Microsoft press code complete a practical handbook of software construction 2nd edition jul 2004 ISBN 0735619670

CodeComplete,SecondEdition
BySteveMcConnell
...............................................
Publisher:MicrosoftPress
PubDate:June09,2004
PrintISBN:0-7356-1967-0
Pages:960

TableofContents|Index

Takeastrategicapproachtosoftwareconstructionandproducesuperiorproductswiththisfully
updatededitionofSteveMcConnell'scriticallypraisedandaward-winningguidetosoftware
developmentbestpractices.


CodeComplete,SecondEdition
BySteveMcConnell
...............................................
Publisher:MicrosoftPress
PubDate:June09,2004
PrintISBN:0-7356-1967-0
Pages:960

TableofContents|Index



Copyright

Preface



WhoShouldReadThisBook?



WhereElseCanYouFindThisInformation?



KeyBenefitsofThisHandbook



WhyThisHandbookWasWritten



AuthorNote



Acknowledgments



AbouttheAuthor

SteveMcConnell
PartI:LayingtheFoundation



Inthispart:



Chapter1.WelcometoSoftwareConstruction



Section1.1.WhatIsSoftwareConstruction?



Section1.2.WhyIsSoftwareConstructionImportant?



Section1.3.HowtoReadThisBook




KeyPoints

Chapter2.MetaphorsforaRicherUnderstandingofSoftwareDevelopment



Section2.1.TheImportanceofMetaphors



Section2.2.HowtoUseSoftwareMetaphors



Section2.3.CommonSoftwareMetaphors




KeyPoints
Chapter3.MeasureTwice,CutOnce:UpstreamPrerequisites



Section3.1.ImportanceofPrerequisites



Section3.2.DeterminetheKindofSoftwareYou'reWorkingOn

Section3.3.Problem-DefinitionPrerequisite



Section3.4.RequirementsPrerequisite



Section3.5.ArchitecturePrerequisite



Section3.6.AmountofTimetoSpendonUpstreamPrerequisites




AdditionalResources



KeyPoints



Chapter4.KeyConstructionDecisions



Section4.1.ChoiceofProgrammingLanguage

Section4.2.ProgrammingConventions



Section4.3.YourLocationontheTechnologyWave



Section4.4.SelectionofMajorConstructionPractices




KeyPoints
PartII:CreatingHigh-QualityCode



Inthispart:



Chapter5.DesigninConstruction



Section5.1.DesignChallenges

Section5.2.KeyDesignConcepts



Section5.3.DesignBuildingBlocks:Heuristics



Section5.4.DesignPractices



Section5.5.CommentsonPopularMethodologies



AdditionalResources




KeyPoints
Chapter6.WorkingClasses



Section6.1.ClassFoundations:AbstractDataTypes(ADTs)

Section6.2.GoodClassInterfaces



Section6.3.DesignandImplementationIssues



Section6.4.ReasonstoCreateaClass



Section6.5.Language-SpecificIssues



Section6.6.BeyondClasses:Packages



AdditionalResources



KeyPoints

Chapter7.High-QualityRoutines



Section7.1.ValidReasonstoCreateaRoutine



Section7.2.DesignattheRoutineLevel



Section7.3.GoodRoutineNames



Section7.4.HowLongCanaRoutineBe?



Section7.5.HowtoUseRoutineParameters



Section7.6.SpecialConsiderationsintheUseofFunctions



Section7.7.MacroRoutinesandInlineRoutines

KeyPoints



Chapter8.DefensiveProgramming



Section8.1.ProtectingYourProgramfromInvalidInputs



Section8.2.Assertions



Section8.3.Error-HandlingTechniques



Section8.4.Exceptions



Section8.5.BarricadeYourProgramtoContaintheDamageCausedbyErrors

Section8.6.DebuggingAids





Section8.7.DeterminingHowMuchDefensiveProgrammingtoLeaveinProduction
Code




Section8.8.BeingDefensiveAboutDefensiveProgramming



AdditionalResources



KeyPoints



Chapter9.ThePseudocodeProgrammingProcess



Section9.1.SummaryofStepsinBuildingClassesandRoutines

Section9.2.PseudocodeforPros



Section9.3.ConstructingRoutinesbyUsingthePPP



Section9.4.AlternativestothePPP




KeyPoints
PartIII:Variables



Inthispart:



Chapter10.GeneralIssuesinUsingVariables



Section10.1.DataLiteracy

Section10.2.MakingVariableDeclarationsEasy



Section10.3.GuidelinesforInitializingVariables



Section10.4.Scope



Section10.5.Persistence



Section10.6.BindingTime



Section10.7.RelationshipBetweenDataTypesandControlStructures



Section10.8.UsingEachVariableforExactlyOnePurpose

KeyPoints



Chapter11.ThePowerofVariableNames



Section11.1.ConsiderationsinChoosingGoodNames



Section11.2.NamingSpecificTypesofData



Section11.3.ThePowerofNamingConventions



Section11.4.InformalNamingConventions



Section11.5.StandardizedPrefixes



Section11.6.CreatingShortNamesThatAreReadable

Section11.7.KindsofNamestoAvoid



KeyPoints



Chapter12.FundamentalDataTypes



Section12.1.NumbersinGeneral



Section12.2.Integers



Section12.3.Floating-PointNumbers



Section12.4.CharactersandStrings

Section12.5.BooleanVariables



Section12.6.EnumeratedTypes



Section12.7.NamedConstants



Section12.8.Arrays



Section12.9.CreatingYourOwnTypes(TypeAliasing)



KeyPoints



Chapter13.UnusualDataTypes



Section13.1.Structures

Section13.2.Pointers



Section13.3.GlobalData




AdditionalResources



KeyPoints



PartIV:Statements



Inthispart:



Chapter14.OrganizingStraight-LineCode

Section14.1.StatementsThatMustBeinaSpecificOrder



Section14.2.StatementsWhoseOrderDoesn'tMatter




KeyPoints
Chapter15.UsingConditionals



Section15.1.ifStatements



Section15.2.caseStatements



KeyPoints



Chapter16.ControllingLoops

Section16.1.SelectingtheKindofLoop



Section16.2.ControllingtheLoop



Section16.3.CreatingLoopsEasilyFromtheInsideOut



Section16.4.CorrespondenceBetweenLoopsandArrays




KeyPoints
Chapter17.UnusualControlStructures



Section17.1.MultipleReturnsfromaRoutine



Section17.2.Recursion

Section17.3.goto



Section17.4.PerspectiveonUnusualControlStructures



AdditionalResources




KeyPoints
Chapter18.Table-DrivenMethods



Section18.1.GeneralConsiderationsinUsingTable-DrivenMethods



Section18.2.DirectAccessTables



Section18.3.IndexedAccessTables

Section18.4.Stair-StepAccessTables



Section18.5.OtherExamplesofTableLookups



KeyPoints



Chapter19.GeneralControlIssues



Section19.1.BooleanExpressions



Section19.2.CompoundStatements(Blocks)



Section19.3.NullStatements

Section19.4.TamingDangerouslyDeepNesting



Section19.5.AProgrammingFoundation:StructuredProgramming



Section19.6.ControlStructuresandComplexity




KeyPoints
PartV:CodeImprovements



Inthispart:



Chapter20.TheSoftware-QualityLandscape



Section20.1.CharacteristicsofSoftwareQuality

Section20.2.TechniquesforImprovingSoftwareQuality




Section20.3.RelativeEffectivenessofQualityTechniques



Section20.4.WhentoDoQualityAssurance



Section20.5.TheGeneralPrincipleofSoftwareQuality



AdditionalResources



KeyPoints



Chapter21.CollaborativeConstruction



Section21.1.OverviewofCollaborativeDevelopmentPractices

Section21.2.PairProgramming



Section21.3.FormalInspections



Section21.4.OtherKindsofCollaborativeDevelopmentPractices



ComparisonofCollaborativeConstructionTechniques



AdditionalResources



KeyPoints



Chapter22.DeveloperTesting

Section22.1.RoleofDeveloperTestinginSoftwareQuality



Section22.2.RecommendedApproachtoDeveloperTesting



Section22.3.BagofTestingTricks



Section22.4.TypicalErrors



Section22.5.Test-SupportTools



Section22.6.ImprovingYourTesting



Section22.7.KeepingTestRecords



AdditionalResources

KeyPoints



Chapter23.Debugging



Section23.1.OverviewofDebuggingIssues



Section23.2.FindingaDefect



Section23.3.FixingaDefect



Section23.4.PsychologicalConsiderationsinDebugging



Section23.5.DebuggingToolsObviousandNot-So-Obvious

AdditionalResources




KeyPoints
Chapter24.Refactoring



Section24.1.KindsofSoftwareEvolution



Section24.2.IntroductiontoRefactoring



Section24.3.SpecificRefactorings



Section24.4.RefactoringSafely



Section24.5.RefactoringStrategies

AdditionalResources




KeyPoints
Chapter25.Code-TuningStrategies



Section25.1.PerformanceOverview



Section25.2.IntroductiontoCodeTuning



Section25.3.KindsofFatandMolasses



Section25.4.Measurement




Section25.5.Iteration

Section25.6.SummaryoftheApproachtoCodeTuning



AdditionalResources




KeyPoints
Chapter26.Code-TuningTechniques



Section26.1.Logic



Section26.2.Loops



Section26.3.DataTransformations



Section26.4.Expressions

Section26.5.Routines



Section26.6.RecodinginaLow-LevelLanguage



Section26.7.TheMoreThingsChange,theMoreTheyStaytheSame



AdditionalResources




KeyPoints
PartVI:SystemConsiderations



Inthispart:



Chapter27.HowProgramSizeAffectsConstruction

Section27.1.CommunicationandSize



Section27.2.RangeofProjectSizes



Section27.3.EffectofProjectSizeonErrors



Section27.4.EffectofProjectSizeonProductivity



Section27.5.EffectofProjectSizeonDevelopmentActivities



AdditionalResources




KeyPoints
Chapter28.ManagingConstruction

Section28.1.EncouragingGoodCoding



Section28.2.ConfigurationManagement



Section28.3.EstimatingaConstructionSchedule



Section28.5.TreatingProgrammersasPeople



Section28.6.ManagingYourManager



KeyPoints



Chapter29.Integration

Section29.1.ImportanceoftheIntegrationApproach



Section29.2.IntegrationFrequencyPhasedorIncremental?



Section29.3.IncrementalIntegrationStrategies



Section29.4.DailyBuildandSmokeTest



AdditionalResources



KeyPoints



Chapter30.ProgrammingTools



Section30.1.DesignTools

Section30.2.Source-CodeTools



Section30.3.Executable-CodeTools



Section30.4.Tool-OrientedEnvironments



Section30.5.BuildingYourOwnProgrammingTools




Section30.6.ToolFantasyland



AdditionalResources



KeyPoints

PartVII:SoftwareCraftsmanship



Inthispart:



Chapter31.LayoutandStyle



Section31.1.LayoutFundamentals



Section31.2.LayoutTechniques



Section31.3.LayoutStyles



Section31.4.LayingOutControlStructures



Section31.5.LayingOutIndividualStatements

Section31.6.LayingOutComments



Section31.7.LayingOutRoutines



Section31.8.LayingOutClasses



AdditionalResources




KeyPoints
Chapter32.Self-DocumentingCode



Section32.1.ExternalDocumentation



Section32.2.ProgrammingStyleasDocumentation

Section32.3.ToCommentorNottoComment



Section32.4.KeystoEffectiveComments



Section32.5.CommentingTechniques



Section32.6.IEEEStandards



AdditionalResources



KeyPoints



Chapter33.PersonalCharacter

Section33.1.Isn'tPersonalCharacterOfftheTopic?



Section33.2.IntelligenceandHumility



Section33.3.Curiosity



Section33.4.IntellectualHonesty



Section33.5.CommunicationandCooperation



Section33.6.CreativityandDiscipline



Section33.7.Laziness



Section33.8.CharacteristicsThatDon'tMatterAsMuchAsYouMightThink

Section33.9.Habits



AdditionalResources



KeyPoints



Chapter34.ThemesinSoftwareCraftsmanship



Section34.1.ConquerComplexity



Section34.2.PickYourProcess



Section34.3.WriteProgramsforPeopleFirst,ComputersSecond

Section34.4.ProgramintoYourLanguage,NotinIt



Section34.5.FocusYourAttentionwiththeHelpofConventions



Section34.6.PrograminTermsoftheProblemDomain




Section34.7.WatchforFallingRocks



Section34.8.Iterate,Repeatedly,AgainandAgain



Section34.9.ThouShaltRendSoftwareandReligionAsunder



KeyPoints

Chapter35.WheretoFindMoreInformation



Section35.1.InformationAboutSoftwareConstruction



Section35.2.TopicsBeyondConstruction



Section35.3.Periodicals



Section35.4.ASoftwareDeveloper'sReadingPlan



Section35.5.JoiningaProfessionalOrganization



Bibliography



Index

Copyright
PUBLISHEDBY
MicrosoftPress
ADivisionofMicrosoftCorporation
OneMicrosoftWay
Redmond,Washington98052-6399
Copyright©2004byStevenC.McConnell
Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthecontentsofthisbookmaybereproducedor
transmittedinanyformorbyanymeanswithoutthewrittenpermissionofthe
publisher.
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationDataMcConnell,Steve
CodeComplete/SteveMcConnell.2nded.
p.cm.
Includesindex.
1.ComputerSoftwareDevelopmentHandbooks,manuals,etc.I.Title.
QA76.76.D47M392004
005.1dc222004049981
123456789QWT876543
DistributedinCanadabyH.B.FennandCompanyLtd.ACIPcataloguerecord
forthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary.
MicrosoftPressbooksareavailablethroughbooksellersanddistributors
worldwide.Forfurtherinformationaboutinternationaleditions,contactyour
localMicrosoftCorporationofficeorcontactMicrosoftPressInternational


directlyatfax(425)936-7329.VisitourWebsiteat
Sendcommentsto

Microsoft,MicrosoftPress,PowerPoint,VisualBasic,Windows,andWindows

NTareeitherregisteredtrademarksortrademarksofMicrosoftCorporationin
theUnitedStatesand/orothercountries.Otherproductandcompanynames
mentionedhereinmaybethetrademarksoftheirrespectiveowners.
Theexamplecompanies,organizations,products,domainnames,e-mail
addresses,logos,people,places,andeventsdepictedhereinarefictitious.No
associationwithanyrealcompany,organization,product,domainname,e-mail
address,logo,person,place,oreventisintendedorshouldbeinferred.
Thisbookexpressestheauthor'sviewsandopinions.Theinformationcontained
inthisbookisprovidedwithoutanyexpress,statutory,orimpliedwarranties.
Neithertheauthors,MicrosoftCorporation,noritsresellers,ordistributorswill
beheldliableforanydamagescausedorallegedtobecausedeitherdirectlyor
indirectlybythisbook.
AcquisitionsEditors:LindaEngelmanandRobinVanSteenburgh
ProjectEditor:DevonMusgrave
Indexer:BillMyers
PrincipalDesktopPublisher:CarlDiltz
BodyPartNo.X10-53130

Dedication
Tomywife,Ashlie,whodoesn'thavemuchtodowithcomputerprogramming
butwhohaseverythingtodowithenrichingtherestofmylifeinmoreways
thanIcouldpossiblydescribe


Preface
Thegapbetweenthebestsoftwareengineeringpracticeandtheaverage
practiceisverywideperhapswiderthaninanyotherengineering
discipline.Atoolthatdisseminatesgoodpracticewouldbeimportant.
FredBrooks
Myprimaryconcerninwritingthisbookhasbeentonarrowthegapbetweenthe

knowledgeofindustrygurusandprofessorsontheonehandandcommon
commercialpracticeontheother.Manypowerfulprogrammingtechniqueshide
injournalsandacademicpapersforyearsbeforetricklingdowntothe
programmingpublic.
Althoughleading-edgesoftware-developmentpracticehasadvancedrapidlyin
recentyears,commonpracticehasn't.Manyprogramsarestillbuggy,late,and
overbudget,andmanyfailtosatisfytheneedsoftheirusers.Researchersinboth
thesoftwareindustryandacademicsettingshavediscoveredeffectivepractices
thateliminatemostoftheprogrammingproblemsthathavebeenprevalentsince
the1970s.Becausethesepracticesaren'toftenreportedoutsidethepagesof
highlyspecializedtechnicaljournals,however,mostprogrammingorganizations
aren'tyetusingthemtoday.Studieshavefoundthatittypicallytakes5to15
yearsormoreforaresearchdevelopmenttomakeitswayintocommercial
practice(RaghavanandChand1989,Rogers1995,Parnas1999).Thishandbook
shortcutstheprocess,makingkeydiscoveriesavailabletotheaverage
programmernow.


WhoShouldReadThisBook?
Theresearchandprogrammingexperiencecollectedinthishandbookwillhelp
youtocreatehigher-qualitysoftwareandtodoyourworkmorequicklyandwith
fewerproblems.Thisbookwillgiveyouinsightintowhyyou'vehadproblems
inthepastandwillshowyouhowtoavoidproblemsinthefuture.The
programmingpracticesdescribedherewillhelpyoukeepbigprojectsunder
controlandhelpyoumaintainandmodifysoftwaresuccessfullyasthedemands
ofyourprojectschange.

ExperiencedProgrammers
Thishandbookservesexperiencedprogrammerswhowantacomprehensive,
easy-to-useguidetosoftwaredevelopment.Becausethisbookfocuseson

construction,themostfamiliarpartofthesoftwarelifecycle,itmakespowerful
softwaredevelopmenttechniquesunderstandabletoself-taughtprogrammersas
wellastoprogrammerswithformaltraining.

TechnicalLeads
ManytechnicalleadshaveusedCodeCompletetoeducateless-experienced
programmersontheirteams.Youcanalsouseittofillyourownknowledge
gaps.Ifyou'reanexperiencedprogrammer,youmightnotagreewithallmy
conclusions(andIwouldbesurprisedifyoudid),butifyoureadthisbookand
thinkabouteachissue,onlyrarelywillsomeonebringupaconstructionissue
thatyouhaven'tpreviouslyconsidered.

Self-TaughtProgrammers
Ifyouhaven'thadmuchformaltraining,you'reingoodcompany.About50,000
newdevelopersentertheprofessioneachyear(BLS2004,Hecker2004),but
onlyabout35,000software-relateddegreesareawardedeachyear(NCES2002).
Fromthesefiguresit'sashorthoptotheconclusionthatmanyprogrammers


don'treceiveaformaleducationinsoftwaredevelopment.Self-taught
programmersarefoundintheemerginggroupofprofessionalsengineers,
accountants,scientists,teachers,andsmallbusinessownerswhoprogramaspart
oftheirjobsbutwhodonotnecessarilyviewthemselvesasprogrammers.
Regardlessoftheextentofyourprogrammingeducation,thishandbookcangive
youinsightintoeffectiveprogrammingpractices.

Students
Thecounterpointtotheprogrammerwithexperiencebutlittleformaltrainingis
thefreshcollegegraduate.Therecentgraduateisoftenrichintheoretical
knowledgebutpoorinthepracticalknow-howthatgoesintobuilding

productionprograms.Thepracticalloreofgoodcodingisoftenpasseddown
slowlyintheritualistictribaldancesofsoftwarearchitects,projectleads,
analysts,andmore-experiencedprogrammers.Evenmoreoften,it'stheproduct
oftheindividualprogrammer'strialsanderrors.Thisbookisanalternativetothe
slowworkingsofthetraditionalintellectualpotlatch.Itpullstogetherthehelpful
tipsandeffectivedevelopmentstrategiespreviouslyavailablemainlybyhunting
andgatheringfromotherpeople'sexperience.It'sahandupforthestudent
makingthetransitionfromanacademicenvironmenttoaprofessionalone.


WhereElseCanYouFindThisInformation?
Thisbooksynthesizesconstructiontechniquesfromavarietyofsources.In
additiontobeingwidelyscattered,muchoftheaccumulatedwisdomabout
constructionhasresidedoutsidewrittensourcesforyears(Hildebrand1989,
McConnell1997a).Thereisnothingmysteriousabouttheeffective,highpoweredprogrammingtechniquesusedbyexpertprogrammers.Intheday-todayrushofgrindingoutthelatestproject,however,fewexpertstakethetimeto
sharewhattheyhavelearned.Consequently,programmersmayhavedifficulty
findingagoodsourceofprogramminginformation.
Thetechniquesdescribedinthisbookfillthevoidafterintroductoryand
advancedprogrammingtexts.AfteryouhavereadIntroductiontoJava,
AdvancedJava,andAdvancedAdvancedJava,whatbookdoyoureadtolearn
moreaboutprogramming?YoucouldreadbooksaboutthedetailsofIntelor
Motorolahardware,MicrosoftWindowsorLinuxoperating-systemfunctions,or
anotherprogramminglanguageyoucan'tusealanguageorprograminan
environmentwithoutagoodreferencetosuchdetails.Butthisisoneofthefew
booksthatdiscussesprogrammingperse.Someofthemostbeneficial
programmingaidsarepracticesthatyoucanuseregardlessoftheenvironment
orlanguageyou'reworkingin.Otherbooksgenerallyneglectsuchpractices,
whichiswhythisbookconcentratesonthem.
Theinformationinthisbookisdistilledfrommanysources,asshownbelow.
Theonlyotherwaytoobtaintheinformationyou'llfindinthishandbookwould

betoplowthroughamountainofbooksandafewhundredtechnicaljournals
andthenaddasignificantamountofreal-worldexperience.Ifyou'vealready
doneallthat,youcanstillbenefitfromthisbook'scollectingtheinformationin
oneplaceforeasyreference.

[Viewfullsizeimage]



KeyBenefitsofThisHandbook
Whateveryourbackground,thishandbookcanhelpyouwritebetterprogramsin
lesstimeandwithfewerheadaches.
Completesoftware-constructionreferenceThishandbookdiscussesgeneral
aspectsofconstructionsuchassoftwarequalityandwaystothinkabout
programming.Itgetsintonitty-grittyconstructiondetailssuchasstepsin
buildingclasses,insandoutsofusingdataandcontrolstructures,debugging,
refactoring,andcode-tuningtechniquesandstrategies.Youdon'tneedtoreadit
covertocovertolearnaboutthesetopics.Thebookisdesignedtomakeiteasy
tofindthespecificinformationthatinterestsyou.
Ready-to-usechecklistsThisbookincludesdozensofchecklistsyoucanuseto
assessyoursoftwarearchitecture,designapproach,classandroutinequality,
variablenames,controlstructures,layout,testcases,andmuchmore.
State-of-the-artinformationThishandbookdescribessomeofthemostup-todatetechniquesavailable,manyofwhichhavenotyetmadeitintocommonuse.
Becausethisbookdrawsfrombothpracticeandresearch,thetechniquesit
describeswillremainusefulforyears.
LargerperspectiveonsoftwaredevelopmentThisbookwillgiveyouachance
toriseabovethefrayofday-to-dayfirefightingandfigureoutwhatworksand
whatdoesn't.Fewpracticingprogrammershavethetimetoreadthroughthe
hundredsofbooksandjournalarticlesthathavebeendistilledintothis
handbook.Theresearchandrealworldexperiencegatheredintothishandbook

willinformandstimulateyourthinkingaboutyourprojects,enablingyoutotake
strategicactionsothatyoudon'thavetofightthesamebattlesagainandagain.
AbsenceofhypeSomesoftwarebookscontain1gramofinsightswathedin10
gramsofhype.Thisbookpresentsbalanceddiscussionsofeachtechnique's
strengthsandweaknesses.Youknowthedemandsofyourparticularproject
betterthananyoneelse.Thisbookprovidestheobjectiveinformationyouneed
tomakegooddecisionsaboutyourspecificcircumstances.


ConceptsapplicabletomostcommonlanguagesThisbookdescribes
techniquesyoucanusetogetthemostoutofwhateverlanguageyou'reusing,
whetherit'sC++,C#,Java,MicrosoftVisualBasic,orothersimilarlanguages.
NumerouscodeexamplesThebookcontainsalmost500examplesofgoodand
badcode.I'veincludedsomanyexamplesbecause,personally,Ilearnbestfrom
examples.Ithinkotherprogrammerslearnbestthatwaytoo.
Theexamplesareinmultiplelanguagesbecausemasteringmorethanone
languageisoftenawatershedinthecareerofaprofessionalprogrammer.Oncea
programmerrealizesthatprogrammingprinciplestranscendthesyntaxofany
specificlanguage,thedoorsswingopentoknowledgethattrulymakesa
differenceinqualityandproductivity.
Tomakethemultiple-languageburdenaslightaspossible,I'veavoidedesoteric
languagefeaturesexceptwherethey'respecificallydiscussed.Youdon'tneedto
understandeverynuanceofthecodefragmentstounderstandthepointsthey're
making.Ifyoufocusonthepointbeingillustrated,you'llfindthatyoucanread
thecoderegardlessofthelanguage.I'vetriedtomakeyourjobeveneasierby
annotatingthesignificantpartsoftheexamples.
AccesstoothersourcesofinformationThisbookcollectsmuchofthe
availableinformationonsoftwareconstruction,butit'shardlythelastword.
Throughoutthechapters,"AdditionalResources"sectionsdescribeotherbooks
andarticlesyoucanreadasyoupursuethetopicsyoufindmostinteresting.

BookwebsiteUpdatedchecklists,books,magazinearticles,Weblinks,and
othercontentareprovidedonacompanionwebsiteatcc2e.com.Toaccess
informationrelatedtoCodeComplete,2ded.,entercc2e.com/followedbya
four-digitcode,anexampleofwhichisshownhereintheleftmargin.These
websitereferencesappearthroughoutthebook.


WhyThisHandbookWasWritten
Theneedfordevelopmenthandbooksthatcaptureknowledgeabouteffective
developmentpracticesiswellrecognizedinthesoftware-engineering
community.AreportoftheComputerScienceandTechnologyBoardstatedthat
thebiggestgainsinsoftware-developmentqualityandproductivitywillcome
fromcodifying,unifying,anddistributingexistingknowledgeabouteffective
software-developmentpractices(CSTB1990,McConnell1997a).Theboard
concludedthatthestrategyforspreadingthatknowledgeshouldbebuiltonthe
conceptofsoftware-engineeringhandbooks.

TheTopicofConstructionHasBeenNeglected
Atonetime,softwaredevelopmentandcodingwerethoughttobeoneandthe
same.Butasdistinctactivitiesinthesoftware-developmentlifecyclehavebeen
identified,someofthebestmindsinthefieldhavespenttheirtimeanalyzing
anddebatingmethodsofprojectmanagement,requirements,design,andtesting.
Therushtostudythesenewlyidentifiedareashasleftcodeconstructionasthe
ignorantcousinofsoftwaredevelopment.
Discussionsaboutconstructionhavealsobeenhobbledbythesuggestionthat
treatingconstructionasadistinctsoftwaredevelopmentactivityimpliesthat
constructionmustalsobetreatedasadistinctphase.Inreality,software
activitiesandphasesdon'thavetobesetupinanyparticularrelationshiptoeach
other,andit'susefultodiscusstheactivityofconstructionregardlessofwhether
othersoftwareactivitiesareperformedinphases,initerations,orinsomeother

way.

ConstructionIsImportant
Anotherreasonconstructionhasbeenneglectedbyresearchersandwritersisthe
mistakenideathat,comparedtoothersoftware-developmentactivities,
constructionisarelativelymechanicalprocessthatpresentslittleopportunityfor
improvement.Nothingcouldbefurtherfromthetruth.


Codeconstructiontypicallymakesupabout65percentoftheeffortonsmall
projectsand50percentonmediumprojects.Constructionaccountsforabout75
percentoftheerrorsonsmallprojectsand50to75percentonmediumandlarge
projects.Anyactivitythataccountsfor50to75percentoftheerrorspresentsa
clearopportunityforimprovement.(Chapter27containsmoredetailsonthese
statistics.)
Somecommentatorshavepointedoutthatalthoughconstructionerrorsaccount
forahighpercentageoftotalerrors,constructionerrorstendtobelessexpensive
tofixthanthosecausedbyrequirementsandarchitecture,thesuggestionbeing
thattheyarethereforelessimportant.Theclaimthatconstructionerrorscostless
tofixistruebutmisleadingbecausethecostofnotfixingthemcanbeincredibly
high.Researchershavefoundthatsmall-scalecodingerrorsaccountforsomeof
themostexpensivesoftwareerrorsofalltime,withcostsrunningintohundreds
ofmillionsofdollars(Weinberg1983,SEN1990).Aninexpensivecosttofix
obviouslydoesnotimplythatfixingthemshouldbealowpriority.
Theironyoftheshiftinfocusawayfromconstructionisthatconstructionisthe
onlyactivitythat'sguaranteedtobedone.Requirementscanbeassumedrather
thandeveloped;architecturecanbeshortchangedratherthandesigned;and
testingcanbeabbreviatedorskippedratherthanfullyplannedandexecuted.But
ifthere'sgoingtobeaprogram,therehastobeconstruction,andthatmakes
constructionauniquelyfruitfulareainwhichtoimprovedevelopmentpractices.

NoComparableBookIsAvailable
Inlightofconstruction'sobviousimportance,IwassurewhenIconceivedthis
bookthatsomeoneelsewouldalreadyhavewrittenabookoneffective
constructionpractices.Theneedforabookabouthowtoprogrameffectively
seemedobvious.ButIfoundthatonlyafewbookshadbeenwrittenabout
constructionandthenonlyonpartsofthetopic.Somehadbeenwritten15years
ormoreearlierandemployedrelativelyesotericlanguagessuchasALGOL,
PL/I,Ratfor,andSmalltalk.Somewerewrittenbyprofessorswhowerenot
workingonproductioncode.Theprofessorswroteabouttechniquesthatworked
forstudentprojects,buttheyoftenhadlittleideaofhowthetechniqueswould
playoutinfull-scaledevelopmentenvironments.Stillotherbookstrumpetedthe
authors'newestfavoritemethodologiesbutignoredthehugerepositoryof


maturepracticesthathaveproventheireffectivenessovertime.
Inshort,Icouldn'tfindanybookthathadevenattemptedtocapturethebodyof
practicaltechniquesavailablefromprofessionalexperience,industryresearch,
andacademicwork.Thediscussionneededtobebroughtuptodateforcurrent
programminglanguages,object-orientedprogramming,andleading-edge
developmentpractices.Itseemedclearthatabookaboutprogrammingneededto
bewrittenbysomeonewhowasknowledgeableaboutthetheoreticalstateofthe
artbutwhowasalsobuildingenoughproductioncodetoappreciatethestateof
thepractice.Iconceivedthisbookasafulldiscussionofcodeconstructionfrom
oneprogrammertoanother.
WhenartcriticsgettogethertheytalkaboutFormandStructureand
Meaning.Whenartistsgettogethertheytalkaboutwhereyoucanbuy
cheapturpentine.
PabloPicasso

AuthorNote
Iwelcomeyourinquiriesaboutthetopicsdiscussedinthisbook,yourerror
reports,orotherrelatedsubjects.Pleasecontactmeat,
orvisitmywebsiteat.
Bellevue,Washington
MemorialDay,2004


MicrosoftLearningTechnicalSupport
Everyefforthasbeenmadetoensuretheaccuracyofthisbook.Microsoft
PressprovidescorrectionsforbooksthroughtheWorldWideWebatthe
followingaddress:
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regardingaquestionorissuethatyoumayhave,goto:
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Acknowledgments
Abookisneverreallywrittenbyoneperson(atleastnoneofmybooksare).A
secondeditionisevenmoreacollectiveundertaking.

I'dliketothankthepeoplewhocontributedreviewcommentsonsignificant
portionsofthebook:HákonÁgústsson,ScottAmbler,WillBarns,WilliamD.
Bartholomew,LarsBergstrom,IanBrockbank,BruceButler,JayCincotta,Alan
Cooper,BobCorrick,AlCorwin,JerryDeville,JonEaves,EdwardEstrada,
SteveGouldstone,OwainGriffiths,MatthewHarris,MichaelHoward,Andy
Hunt,KevinHutchison,RobJasper,StephenJenkins,RalphJohnsonandhis
SoftwareArchitectureGroupattheUniversityofIllinois,MarekKonopka,Jeff
Langr,AndyLester,MiticaManu,SteveMattingly,GarethMcCaughan,Robert
McGovern,ScottMeyers,GarethMorgan,MattPeloquin,BryanPflug,Jeffrey
Richter,SteveRinn,DougRosenberg,BrianSt.Pierre,DiomidisSpinellis,Matt
Stephens,DaveThomas,AndyThomas-Cramer,JohnVlissides,Pavel
Vozenilek,DennyWilliford,JackWoolley,andDeeZsombor.
Hundredsofreaderssentcommentsaboutthefirstedition,andmanymoresent
individualcommentsaboutthesecondedition.Thankstoeveryonewhotook
timetosharetheirreactionstothebookinitsvariousforms.
SpecialthankstotheConstruxSoftwarereviewerswhoformallyinspectedthe
entiremanuscript:JasonHills,BradeyHonsinger,AbdulNizar,TomReed,and
PamelaPerrott.Iwastrulyamazedathowthoroughtheirreviewwas,especially
consideringhowmanyeyeshadscrutinizedthebookbeforetheybeganworking
onit.ThanksalsotoBradey,Jason,andPamelafortheircontributionstothe
cc2e.comwebsite.
WorkingwithDevonMusgrave,projecteditorforthisbook,hasbeenaspecial
treat.I'veworkedwithnumerousexcellenteditorsonotherprojects,andDevon
standsoutasespeciallyconscientiousandeasytoworkwith.Thanks,Devon!
ThankstoLindaEnglemanwhochampionedthesecondedition;thisbook
wouldn'thavehappenedwithouther.ThanksalsototherestoftheMicrosoft
Pressstaff,includingRobinVanSteenburgh,EldenNelson,CarlDiltz,Joel
Panchot,PatriciaMasserman,BillMyers,SandiResnick,BarbaraNorfleet,

JamesKramer,andPrescottKlassen.
I'dliketoremembertheMicrosoftPressstaffthatpublishedthefirstedition:
AliceSmith,ArleneMyers,BarbaraRunyan,CarolLuke,ConnieLittle,Dean
Holmes,EricStroo,ErinO'Connor,JeannieMcGivern,JeffCarey,Jennifer
Harris,JenniferVick,JudithBloch,KatherineErickson,KimEggleston,Lisa
Sandburg,LisaTheobald,MargariteHargrave,MikeHalvorson,PatForgette,
PeggyHerman,RuthPettis,SallyBrunsman,ShawnPeck,SteveMurray,Wallis
Bolz,andZaafarHasnain.
Thankstothereviewerswhocontributedsosignificantlytothefirstedition:Al
Corwin,BillKiestler,BrianDaugherty,DaveMoore,GregHitchcock,Hank
Meuret,JackWoolley,JoeyWyrick,MargotPage,MikeKlein,Mike
Zevenbergen,PatForman,PeterPathe,RobertL.Glass,TammyForman,Tony
Pisculli,andWayneBeardsley.SpecialthankstoTonyGarlandforhis
exhaustivereview:with12years'hindsight,Iappreciatemorethaneverhow
exceptionalTony'sseveralthousandreviewcommentsreallywere.