The oxford handbook of music psychology (2016) susan hallam, ian cross

T h e Ox f o r d H a n d b o o k o f 

M U SIC
P SYC HOL O G Y



the Oxford Handbook of

MUSIC
PSYCHOLOGY
Second Edition
Edited by

SU S A N HA L L A M , IA N C R O S S ,
and

M IC HA E L  T HAU T

1


3
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Contents

List of Contributors

xi

PA RT  1  T H E OR IG I N S A N D
F U N C T ION S  OF  M U SIC
Edited by Ian Cross
1. The nature of music and its evolution 
Ian Cross
2. Universals in music processing: Entrainment, acquiring
expectations, and learning 
Catherine J. Stevens and Tim Byron
3. Music and meaning 
Ian Cross and Elizabeth Tolbert
4. The social and personal functions of music
in cross-cultural perspective 
Martin Clayton

3

19
33

47

PA RT  2  M U SIC P E RC E P T ION
Edited by Ian Cross
5. The perception of pitch 
Thomas Stainsby and Ian Cross

63

6. Absolute pitch 
Psyche Loui

81

7. Tonal cognition 
Emmanuel Bigand and Bénédicte Poulin-Charronnat

95

8. The perception of musical timbre 
Stephen McAdams and Bruno L. Giordano

113


vi   Contents

9. Musical time 
Mari Riess Jones

125

10. Tonality and contour in melodic processing 
Mark A. Schmuckler

143

11. Memory for music 
Bob Snyder

167

PA RT  3  R E SP ON SE S TO  M U SIC
Edited by Donald A. Hodges
 12. Bodily responses to music 
Donald A. Hodges

183

 13. Emotional reactions to music 
Patrik N. Juslin

197

 14. The relationship between musical structure
and perceived expression 
Alf Gabrielsson

215

 15. Aesthetics 
David Huron

233

 16. The neuroaesthetics of music 
Donald A. Hodges

247

 17. Musical preferences 
Alinka Greasley and Alexandra Lamont

263

PA RT  4  M U SIC A N D T H E  B R A I N
Edited by Jessica A. Grahn
 18. The neurobiology of musical expectations
from perception to emotion 
Laurel J. Trainor and Robert J. Zatorre

285

 19. Disorders of music cognition 
Psyche Loui

307

 20.Music and brain plasticity 

Simone Dalla Bella

325


Contents   vii

 21. The relationship between music and language 
Sebastian Jentschke

343

 22.The neuroscience of rhythm 
Daniel J. Cameron and Jessica A. Grahn

357

PA RT  5  M U SIC A L DE V E L OP M E N T
Edited by Alexandra Lamont
 23. Prenatal development and the phylogeny and ontogeny
of musical behavior 
Richard Parncutt

371

 24. Infant musicality 
Sandra E. Trehub

387

25. Musical development from the early years onwards
Alexandra Lamont

399

 26.Music training and nonmusical abilities 
E. Glenn Schellenberg

415

PA RT  6  L E A R N I N G M U SIC A L  SK I L L S
Edited by Susan Hallam
 27. Musical potential 
Gary E. McPherson and Susan Hallam

433

 28. Practicing 
Harald Jørgensen and Susan Hallam

449

 29.Individuality in the learning of musical skills 
Helena Gaunt and Susan Hallam

463

 30.Motivation to learn 
Susan Hallam

479

 31. The role of the family in supporting learning 
Andrea Creech

493

 32. The role of the institution and teachers in supporting learning 
Graham Welch and Adam Ockelford

509


viii   Contents

PA RT  7  M U SIC A L P E R F OR M A N C E
Edited by Richard Parncutt
 33. Planning and performance 
Eckart Altenmüller and Shinichi Furuya

529

 34. Sight-reading 
Andreas C. Lehmann and Reinhardt Kopiez

547

 35. Performing from memory 
Roger Chaffin, Alexander P. Demos, and Topher Logan

559

 36.Bodily mediated coordination, collaboration,
and communication in music performance 
Jane W. Davidson and Mary C. Broughton
 37. Emotion in music performance 
Patrik N. Juslin and Erik Lindström

573
597

 38.Expression and communication of structure in music
performance: Measurements and models 
Erica Bisesi and W. Luke Windsor

615

 39.Optimizing physical and psychological health
in performing musicians 
Dianna T. Kenny and Bronwen J. Ackermann

633

PA RT  8  C OM P O SI T ION A N D I M P ROV I S AT ION
Edited by Peter R. Webster
 40.Making a mark: The psychology of composition 
Jonathan Impett

651

41. Musical improvisation
Richard Ashley

667

 42.Pathways to the study of music composition by preschool
to precollege students 
Peter R. Webster

681


Contents   ix

PA RT  9  T H E ROL E OF M U SIC I N OU R
E V E RY DAY  L I V E S
Edited by Raymond MacDonald
 43.Choosing to hear music: Motivation, process, and effect 
Alexandra Lamont, Alinka Greasley, and John Sloboda

711

44.Music in performance arts: Film, theater, and dance
Annabel J. Cohen

725

45.Peak experiences in music
Alf Gabrielsson, John Whaley, and John Sloboda

745

 46. Musical identities 
David J. Hargreaves, Raymond MacDonald,
and Dorothy Miell

759

 47. The effects of music in community and educational settings 
Susan Hallam and Raymond MacDonald

775

 48.Music and consumer behavior 
Adrian C. North, David J. Hargreaves,
and Amanda E. Krause

789

PA RT  10  M U SIC T H E R A P Y
Edited by Michael Thaut
 49.Processes of music therapy: Clinical and scientific
rationales and models 
Shannon K. de l’etoile

805

 50.Clinical practice in music therapy 
Corene Hurt-Thaut

819

 51. Research in music therapy 
Barbara L. Wheeler

837

 52. Music therapy in medical and neurological rehabilitation settings 
Stefan Mainka, Ralph Spintge, and Michael Thaut

857


x   Contents



PA RT  11  C ON C E P T UA L F R A M E WOR K S ,
R E SE A RC H M E T HOD S , A N D F U T U R E
DI R E C T ION S
Edited by Susan Hallam, Ian Cross, and Michael Thaut

 53. Beyond music psychology 
Adam Ockelford

877

 54.History and research 
Michael Thaut

893

 55. Where now? 
Susan Hallam, Ian Cross, and Michael Thaut

905

Index

915


List of Contributors

Dr Bronwen J. Ackermann 
Biomedical Sciences
School of Medical Sciences
Sydney Medical School
University of Sydney
Sydney, NSW 2006
Australia
Professor Eckart Altenmüller 
Institut fur Musikphysiologie und
Musiker-Medizin
Hohenzollernstr 47
30161 Hannover
Germany
Dr Richard Ashley 
Bienen School of Music
Northwestern University

70 Arts Circle Drive
Evanston, IL 60208
USA
Professor Emmanuel Bigand 
LEAD CNRS UMR 5022
Université de Bourgogne
Pole AAFE
Esplanade Erasme, BP 26513
21065 Dijon Cedex
France
Dr Erica Bisesi 
Centre for Systematic Musicology
University of Graz
Merangasse 70
A - 8010 Graz Austria
Dr Mary C. Broughton 
School of Music
University of Queensland
Brisbane, QLD 4072
Australia

Dr Tim Byron 
School of Psychology
McElwain Building
The University of Queensland
St Lucia, QLD 4072
Australia
Daniel J. Cameron 
Brain and Mind Institute
University of Western Ontario

London, ON N6A 5B7
Canada
Professor Roger Chaffin 
Department of Psychology
U-1020, University of Connecticut
406 Babbidge Road
Storrs, CT 06269-1020
USA
Professor Martin Clayton 
Department of Music
Durham University
Durham, DH1 3RL
UK
Professor Annabel J. Cohen 
Department of Psychology
University of Prince Edward Island
550 University Avenue
Charlottetown, PE C1A 4P3
Canada
Dr Andrea Creech
Department of Education
Practice and Society
University College London
Institute of Education
20 Bedford Way
London, WC1H OAL
UK


xii   List of Contributors

Professor Ian Cross 
Centre for Music & Science
Faculty of Music
University of Cambridge
11 West Road
Cambridge, CB3 9DP
UK
Professor Simone Dalla Bella 
Euromov
University of Montpellier
34090 Montpellier
France
Professor Jane W. Davidson 
Professor of Creative and
Performing Arts and
Deputy Director of ARC Centre of
Excellence for the History of Emotions
The University of Melbourne
Australia
Dr Shannon K. de l’Etoile 
University of Miami
Frost School of Music
P O Box 248165
Coral Gables, FL 33124
USA
Dr Alexander P. Demos 
McGill University 1205 Dr. Penfield Avenue
Montreal, QC H3A 1B1
Canada
Dr Shinichi Furuya 

Department of Information and
Communication Sciences
Sophia University
Tokyo, 1028554
Japan
Professor Alf Gabrielsson 
Department of Psychology
Uppsala University
Box 1225
SE – 751 42 Uppsala
Sweden

Professor Helena Gaunt 
Guildhall School of Music & Drama
Silk Street
Barbican
London, EC2Y 8DT
UK
Dr Bruno L. Giordano 
Institute of Neuroscience and Psychology
58 Hillhead Street
University of Glasgow
Glasgow, G12 8QB
Scotland
Dr Jessica A. Grahn 
Brain and Mind Institute & Department of
Psychology
University of Western Ontario
London, ON N6A 5C2
Canada

Dr Alinka Greasley 
School of Music
University of Leeds
Leeds, LS2 9JT
UK
Professor Susan Hallam 
Department of Lifelong and Comparative
Education
University College London
Institute of Education
20 Bedford Way
London, WC1H OAL
UK
Professor David J. Hargreaves 
Applied Music Research Centre
Roehampton University
Southlands College
Roehampton Lane
London, SW15 5SL
UK
Professor Donald A. Hodges 
Music Research Institute
School of Music, Theater and Dance
University of North Carolina at Greensboro
P O Box 26170
Greensboro, NC 27402-6170
USA


List of Contributors    xiii

Professor David Huron 
School of Music
1866 College Road
Ohio State University
Columbus, OH 43210
USA

Professor Dianna T. Kenny 
Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences
University of Sydney
Sydney, NSW 2006
Australia

Dr Corene Hurt-Thaut 
MT-BC, Program Director
Unkefer Academy of Neurologic Music
Therapy

Professor Reinhardt Kopiez 
Hochschule fur Musik, Theater und Medien
Emmichplatz 1,
D – 30175 Hannover
Germany

Colorado State University
Department of Music, Theatre, and Dance
1778 Campus Delivery
Fort Collins, CO 80523-1778
USA

Dr Amanda E. Krause 
School of Psychology and Speech Pathology
Curtin University
Perth, WA 6102
Australia

Dr Jonathan Impett 
School of Media and Performing Arts
Middlesex University
London, NW4 4BT
UK

Dr Alexandra Lamont 
School of Psychology
Keele University
Keele, ST5 5BG
UK

Dr Sebastian Jentschke 
Cluster “Languages of Emotion”
Freie Universität Berlin
Habelschwerdter Allee
45D-14195 Berlin
Germany

Professor Andreas C. Lehmann 
Hochschule für Musik
Hofstallstrasse 6-8
D – 97070 Würzburg
Germany

Professor Mari Riess Jones 
Department of Psychology
Ohio State University and University of
Santa Barbara California
5388 Traci Drive
Santa Barbara, CA 93111
USA
Professor Harald Jørgensen 
The Norwegian Academy of Music
PB 5190 Majorstua
N-0302 Oslo
Norway
Professor Patrik N. Juslin 
Department of Psychology
Uppsala University
Box 1225
SE – 751 42 Uppsala
Sweden

Dr Erik Lindström 
Linnaeus University
Department of Psychology
391 82 Kalmar
Sweden
Dr Topher Logan 
Community School of the Arts
University of Connecticut
U – 5195, 3 Witryol Place
Storrs, CT 06269-5195

USA
Dr Psyche Loui 
Department of Psychology
Wesleyan University
Middletown, CT 06459
USA


xiv   List of Contributors
Professor Raymond MacDonald 
School of Music
University of Edinburgh
Edinburgh, EH8 9DF
UK
Stefan Mainka 
Neurologisches Fachkrankenhaus
f. Bewegungsstrg./Parkinson
Beelitz-Heilstätten
Germany
Professor Stephen McAdams 
Schulich School of Music
McGill University
Montreal, QC H3A 1E3
Canada
Professor Gary E. McPherson 
University of Melbourne
Melbourne Conservatorium of Music
Royal Parade
Parkville VIC 3052
Australia

Professor Dorothy Miell 
College of Humanities and Social Science
University of Edinburgh
Edinburgh, EH8 9JU
UK
Professor Adrian C. North 
School of Psychology and Speech Pathology
Curtin University
Perth, WA 6102
Australia
Professor Adam Ockelford 
School of Education
Roehampton University
Roehampton Lane
London, SW15 5PU
UK
Professor Richard Parncutt 
Centre for Systematic Musicology
University of Graz
Merangasse 70
A - 8010 Graz
Austria

Dr Bénédicte Poulin-Charronnat 
LEAD - CNRS UMR5022
Université de Bourgogne
Pôle AAFE
11 Esplanade Erasme
BP 26513 21065 Dijon Cedex
France

Professor E. Glenn Schellenberg 
Department of Psychology
University of Toronto Mississauga
3359 Mississauga Road
Mississauga, ON L5L 1C6
Canada
Professor Mark A. Schmuckler 
Department of Psychology
University of Toronto Scarborough
1265 Military Trail
Scarborough
ON, MIC 1A4
Canada
Professor John Sloboda
Guildhall School of Music & Drama
Silk Street
Barbican
London, EC2Y 8DT
UK
Professor Bob Snyder 
Sound Department
School of the Art
Institute of Chicago
112 South Michigan Ave
Chicago, IL 60603
USA
Professor Ralph Spintge 
Institute for Music Therapy
University for Music & Drama
Harvestehuder Weg 12

20148 Hamburg
Germany
Director
Department of Algesiology
Sportklinik Hellersen
58515 Luedenscheid
Germany


List of Contributors    xv
Dr Thomas Stainsby 
Department of Experimental
Psychology
University of Cambridge
Downing Street
Cambridge, CB2 3EB
UK

Professor Peter R. Webster 
Department of Music Teaching and
Learning
Thornton School of Music
University of Southern California
Los Angeles, CA 90089-0851
USA

Professor Catherine J. Stevens 
MARCS Auditory Laboratories
University of Western Sydney
Locked Bag 1797

Penrith South DC, NSW 1797
Australia

Professor Graham Welch 
Department of Culture
Communication and Media
UCL Institute of Education
20 Bedford Way
London, WC1H OAL
UK

Professor Michael Thaut 
Center for Biomedical Research
in Music
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, CO 80523
USA
Elizabeth Tolbert 
The Peabody Institute
The Johns Hopkins University
1 East Mount Vernon Place
Baltimore, MD 21202
USA
Dr Laurel J. Trainor 
Department of Psychology
Neuroscience & Behaviour
McMaster Institute for Music and the Mind
McMaster University
1280 Main Street W
Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1

Canada
Professor Sandra E. Trehub 
Department of Psychology
University of Toronto at Mississauga
3359 Mississauga Road
Mississauga, L5L 1C6
Canada

John Whaley 
7551 N. Chatham Ave
Portland, OR 97217
USA
Professor Barbara L. Wheeler 
Montclair State University
Upper Montclair, NJ 07043
USA
Dr W. Luke Windsor 
School of Music
University of Leeds
Leeds, LS2 9JT
UK
Professor Robert J. Zatorre 
Montreal Neurological Institute
McGill University; and International
Laboratory for Brain, Music, and Sound
Research (BRAMS)
3801 University Street
Montreal, QC H3A 2B4
Canada

(a)

Major
Chords
Tones

(linked to right edge)

Keys

Minor
Chords

F#/Gb C#/Db G#/Ab D#/Eb A#/Bb

F

C

G

D

A

E

B

F#/Gb C#/Db G#/Ab D#/Eb A#/Bb

F

C

G

D

A

E

B

G

G#/Ab

A

A#/Bb

B

C

C#/Db

D

D#/Eb

E

F

F#/Gb

d#/eb

a#/bb

f

c

g

d

a

e

b

f#/gb c#/db

(linked to left edge)

(linked to lower edge-minor chords)

g#/ab

(linked to upper edge-keys)
Bottom-Up Activation
(b)
Keys

Tones
Minor
Chords

(linked to right edge)

Major
Chords

C#/Db G#/Ab D#/Eb A#/Bb

F

C

G

D

A

E

B

F#/Gb C#/Db G#/Ab D#/Eb A#/Bb

F

C

G

D

A

E

B

F#/Gb

A

A#/Bb

B

C

C#/Db

D

D#/Eb

E

F

F#/Gb

G

G#/Ab

d#/eb

a#/bb

f

c

g

d

a

e

b

f#/gb

c#/db

g#/ab

(linked to left edge)

(linked to lower edge-minor chords)

(linked to upper edge-keys)
Bottom-Up Activation
Top-Down Activation

Major
Chords
Tones
Minor
Chords

(linked to right edge)

Keys

F#/Gb

C#/Db G#/Ab D#/Eb A#/Bb

F

C

G

D

A

E

B

F#/Gb

C#/Db G#/Ab D#/Eb A#/Bb

F

C

G

D

A

E

B

A

A#/Bb

B

C

C#/Db

D

D#/Eb

E

F

F#/Gb

G

G#/Ab

d#/eb

a#/bb

f

c

g

d

a

e

b

f#/gb

c#/db

g#/ab

(linked to left edge)

(linked to lower edge-minor chords)

(c)

(linked to upper edge-keys)
Bottom-Up Activation
Top-Down Activation

Major
Chords
Tones
Minor
Chords

(linked to right edge)

Keys

F#/Gb

C#/Db G#/Ab D#/Eb A#/Bb

F

C

G

D

A

E

B

F#/Gb

C#/Db G#/Ab D#/Eb A#/Bb

F

C

G

D

A

E

B

A

A#/Bb

B

C

C#/Db

D

D#/Eb

E

F

F#/Gb

G

G#/Ab

d#/eb

a#/bb

f

c

g

d

a

e

b

f#/gb

c#/db

g#/ab

(linked to left edge)

(linked to lower edge-minor chords)

(d)

(linked to upper edge-keys)

Figure  7.3   Bharucha’s MUSACT model (a)  When three tones are sounding, ­activation
spread from tones to chord units (b), and then from chord to key and tone units (c), and
from key units to chord and from tone to chord units (d)  and so on up to equilibrium.


30

∗

∗

∗

∗

other emotion

10

anger−irritation

20

boredom−indifference

Frequency (%)

40

∗

∗

disgust−contempt

shame−guilt

surprise−amazement

love−tenderness

nostalgia−longing

sadness−melancholy

anxiety−fear

pleasure−enjoyment

interest−expectancy

happiness−elation

calm−contentment

0

Emotion

Figure 13.1  Relative frequency (in percent) of felt emotions for nonmusical emotion episodes (dark bars) and musical emotion episodes (light bars) during a two-week
period as indexed by experience sampling in everyday life.
(*p  <  .05)
(Reproduced from Patrik N. Juslin, Simon Liljeström, Daniel Västfjäll, Gonçalo Barradas, Ana Silva, An experience
sampling study of emotional reactions to music: Listener, music, and situation, Emotion, 8(5), pp. 668–683,
DOI: 10.1037/a0013505 © 2008, American Psychological Association.)


Figure 18.4   Induced oscillatory neuromagnetic responses to isochronous beat sequences.
(a) Time-frequency plots of induced oscillatory activity in right auditory cortex between
10 and 40 Hz in response to a fast (390 ms onset-to-onset; upper plot), moderate (585
ms; middle plot) and slow (780 ms; lower plot) tempo (n = 12). In each case, activity in
the beta band decreases after stimulus onset, and rebounds with timing predictive of the
onset of the next beat. (b) The time at which the beta desynchronization reaches half

power (squares) and minimum power (triangles), and the time at which the rebound
(resynchronization) reaches half power (circles). The timing of the desynchronization is
similar across the three stimulus tempos, but the time of the rebound resynchronization
depends on the stimulus tempo in a predictive manner. (c) Areas across the brain in
which beta activity was modulated by the auditory stimulus, showing involvement of
both auditory cortices and a number of motor regions.
(Data from Takako Fujioka, Laurel J. Trainor, Edward W. Large, and Bernhard Ross, Internalized timing of
isochronous sounds is represented in neuromagnetic beta oscillations.
Journal of Neuroscience, 32(5), 1791–1802,  2012.)


PET: Dopamine response

fMRI: Anticipation

Caudate

Caudate

Experience

Nucleus Accumbens

Nucleus Accumbens

Error bars show mean ± 1.0 SE

1 Mean

Neutral

Anticipation

Exp.

0
–1

–5
–4
–3
–2
–1
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
A7
A8
A9
A10
A11
A12
A13
A14
A15
C1
C2

C3
C4

Voxel of Interest
Right Caudate
Right NAcc

% Signal Change

Chill

Timeseries

Figure 18.5   Top left: Positron emission tomography scan (coronal section through the
striatum) showing evidence for dopamine release during highly pleasurable music in
both nucleus accumbens and caudate. Top right: functional MRI scans from the same
participants scanned with PET showing dissociation between brain activity in the caudate nucleus during the anticipatory phase (prior to the peak pleasure, as indexed by
the “chill” response), and in the nucleus accumbens during the experiential phase, during the peak pleasure. Bottom: averaged traces demonstrating the temporal course of
activity in the two regions shown above.
(Adapted by permission from Valorie N. Salimpoor, Mitchel Benovoy, Kevin Larcher, Alain Dagher, and Robert
J Zatorre, Anatomically distinct dopamine release during anticipation and experience of peak emotion to music,
Nature Neuroscience, 14(2), 257–262, ­figure 1, doi:10.1038/nn.2726 © 2011, Macmillan Publishers Limited.)


(a)

(b)
Cortical thickness Residuals (mm)

t-statistics

3.75

Right IFG

2.3
Right STG

0.4
0.2
0.0
−0.2
−0.4
−0.6
−0.8

Amusics
Controls
16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Global Musical Score

Cortical thickness Residuals (mm)

(c)
0.4
0.2
0.0
−0.2
−0.4
−0.6

Amusics
Controls

−0.8
16

18

20 22 24 26 28
Global Musical Score

30

Figure  19.1   Cortical thickness measures showed right hemisphere differences among
amusics (a), with effects centering around the inferior frontal gyrus (b) and the superior
temporal gyrus  (c).
(Reproduced from Krista L. Hyde, Jason P. Lerch, Robert J. Zatorre, Timothy D. Griffiths, Alan C. Evans, and
Isabelle Peretz, Cortical thickness in congenital amusia: when less is better than more, The Journal of
Neuroscience, 27(47), 13028–13032, figure 2 © 2007, The Society for Neuroscience, with permission.)

(a)

(b)

Figure  19.2   DTI images showing the arcuate fasciculus in a control subject (a)  and a
tone-deaf individual (b). Results showed less volume and structural connectivity in the
arcuate fasciculus among tone-deaf individuals.
(Reproduced from Psyche Loui, David Alsop, and Gottfried Schlaug, Tone Deafness: A New Disconnection
Syndrome?, The Journal of Neuroscience, 29 (33), pp, 10215–10220, figure 2 © 2009, The Society

for Neuroscience, with permission.)


L
A

R
P

P

x = −50 ± 2 mm

A

x = 42 ± 2 mm
z = 6 ± 2 mm

Amusics versus Controls
(a) Current study
MEG ERFs
MEG Oscillations
VBM White Matter
VBM Grey Matter

(b) Passive listening
Hyde et al., 2011

Typical individuals
(c) DTI study

pSTG (Loui et al. 2009)

(d) fMRI/PET
Passive listening
Attentive listening

pIFG (Loui et al. 2009)

Short Term Memory (STM)

Janata et al., 2002a
Zatorre et al., 1994
Griffiths et al., 1999

Perception + STM

Figure  19.3  MEG and VBM data converged with the right fronto-temporal account
of amusia.
(This material was originally published in Philippe Albouy, Jérémie Mattout, Romain Bouet, Emmanuel  Maby,
Gaëtan Sanchez, Pierre-Emmanuel Aguera, Sébastien Daligault, Claude Delpuech, Olivier Bertrand,
Anne Caclin, and Barbara Tillmann, Impaired pitch perception and memory in congenital amusia:  the
deficit starts in the  auditory cortex, Brain, 136 (5), pp. 1639–1661, Figure  12, doi:  10.1093/brain/awt082
2013,  Oxford  University  Press and has been reproduced by permission of Oxford University Press
[ For permission to reuse this material, please visit
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0.60

Mean

0.40

0.20
Behavioural support
Cognitive/Intellectual
support

0.00

Personal support
–0.20

–0.40

H
m

ar
us

io
o

tri

o

tri

uo

o

du

uo

td

nt

da

on

or

ic

ed

bl

isc

D

ou

D

am

yn

D
an

in

r

de

lea

om

D

lo

So

Cluster

Figure  31.2   Parent support according to parent–teacher–pupil interaction type (standardized scores).


Mean score for relevance of musical activities

0.40

0.20

Extra-curricular
Acquiring practical
skills
Music for fun
Solo work

0.00

–0.20

–0.40
Non-classical

Classical
Musical genre

Figure  32.5  Classical and other-than-classical-musicians’ mean scores for categories
of musical activities (extra-curricular:  listening to music from own and outside of own
genre, acquiring general musical knowledge, engaging in professional conversations,
networking; acquiring practical skills:  practicing alone, practicing with others, taking
lessons, solo and group performance, listening to music from own genre; music for
fun:  playing for fun alone or with other; solo work:  mental rehearsal, giving lessons,
solo performance).
Reproduced from Investigating musical performance: commonality and diversity amongst classical and other-thanclassical musicians, Andrea Creech, Ioulia Papageorgi, Celia Duffy, Frances Morton, Elizabeth Hadden, John Potter,
Christophe De Bezenac, Tony Whyton, Evangelos Himonides & Graham Welch, Music Education Research, 10(2), p.

223 DOI: 10.1080/14613800802079080 © 2008, Taylor & Francis Ltd, .)