.....................................................................................19
1.6.2.3. Social Strategies.........................................................................................19
CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH METHODS.................................................................20
2.1. The subject and object of the study..................................................................20
2.1.1. The subject of the study.................................................................................20
2.1.2. The object of the study...................................................................................20
2.2. The data collection instruments........................................................................20
2.2.1. Survey questionnaires....................................................................................20
2.2.1.1. Reasons for choosing survey questionnaires..............................................20
2.2.1.2. Describing survey questionnaire................................................................21
CHAPTER 3: DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION.........................................23
3.1. A general overview of Doan Hung High School..............................................23

3.1.1. Teachers at Doan Hung high school.............................................................24
3.1.2. Students in class 10A8 at Doan Hung high school........................................24
3.2. The English textbook of grade 10....................................................................24
3.3. Characteristics of grammar tasks in the textbook.............................................27
3.4. Findings from the current situations.................................................................27
3.4.1. Results from questionnaire............................................................................27
3.4.1.1. The grammar learning strategies that students often use..........................29
3.4.1.2. The reasons why students like to use these grammar learning strategies..30


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3.4.1.3. Frequency of students’ using grammar learning strategies.......................30
3.4.1.4. The benefits of three grammar learning strategies that the students often
use the most.............................................................................................................32
3.4.1.5. Students’ difficulties with three grammar learning strategies that they often
use............................................................................................................................33
3.5.Discussion..........................................................................................................34
3.6. Implications......................................................................................................34
3.6.1. For students...................................................................................................35
3.6.2. For teachers...................................................................................................35
PART C: CONCLUSION........................................................................................37
1. Summary of the study..........................................................................................37
2. Limitations of the study.......................................................................................37
3. Suggestions for Further Research........................................................................38
4. Conclusion...........................................................................................................38
REFERENCES...........................................................................................................I
APPENDIX 1..........................................................................................................IV
APPENDIX 2..........................................................................................................XI

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LIST OF TABLES AND GRAPHS
Table 1:The grammar learning strategies that students often use
Table 2:The benefits of three strategies that the students often use the most
Table 3:Students’ difficulties with three strategies that they often use
Graph 1:The reasons why students like to use these grammar learning strategies
Graph 2:Frequency of students’ using grammar learning strategies


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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ELF

: English Foreign Language

L2

: Second Language

FL

: Foreign Language

GLSQ

: Grammar Learning Strategies Questionnaire

GLS

: Grammar Learning Strategies

LLS

: Language Learning Strategies

SILL

: Strategies Inventory for Language Learners

M

: Mean


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PART A: INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale
Nowadays English has become one of the most popular languages
worldwide. In different countries, different people at different ages learn English
for their own purposes. In Vietnam, learning English language is interested by
young people, especially students for a plenty of reasons such as studying at good
universities, studying abroad and so on.
It has widely been accepted in language teaching and learning that grammar
structures are very important because they make up the skeleton of a language.
Without grammar, words hang together with no real meaning or sense. So as to be
able to use a language to some degree of proficiency, we need to master some
grammatical knowledge. Grammar is an important and necessary part in student’s
learning because it forms the basis for the development of four skills: reading skill,
speaking skill, listening skill and writing skill. Students with good grammar not
only produce sentences grammatically but also acquire the ability to apply

grammatical knowledge in certain contexts to express their thoughts and feelings as
well as to receive feedback. By teaching grammar, teachers not only give students
the means to express themselves, but also fulfill student’s expectations of what
learning a foreign language involves.
However, how to learn grammar effectively is not very easy and it is of
constant concern of learningstrategies. When teaching grammar, English teacher of
Doan Hung high school seem to prefer traditional teaching methods in which
grammar rules are taught deductively. The common practice of some senior
teachers is just giving the explanation of new wordsand grammar structures, asking
studentsto learn by heart and make sentences, reading structures, texts or
conversations loudly and using a lot of written exercises. In terms of teaching
schedule, the students in class 10A8 are currently required to attend only one


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period (45 minutes) of grammar per week. In class, students do not have a chance
to use grammar in communicative activities. They are just asked to do grammar
exercises in the textbooks after teacher’s presentation and explanation of a new
grammar point. It’s difficult for teachers to finish their teaching successfully
because of the time constraint, the large class size, and the student’s mixed level.
If we can’t find out any solutions to overcome those given difficulties, it is
certain that the grammar lesson can’t be successful and it even becomes worse as
the teachers find it unconfident and less enthusiastic in their teaching class. And the
students will be fed up with learning grammar if they do not usually understand the
lesson. Therefore, both teachers and students need to use more grammar strategies
learning to make the lesson more effective. Appropriate grammar learning
strategies bring comfortable atmosphere, positive attitude and also impulse
student’s motivation.
This study attempts to investigate the ways in which students in class 10A8
in Doan Hung high school make conscious efforts to learn English grammar more

efficiently, which strategies they use in learning grammar. Therefore, the situation
encouraged the author to do the research “A study on English grammar learning
strategies use of students in class 10A8 at Doan Hung high school.” with the
hope this study can help the students improve their grammar.
2. Previous studies
2.1. In the world
When researching about using English grammar strategies, Filiz Yalçin
Tilfarlioğlu (2005) had a study on “An Analysis of the Relationship between the
Use of Grammar Learning Strategies and Student Achievement at English
Preparatory Classes”, Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies. This study
attempts to investigate the ways in which some language learners make conscious
efforts to learn English grammar more efficiently, which strategies they use in


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language learning, whether a particular learning strategies favors certain strategies
or not, if it does, what those strategies are and relationships between strategy use
and learner achievement in grammar learning. The result shows that the use of
grammar learning strategies has a positive effect on the student achievement. By
knowing this, study can help the students and improve their learning habits.
The research “The relationship between grammar learning strategies use
and language achievement of Iranian high school ELF learners”of SorourZekrati
(2017), Indonesian ELF, Journal. This study sought to explore the relationship
between grammar learning strategy use and language achievement of Iranian high
school EFL learners. The participants of the
study were 300 students from three different proficiency levels (Elementary, preintermediate, and intermediate), 230 of whom completed and returned an Oxford
Solution Test, and a Likert-scale Grammar learning strategies questionnaire
(GLSQ) containing 35 statements. The results indicated that there was a positive
relationship between language achievement and grammar strategy use. The findings
of the study might provide Iranian EFL teachers and learners with some helpful

implications for teaching and testing, and learning grammar strategies respectively
at high schools, as well as useful directions for future studies in this domain.
2.2. In Vietnam
“ Việc sử dụng các thủ thuật ( strategies) học ngữ pháp tiếng Anh của sinh
viên năm thứ hai Khoa ngôn ngữ và Văn hóa Anh- Mỹ” was written by Nguyễn
Thu Hiền, (2009), University of Languages and International Studies- Vietnam
National University. This study investigated the using grammar learning strategies
of students at the second year teacher’s awareness about students using and the
relationship between grammar learning strategies and result of studying. And then
giving some suggestions to help students use grammar learning strategies better.


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2.3. Existing problems
According to the above previous studies, the researcher sees that the authors
of those studies only focused on the relationship between the use of Grammar
Learning Strategies and Student Achievement and teacher’s awareness about
student’ s using and the relationship between strategies and result of studying, they
did not give the frequency of using grammar learning strategies. And they did not
mention about the advantages and difficulties of strategies that students often use.
So, in this study, the researcher will try to find out some current situations of
grammar learning strategies’ use of the students in class 10A8 at Doan Hung high
school.
3.Research Purpose
- To find out grammar learning strategies that are often used by the students
in class 10A8 when learning grammar at Doan Hung High school, their reasons for
using these strategies and the students’ frequency in using these grammar learning
strategies.
- To find out the student’s awareness about grammar learning strategies.
(some advantages and difficulties with grammar learning strategies that they often

use)
4. Research Questions
This study intends to address the following research questions:
1) Which grammar learning strategies do students in class 10A8 often use?
2) What are the reasons for these strategies often used?
3) How often do the students in class 10A8 at Doan Hung High school use
grammar learning strategies?
4) What benefits can the students in class 10A8 at Doan Hung High school get
in using these grammar learning strategies?
5) What difficulties do the students in class 10A8 at Doan Hung High school
have in using these grammar learning strategies?


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5. Methodology
5.1. Research procedure
Firstly, study theory to clarify the definitions of Language Learning
Strategies (LLS) and Grammar Learning Strategies (GLS).
Secondly, find out which learning strategies the students in class 10A8
often use, their reasons for using these strategies and the students’ frequency in
using these grammar learning strategies.
Thirdly, explore the students’ awareness about grammar learning strategies.
Finally, give some implications for teaching and learning grammar.
5.2. Research Methods
With the aim of finding out the current situations and getting some results
after investigation into learning grammar strategies of students in class 10A8 at
Doan Hung School, this study adopts quantitative methods. To identify the
problems, the study has been carried out with the data collected from only survey
questionnaire for students to collect information about their views of the current
situations and their advantages, difficulties with strategies which are used in

learning English.
6. Hypotheses
If the study on English grammar learning strategies in class 10A8 at Doan
Hung High School is successful, this will help students in class 10A8 improve their
grammar and use grammar in correct contexts.
7. Significance
Assessing current situations in grammar learning strategies of the students
in class 10A8 at Doan Hung High School is mainly intended to generate theoretical
and practical insights into learning. Thus, the author hopes that conducting the
study will have necessary contributions: for students, teachers, and curriculum
designers. Initially, the findings of this study can help teachers to get more insights


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in to how students learn grammar and encourage their students to be conscious of
several grammar learning strategies, and create a more suitable learning
environment appeal. So that learners can improve and monitor their learning and
become autonomous learners. On the other hand, the study can provide deeper
insight to curriculum developers to incorporate grammar learning strategies training
into the curriculum. Finally, the results may call for more investigation to enrich the
existing research findings in the area of grammar learning strategies.
8. Scopes of the study
The study focuses specifically on some grammar learning strategies used in
class 10A8 at Doan Hung High school. So the study limits itself to the learning
grammar only, and the subject of the study consist of all students in class 10A8 at
Doan Hung High school, Phu Tho province.
9. Design of the study
This paper is divided into three main parts:
PART A is the INTRODUCTION. In this part, the rationale, previous research,
research purpose, research questions, research methods, significance of the study,

the scope of the study and also its design are presented.
PART B is the MAJOR CONTENT which includes 3 chapters.
Chapter I deals with the theoretical background that is relevant to the purpose of
the study: help students study English grammar with grammar learning strategies.
Chapter II includes reasons for choosing these methods as well as their procedure.
Besides, this chapter includes some data collection instruments that are necessary
for these methods.
Chapter III consists of some current situations as well as some findings concluded
from the data analysis.


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PART C is the CONCLUSION which includes the summary of the study,
limitations of the study, suggestions for further study, implications and conclusion
of the study.
REFERENCES and APPENDICES are presented in the last pages of the study.


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PART B: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
1.1. The Role of Grammar in Language Learning
The role of grammar in the foreign language classroom has constituted an
important and debated issue for a long time. In the history of language teaching, the
role of grammar has been addressed by a number of linguistic theories and
methodologies. The way grammar is or has been-considered has a direct and
decisive influence on pedagogical grammars, learning processes and many other
areas involved in foreign language teaching. (Rama & Agullo, 2012).
Grammar has given different positions in various methodologies and approaches to
language teaching. These positions can be viewed in terms of three general

instructional approaches, beginning with those that conceptual teaching in terms of
methods with an exclusive focus on grammar, continuing later as types of exposure
to meaningful communication, and emerging more recently as a set of instructional
options with a focus on both grammar and meaning. (Nassaji & Fotos, 2011).
These communicative approaches gave no formal grammar instruction assuming
that the learners would acquire the forms and vocabulary naturally, during the
process of comprehending and responding to the input. Therefore, grammar has a
limited role. (Hinkel&Fotos, 2002).
On the other hand, many researchers have tried to restore the role of
grammar. Ellis (2006) for instance argues that instructed learning may require for
attaining advanced level of grammatical competence and performance since
grammatical competence is one component of communicative competence. He
believes that the teaching of different grammatical structures in meaningful context
influences proficiency in language learning. In addition, Hinkel&Fotos (2002)
reported that instructed grammar learning can serve as communicative input, based
on which learners can internalize grammar rules. This is seen as especially


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important for the English foreign language (EFL) situation, in which
communicative exposure to the target language is usually lacking. Support was also
given for the role of grammar in language learning by Lightbown&Spada (2006).
They are confident that exposure to meaning in comprehensible input and mere
reliance on communication do not lead to language acquisition automatically. In
addition, Debata (2013) pointed out that grammar helps the students in the
correction of mistakes and improvement of written work. He implies that a person
cannot learn a foreign language accurately only through a process of unconscious
assimilation. So, grammar is indispensible for learners.
1.2. Language Learning Strategies
Learning strategies have been in the centre of attention and they have gained

great importance in the teaching-learning environment. A number of language
theorists have defined language learning strategies in different ways. Rubin (1975)
who was one of the earliest researcher in this field, defines learning strategies as
“the techniques or devise which a learner may use to acquire knowledge.”
O’Malley &Chamot (1990) characterized learning strategies as “the special
thoughts or behaviours that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or
retain new information.” Thus learning strategies were seen as special ways of
processing information that enhance comprehension, learning, or retention of the
information. Brown (2007) on the other hand views learning strategies relating with
“input- to processing, storage, and retrieval, that is, to taking messages from
others.”
Additionally, for Paterson &Rosbottom (1995) learning strategies are “the
particular habits or patterns espoused when engaged in the learning
process.”Whereas prior descriptions of learning strategies paid more attention to
products of learning and behaviors reflecting unobservable cognitive processes, as
well as limit learning strategies to receptive skills, definitions eventually provided


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clearer understanding of what learners think and do during language learning. In
this regard learning strategies have been explained by Cohen (1996) as “the steps or
actions selected by learners either to improve the learning of a second language, the
use of it, or both.” Similarly, Chamot (2004) also described learning strategies as
“the conscious thoughts and actions that learners take in order to achieve a learning
goal.” One of the most applicable definitions which was cited most frequently in
the literature was provided by Oxford (1990). The author defines language learning
strategies as “the specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier,
faster, more enjoyable, more self directed, more effective and more transferable to
new situations.” It is indeed, a reflection of what the learner intends to do and
specific actions he/she can take. The author also prominently includes how context

plays a crucial role in the language learning process.
1.3. Main Features of Language Learning Strategies
Oxford (1990: 9) listed the main features of language learning strategies, in
which Language learning strategies:
1. Contribute to the main goal of communicative competence. In order to develop
communicative competence, it is important for learners to develop: knowledge of
grammatical rules (grammatical competence), the ability to use the language as
appropriate for the particular social context in which the communication takes
place(sociolinguistics competence), the ability to interpret messages coherently
with the entire text (discourse competence) and the ability to initiate, control, and
redirect communication (strategic competence) Canale& Swain (1980).
2. Encourage learners for greater self-direction.
3. Expand the role of teachers. The roles of teachers include identifying students’
learning strategies, conducting training on learning strategies and helping learners
become more independent.


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4. Are problem oriented. They are tools used to solve a problem or to accomplish a
task.
5. Are specific action taken by the learner to enhance their learning.
6. Involve many aspects of the learner, not just the cognitive; those dealing with
mental processing and manipulation of the new language. Rather they include
metacognitive functions like planning, evaluation and arriving one’s own learning;
emotional, social, and other functions as well.
7. Offer direct and indirect support of learning.
8. Are observable to some degree. They are not always readily observable. For
instance, the act of making mental associations, which is memory strategy, cannot
be observed.However, doing works in cooperation with others can be observed.
9. Have some levels of consciousness. They usually reflect conscious efforts by

learners to take control of their learning.
10. Can be taught through strategy training.
11. Are flexible; that is, they are not always in the same sequences or certain
patterns.
12. Influenced by a variety of factors to be chosen and used by the learner such as
motivation, gender, nationality, age, learning style, etc.
1.4. The Purposes of Language Learning Strategies
Within communicative approaches to language teaching a key goal is for the
learner to develop communicative competence in the target L2/FL, and language
learning strategies can help students in doing so. As Oxford (1990; 2003) indicated
language learning strategies contribute a high importance for effective
communicative competence. According to Canale& Swain (1980), there are four
dimensions of communicative competence. These are grammatical competence,
sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence, and strategic competence.
Therefore, language learning strategies can be used as a tool to facilitate these


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dimensions of communicative competence. More specifically, Cognitive strategies
such as practicing, analyzing, and reasoning; Memory strategies or rehearsal, and
Compensation strategies develop vocabulary and grammatical competence or
accuracy (Oxford, 2003; Yalcin, 2005). Besides, Oxford notes although Memory
strategies are often used for memorizing vocabulary and structures in initial stages
of language learning, but learners need such strategies much less when their
knowledge of vocabulary and structures has become larger. Additionally, Social
strategies, such as frequent contact with native speakers and cooperation with other
learners increase sociolinguistic competence. Several kinds of strategies, such as
asking questions, rehearsing, and use of contextual clues, enhance discourse
competence.
Moreover, learning strategies can also enable students to become more

independent, autonomous, lifelong learners and learners can be able to adopt and
maintain certain attitudes to keep themselves involved in the language learning
process (Oxford, 1990). As explained by Ehrman Leaver &Oxford (2003) ,learning
strategies are helpful if: (a) the strategy relates well to the L2 task at hand, (b) the
strategy fits the particular student’s learning style preferences to one degree or
another, and (c) the student employs the strategy effectively and links it with other
relevant strategies. Besides, they may assist learners in mastering the forms and
functions required for reception or production in the second or foreign language
and thus affect achievement (Rubin, 1975).
1.5. Grammar Learning Strategies
Rang Lee & Park (2007) described grammar learning strategies as “actions
and thoughts that learners consciously employ to make language learning and/ or
language use easier, more effective, more efficient, and more enjoyable.” (Cited in
Pawlak, 2009). Similarly, to all other types of strategic behaviours, grammar
learning strategies possess distinctive characteristics as summarized by Pawlak


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(2009). These are: (1) they are actions to be taken by the learner; (2) Their
application is at least partly conscious; (3) They are optional means learners
choose; (4) Their use entails goal-oriented, purposeful activity, and (5) They are
used to regulate, facilitate, and control the process of learning. Regarding
researches on the exploration of grammar learning strategies.
Temesgen Mereba’s(2013) study on the exploration of English grammar
skills learning strategies by Jimma University Students shows that the students’
perceived use of grammar learning strategies is different from their actual usage.
The result of the questionnaire shows that respondents use all the six strategies.
However, the result of the think aloud technique revealed that the students use only
three (Cognitive, Compensation, and Memory strategies) of the six strategies. This
study indicates that even though most of the learners had information about the use

of learning strategies, some of them did not have any information about learning
strategies use. Additionally, the findings of Mystkowska-Wiertelak’s (2008)
investigation on the use of grammar learning strategies of Polish secondary school
students indicates that the students use all the six strategies. In the study, many
students were reported to use modern technology to establish and sustain contacts
with the native speakers apart from using traditional teaching aids such as
dictionaries and grammar books. Another study that aimed to investigate the use of
grammar learning strategies and student achievement of English preparatory classes
in Turkish was conducted by Yalcin (2005). This study found no significant
relationship between grammar leaning strategy use and achievement.
Likewise, the result of a study by Pawlak (2009) on the relationship between
grammar learning strategies and language attainment of English department
students also failed to find evidence for the existence of positive relationship
between the use of grammar learning strategies and attainment. Despite such
undeniable accomplishments by some researchers, the investigation on grammar


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learning strategies is still in its infancy. Anderson (2005) said that “what is greatly
lacking in the research are studies that specifically target the identification of
learning strategies that L2learners use to learn grammar and to understand the
elements of grammar.” So that it is very unfortunate that the learner has been left
out of the picture since, as is the case with any other skill, it is the learner that is
responsible for deciding how to master the target language grammar.
Therefore, the more it is known about what kind of grammar learning
strategies used by learners accordingly with individual differences, the easier it will
become to promote the most beneficial and effective ones and in so doing, foster
autonomy in this area (Pawlak, 2008; 2009).
1.6. Classification of Grammar Learning Strategies
Many researchers have focused on how successful or good language learners

try to learn and tried to identify what strategies worked for them to find which
strategies are effective for language learning (Ellis, 1997)..
Naiman (1978) identified five major learning strategies by observing, testing and
interviewing successful and unsuccessful learners in a university. The five
strategies are: active task approach; realization of language as a system; realization
of language as a means of communication; management of affective demands; and
self-monitoring.
Wong-Fillmore (1979) examined five Mexican children learning English in
school and found three social strategies (i.e., join a group or seek friend’s help) and
five cognitive strategies (i.e., look for recurring parts in the known formulas or
make the most of what you have got) used by children to increase their
communicative competence. Wong- Fillmore also argued that social strategies
could increase the amount of exposure to the target language for learners so they
were more important than the cognitive strategies.


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Rubin (1981, 1987) proposed three major strategies directly or indirectly
support language learning. The first one is learning strategy including cognitive and
metacognitive strategies. Rubin explained cognitive and metacognitive strategies,
which can contribute directly to language learning. Cognitive strategies in learning
require analysis, transformation or synthesis of learning material while
metacognitive strategies refer to regulating or self-directed learning such as
planning, goals setting or self management. Rubin identified six direct learning
strategies compared with indirect strategies: 1) clarification/verification strategies,
including asking for verification or confirmation for the language rules; 2)
guessing/ inductive reasoning, which can be used to infer meaning based on what
students knew in the language; 3) deductive reasoning, which refers to learners
using rules or knowledge of the language to deduce hypotheses about the language
forms; 4) practice, which can be used in repetition or applying rules or focusing on

the accurate use of language rules; 5) memorization, which refers to use techniques
to store and retrieve new information; 6) monitoring, which include identifying and
correcting errors.
O’Malley and Chamot (1990) developed three types of strategies, namely
metacognitive strategies (selective attention, planning, monitoring and evaluating
learning activity), cognitive strategies (rehearsal, organization, inference,
summarizing, reducing, imagery, transfer, and elaboration), and social/affective
strategies (cooperation, questioning for clarification, and self-talk).
Oxford (1993) proposed a more detailed classification model of language
learning strategies based on the synthesis of the previous work on good language
learning strategies and divided language learning strategies into direct strategies
and indirect strategies. Direct strategies involve direct learning and require mental
processing of the language (Oxford, 1993), which include (1) memory strategies,
help learners store and retrieve new information, such as grouping, creating mental


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linkages, applying images and sound, reviewing, and employing action, (2)
cognitive strategies, enable learners to understand and produce new language, such
as reasoning, practicing, receiving and sending messages, analyzing and
summarizing, (3) compensation strategies, allow learners to use the new language
for comprehension or production despite limited knowledge, and they are used to
make up for “an inadequate repertoire of grammar and, especially, of vocabulary”
(Oxford, 1993, p. 17). The strategies include guessing meanings from context or
using gestures when the learners do not know the precise expression. Indirect
strategies support learning indirectly but are powerful to learning process (Oxford,
1990), which include (1) metacognitive strategies, help learners to regulate their
learning, such as paying attention, planning, self-evaluating and monitoring one’s
errors or the learning process, (2) affective strategies, help learners to deal with
their own emotions, motivation, and attitudes, such as lowering anxiety, selfrewards, self-encouragement, (3) social strategies, refers to ways in which learners

learn the language through interactions with native speakers or the target language,
such as asking questions, cooperating with peers and improving cultural
understanding. Oxford also developed the Strategy Inventory for Language
Learning (SILL), which has two versions, one for English speakers learning a new
language (version 5.0) and the other for speakers of other language learning
English (version 7.0)
Wenden (1991) proposed two main kind of learning strategies: cognitive
strategies (select information, comprehend, store and retrieve information) and selfmanagement strategies (monitor or manage learning process such as regulatory
skills or self-directed learning skills).
In this study, research was based on classification of Six above strategies are
based on a study of Oxford R.L (1993) .Because this strategies are used by students
from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds with various variables such as


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gender, proficiency level, task, culture, etc. Moreover it is suitable and participants
are students in Vietnam and the syllabus of current English book.
1.6.1 Direct Strategies
According to Rubin (1990), direct strategies are directly related to learning/
producing the target language. They are subdivided in to three subcategories:
Memory, Cognitive, and Compensation strategies.
1.6.1.1. Memory Strategies
These strategies help learners to relate new information to existing ones or
relating one grammatical rule or word to another in order to create association in
memory but do not necessarily involve deep understanding (Oxford, 1990; 2003).
In this case the learners use various memory related strategies to be able to learn
and retrieve grammatical rules.
According to Oxford (1993) memory strategies enable learners to create
mental

linkages

of

one

grammatical

rule

with

another

by

grouping,

associating/elaborating, and by using the rules in a context. That is, learners learn
grammar by classifying or reclassifying the grammar part into meaningful units,
either mentally or in writing (e.g., ordering them together according to tense
relationship, similarity or dissimilarity in form, meaning, etc).
1.6.1.2. Cognitive Strategies
According to Oxford (1993), Cognitive strategies enable the learners to
manipulate grammatical rules by practicing the grammar rule meaningfully like by
recognizing and using a combination of rules in sentences repeatedly and apply the
new pattern in a realistic setting such as, by participating in conversation, reading a
book or article, listening to a lecture, or writing a letter in the new grammar
structure. Learners also practice grammar structures by saying or writing them
several times, listen to them again and again, rehearsing, and imitating a native

speaker.


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1.6.1.3. Compensation Strategies
Compensation occurs not only in understanding the new language but also in
producing it. Therefore, compensation strategies help the learners to use the
language for either comprehension or production though there are limitations in
information. These strategies serve as auto fillers in learning a language where
information gaps occur in understanding or applying grammar rules (Oxford, 1993;
2003). So, learners overcome their limitations by guessing intelligently using
linguistic and non-linguistic clues to compensate the absence of complete
grammatical knowledge. Learner’s background knowledge of the target language,
his/her own language or some other languages can provide linguistic clues to the
meaning of what is heard. Learners can use clues like word order, word formation,
and so on to their grammatical comprehension.
1.6.2. Indirect Strategies
Indirect strategies are those that enable or support direct strategies to occur
and/or increase their successful application (Oxford, 1993). Indirect strategies are
divided in to three subgroups: metacognitive, affective, and social strategies.
1.6.2.1. Metacognitive Strategies
Metacognitive strategies allow learners to evaluate their own grammar
learning pattern and coordinate the learning process (Oxford, 1993; 2003). Oxford
believes that Metacognitive strategies are essential for successful language learning
though learners rarely or unconsciously use these strategies. These strategies are
used for centring learning by paying attention on certain grammar tasks, activities
or materials such as, paying attention to the rules from reference books. Using such
strategies, the learners overview a concept or principle and link it with already
known material. Additionally, learners can be effective when they can be able to
arrange and plane their language learning by setting goals and objectives that they

want to achieve, and create opportunities to practice grammar rules by