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Advances in agronomy volume 56

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V O L U M E 56

$


Advisory Board
Martin Alexander
Cornell University

Eugene J. Kamprath
North Carolina State University

Kenneth J. Frey

Larry P. Wilding

Iowa State University

Texas A&M University

Prepared in cooperation with the

American Society of Agronomy Monographs Committee
P. S. Baenziger
J. Bartels
J. N. Bigham
L. P. Bush

M . A. Tabatabai, Chairman
R. N. Carrow


W. T. Frankenberger, Jr.
D. M. Kral
S. E. Lingle

G. A . Peterson
D. E. Rolston
D. E. Stott
J. W. Stucki


D V A N C E S I N

onomy
V O L U M5 6E
Edited by

Donald L. Sparks
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences
University of Delaware
Newark, Delaware

W

ACADEMIC PRESS
San Diego New York Boston London Sydney Tokyo Toronto


This book is printed on acid-free paper.@
Copyright 0 1996 by ACADEMIC PRESS, INC.
All Rights Reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information
storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Academic Press, Inc.
A Division of Harcourt Brace & Company
525 R Street, Suite 1900, San Diego, California 92101-4495
United Kingdom Edition published by
Academic Press Limited
24-28 Oval Road, London N W I 7DX

International Standard Serial Number: 0065-2 I 13
International Standard Book Number: 0-12-000756-8
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
96 97 9 8 9 9 00 01 BB 9 8 7 6 5

4

3 2

1


Contents
..............................................

vii

PREFACE
...................................................


ix

CONrRIBUrOKS

SOILHEALTH
AND SUSTAINABILITY
J . W. Doran. M . Sarrantonio. and M . A. Liebig
I . Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
II . Soil - A Vital. Living. and Finite Kesource ............................
I11. Early Proponents of Soil Health Concepts . . . .
Iv. Soil Health and Human Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
V. Agriculturc and Soil Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
VI. Assessment of Soil Quality and Health .................
VII. Soil Assessment - Need for Producer/Scientist Interaction ..............
................
VIII . Summary and Conclusions
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1

3
11
14

20
28
39
44
45


PHYTOREMEDIATION
OF SOILSCONTAMKNATED
WITH ORGANIC
POLLUTANTS
Scott D . Cunningham. Todd A. Anderson.
A . Paul Schwab. and F. C. Hsu
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
......
...................
I1 . “Phytoremediation” .
......
...................
I11. Xenobiotics in Soil ..
N . Plants as Kemediation Structure for Organics .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
....
....
......
V. Phytoreniediation ex Plmta
VI. Modeling Phytoremediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
...........................
VII. Practical Considerations

VIII . Current Phytoremediation Research and Development .
Lx. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . .
....

56
61

67

71
82
91

92
99
107
107

BIOLOGICALCONTROL
OF WEEDSWITH PLANT
PATHOGENS
AND MICROBIAL
PESTICIDES
David 0. TeBeest
I.
I1 .
I11.

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Strategies for the Control o f Weeds with Plant Pathogens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Biological Control of Weeds with Plant Pathogens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

V

115
116


117


vi

CONTENTS

IV Biological Control of Weeds by Microbial Management of Seed Banks . . . .
V. Synergisms That May Affect the Effectiveness of Microbial Agents . . . . . . .
VI . The Environmental Impact of Microbial Herbicides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

VII . Summary ........................................................
References .......................................................

125
125
129
131
132

ORGANIC
AMENDMENTS
AND PHOSPHORUS
SORPTION
BY SOILS
F. Iyamuremye and R . P. Dick

I.
I1.


111.

IV.
V.

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Aerobic Soils: Organic Acids and Phosphorus Sorption .................
Aerobic Soils: Plant Residues and Animal Manures .....................
Waterlogged Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Research Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References .......................................................

139
146

156
167
176
178

ADVANCES m DROUGHT
TOLERANCE
IN PLANTS
John S . Boyer

.....................
I . Introduction ...........................
I1. Water Use Efficiency ................................
...............................
111.

..........
N . Water Deficits and Reproduction ....

v.

VI. Conclusions ........................

References .........................

...................

...................
..............

187
188
196
204
207
210
212

THE
AFLATOXINPROBLEM
WITH CORNGRAIN
Neil W. Widstrom
....
................................
I . Introduction . . . . .
tion of Aflaroxins as Contaminants of Corn ....

I1.
111. Conditions Impacting Asperg
and Aflatoxin Accumulation
...............................
owth and Ear Development . . . . . . .
N . Managing Conditions during
V. Handling the Grain Crop a t Harvest .................................
VI . Storage and Utilization of the Final Product ..........................
....................
VII . Long-Range Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
VIII . Conclusions., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References .....
.................................

220
220

I N I ~ E X.....................................................

281

.

226
236
247
249
256
260
261



Contributors
Numl)crs in p~rcnthcscsindicatc thc pages on which the authors’ contriburlons t q i n

TODD A. ANDERSON (59, Pesticide Toxicology Laboratory, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 5001 1
JOHN S. B O E R (187), College ofAyicuiture and Marine Studies, University of
Delaware, Lemes, Delnwai-e 19958
SCOTT D. CUNNINGHAM (5 5), Du Pont Environmental Biotechnology,
Glasgow Site, Newark, Delaware 19714
R. P. DICK (1 39), Department of Crop and Soil Science, Oregon State University,
Cornallis, Oregon 9 7331
J. W. DORAN (I), Soil and W4ter Conservation Research Unit, United States
Depnr-t.ment of Agriculture, Agrirultumi Research Senice, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583
F. C . HSU (SS), Du Pont Envir-onnrental Biotechnology, Glasgow Site, Newark,
Delaware 19714
F. IYAMUREMYE (1 39), Department of Crop and Soil Science, Oregon State
University, Conwllis, Oregon 97331
M. A. LIEBIG (l), Depnrtment of Agronomy, University of Nebraska, Lincoln,
Nebraska 68583
M. SARRANTONIO (l), Rodale Institute Research Center, Kutztown, Pennsylvania 19530
A. PAUL SCHWAB (55), Department of Agronomy, Krrnsas Stnte University,
Mnnbattan, KNnsas 66506
DAVID 0. TEBEEST (1 15), Department of Pinnt Pathology, Unive~+y of
Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas 72701
NEIL W. WIDSTROM (2 19), United States Deparhnent of Agriculture, Agriadturai Research Senice, Georgia Coastal Plain Experiment Station, Tqton,
Georgia 3 1793

vii



This Page Intentionally Left Blank


Preface
Volume 56 contains six cutting-edge reviews on topics that should be of broad
interest to crop and soil scientists and, indeed, to professionals in many other
fields. The first chapter is a comprehensive review on soil health and sustainability. Subjects that are covered include: an historical perspective on soil health,
soil health and its relationship to human health and agricultural sustainability,
ways to assess soil quality and health, and integration of soil health concepts into
farm management. The second chapter is a state-of-the-art treatise on the use of
plants to remediate soils contaminated with organic chemicals. Topics are presented on concepts of phytoremediation, plants as remediation structures for
organic pollutants, effects of plant-associated microflora on phytoremediation,
and overall advances in phytoremediation research. The third chapter discusses
innovative aspects of biological control of weeds with plant pathogens and microbial pesticides. Discussions are included on techniques and strategies, synergisms that can affect biological weed control effectiveness, and environmental
impacts of nonchemical approaches. The effect of plant residues, animal manures, and organic acids on the phosphorus chemistry of aerobic and anaerobic
soils is fully discussed in in the fourth chapter. Chapter five is a review on
advances in drought tolerance in plants. Physiological and molecular biological
aspects of water use efficiency are provided as well as the current status of
research on drought and desiccation tolerance and water deficits and reproduction. Chapter six deals with the aflatoxin problem in corn grain. Background on
the topic, ways to identify aflatoxins, conditions affecting their accumulation,
and management regimes and long-term solutions are included.
I appreciate the excellent contributions of the authors.

DONALD
L. SPARKS

ix



This Page Intentionally Left Blank


SOILHEALTH
AND SUSTAINABILITY
J. W. Doran,' M. Sarrantonio,z and M. A. Liebig3
'SoiVWater Conservation Research Unit,
United States Department of Agrkdture,
Agricultural Research Service,
University of Nebraska,
Lincoln. Nebraska 68583
ZRodale Institute Research Center,
Kutztown, Pennsylvania 19530
3Deparunent of Agronomy,
University of Nebraska,
Lincoln, Nebraska 68583

I. Overview
11. Soil - A Vital, Living, and Finite Resource
A. Global Function and Sustainability
B. Defining Soil Quality and Soil Health
111. Early Proponents of Soil Health Concepts
A. Early Scholars and Philosophers
B. 19th and 20th Century Scientists and Practitioners
W. Soil Health and Human Health
A. Direct and Indirect Effects
B. Linkages between Soil, Food Quality, and Health
V. Agriculture and Soil Health
A. Perceptions of Soil
B. Regenerative Agriculture

C. Natural Resource Accounting
VI. Assessment of Soil Quality and Health
A. Use of Indicators
B. Quantitative Assessments
C. Value of Qualitative/Descriptive Assessments
VII. Soil Assessment - Need for Producer/Scientist Interaction
A. A Shifting Agricultural Research Paradigm
B. Integration of Soil Health Concepts into Farm Management
C. Technology Transfer
VIII. Summary and Conclusions
References

I
Aduunra in Apnwii.y. Volume Y6
Copyright B 1996 by Academic Press,Inc. MI rights of reproduction in any farm reserved.


2

J. W. DORAN ET AL.

I. OVERVIEW
Increasing human populations, decreasing resources, social instability, and
environmental degradation pose serious threats to the natural processes that
sustain the global ecosphere and life on earth (Pearce and Warford, 1993).
Agriculture, and society in general, is challenged to develop strategies for sustainability that conserve nonrenewable natural resources such as soil, enhance
use of renewable resources, and are aligned with the natural processes that
sustain life on earth. The challenge ahead in sustaining life on planet earth will
require new vision, holistic approaches for ecosystem management, and a renewed partnership between science and society. We must muster our cultural
resources and “put science to work” for both humanity and the natural ecosystems of which it is part and on which it depends.

Recznt acceleration of technological growth in industrial and postindustrial
societies poses a risk to the health of global ecosystems which are characteristically slow to change (Costanza et a!. , 1992). With the advent of agriculture some
10,000 years ago, the earth’s landscape has been dramatically transformed to
yield an abundance of food and fiber to meet the needs of an ever-increasing
human population, which increased 600 fold during this time and has twice
doubled in size during the past 150 years. For the first 9900 years, agriculture
functioned almost entirely on the internal resources available to it from the sun,
air, rainfall, plants, animals, soil, and humans and depended on natural processes
and ecological associations for its productivity (Rodale, 1995). But about 100
years ago, agriculture began to move beyond its internal resources to production
systems based on external inputs such as fertilizer, pesticides, and fossil fuels
which had been produced by green plants many millennia in the past.
In America, and elsewhere, the achievements of modern science-based agriculture can hardly be overstated. Producers have readily adopted a succession of
mechanical, biological, and chemical innovations that have transformed agriculture into a powerful industrial machine that produces abundant food (Northwest
Area Foundation, 1994). However, the heavy dependence of modem agriculture
on nonrenewable fossil fuels for synthesis of fertilizers and pesticides, and energy needs for cultivation, harvest, intensive animal production, and grain processing, raise questions about the long-term sustainability of agriculture. Also, the
full cost of chemical- and energy-intensive agriculture on degradation of natural
resources and the quality of air and water environments is rarely debited against
gains in productivity (Tangley, 1986). The problems of sustainability which we
currently face are considered by some to result from an abandonment of ecological principles to produce human food and the acceptance of a cultural premise
that places humankind as the ruler of the world, and therefore not subject to the
laws of nature (Quinn, 1993). We often suffer from the delusion that we as


SOIL HEALTH AND SUSTAINABILITY

3

humans can control nature when, in reality, the only thing we can control and
manage is ourselves (Cline and Ruark, 1995).

The authors of this chapter present the thesis that “soil” is a dynamic, living
resource whose condition is vital both to the production of food and fiber and to
global balance and ecosystem function, or in essence, to the sustainability of life
on earth. The quality and health of soils determine agricultural sustainability
(Acton and Gregorich, 1995), environmental quality (Pierzynski et a l ., 1994),
and, as a consequence of both, plant, animal, and human health as well (Haberern, 1992). In its broadest sense, soil health can be defined as the ability of soil
to perform or function according to its potential, and changes over time due to
human use and management or to unusual natural events (Mausbach and Tugel,
1995). In this sense, soil health is enhanced by management and land-use decisions that weigh the multiple functions of soil and is impaired by decisions which
focus only on single functions, such as crop productivity. In this chapter we
present past and present philosophies of soil health, approaches to assessing the
quality and health of soils, and the value of soil health to strategies for sustainable management of our natural resources. Most examples for discussion come
from arable agriculture because this is the specialization area with which the
authors are most familiar. However, the principles involved apply to forested
lands, rangelands, and other terrestrial ecosystems which in some cases may be
as or more important to certain aspects of global ecosystem function. The senior
author expresses sincere appreciation to coauthors of this chapter for their enthusiastic and valuable contributions and accepts responsibility for any errors in
judgment or fact which the chapter may contain.

11. SOIL-A VITAL, LIVING, AND FINITE RESOURCE

A. GLOBAL
FUNCTIONAND SUSTAINABILITY
We enter the 21st century with greater awareness of our technological capability to influence the global environment and of the impending challenge for
sustaining life on earth (Postel, 1994; Gore, 1993). Global climate change,
depletion of the protective ozone layer, serious declines in species biodiversity,
and degradation and loss of productive agricultural land are among the most
pressing concerns associated with our technological search for a higher standard
of living for ever-growing human populations. Increasing worldwide concern for
sustainable global development and preservation of our soil resources is reflected

by numerous recent international conferences such as the United Nations Conference on Environment & Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in
1992; the Soil Resilience and Sustainable Land Use Symposium in Budapest,


4

J. W. DOKAN ET AL.

Hungary, in 1992; the Sustainable Land Management Conference in Lethbridge,
Canada, in 1993; and the International Congress of Soil Science in Acapulco,
Mexico, in 1994. Central to discussions at these conferences were the threats to
sustainability posed by soil and environmental degradation associated with increasing intensity of land use and the search among increasing populations of the
world for a higher standard of living. The sustainability of the energy- and
chemically intensive industrial agricultural model, which has enabled a two- to
threefold growth in agricultural output of many countries since World War 11, is
increasingly questioned by ecologists, earth scientists, and clergy (Jackson and
Piper, 1989; Sagan, 1992; Bhagat, 1990).
Interest in evaluating the quality and health of our soil resources has been
stimulated by increasing awareness that soil is a critically important component
of the earth’s biosphere, functioning not only in the production of food and fiber
but also in the maintenance of local, regional, and global environmental quality
(Glanz, 1995). The thin layer of soil covering the surface of the earth represents
the difference between survival and extinction for most land-based life. Like
water, soil is a vital natural resource essential to civilization but, unlike water,
soil is nonrenewable on a human time scale (Jenny, 1984, 1980). Modem conservationists are quick to point out that “mismanagement and neglect can ruin the
fragile resource and become a threat to human survival” (La1 and Pierce, 1991).
This is a conclusion supported by archeological evidence suggesting that soil
degradation was responsible for extinction or collapse of the Harappan civilization in western India, Mesopotamia in Asia Minor, and the Mayan culture in
Central America (Olson, 1981).
Present-day agriculture evolved as we sought to control nature to meet the food

and fiber needs of an increasingly urbanized society. With the development of
modern chemistry during and after World War 11, agriculturists often assumed a
position of dominance in their struggle against a seemingly hostile natural environment, often failing to recognize the consequences of management approaches
upon long-term productivity and environmental quality. Increased monocultural
production of cash grain crops, extensive soil cultivation, and greater reliance on
chemical fertilizers and pesticides to maintain crop growth have resulted in twoto threefold increases in grain yields and on-farm labor efficiency (Avery, 1995;
Brown et al., 1994; Northwest Area Foundation, 1994; Power and Papendick,
1985). However, in some cases, these management practices have also increased
soil organic matter loss, soil erosion, and surface and ground water contamination in the U.S.A. and elsewhere (Gliessman, 1984; Hallberg, 1987; Reganold et
af.,1987). Motivations for shifting from input-intensive management to reduced
external input farming include concern for protecting soil, human, and animal
health from the potential hazards of pesticides, concern for protection of the
environment and soil resources, and a need to lower production costs (Soule and
Piper, 1992; U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1980).


SOIL HEALTH AND SUSTAINABILITY

5

Past management of agricultural and other ecosystems to meet the needs of
increasing populations has taxed the resiliency of soil and natural processes to
maintain global balances of energy and matter. The quality of many soils in
North America has declined significantly since grasslands and forests were converted to arable agriculture and cultivation was initiated (Campbell et a l . , 1976).
Mechanical cultivation and the production of continuous row crops has resulted
in soil loss through erosion, large decreases in soil organic matter content, and a
concomitant release of organic carbon as carbon dioxide to the atmosphere
(Houghton et al., 1983). As publicized in the national press, recent inventories of
the soil’s productive capacity indicate severe degradation on well over 10% of
the earth’s arable land within the last decade as a result of soil erosion, atmospheric pollution, cultivation, over-grazing, land clearing, salinization, and desertification (Sanders, 1992; World Resources Institute, 1992). Findings from a

project of the United Nations Environment Program on “Global Assessment of
Soil Degradation” indicate that almost 40% of agricultural land has been adversely affected by human-induced soil degradation, and that more than 6% is degraded to such a degree that restoration of its original productive capacity is only
possible through major capital investments (Oldeman, 1994). The quality of
surface and subsurface water has been jeopardized in many parts of the world by
intensive land management practices and the consequent imbalance of C, N, and
water cycles in soil. At present, agriculture is considered the most widespread
contributor to nonpoint source water pollution in the U.S.A. (CAST, 1992b;
U .S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1984; National Research Council,
1989). The major water contaminant in North America and Europe is nitrate-N,
the principal sources of which are conversion of native to arable land use, animal
manures, and fertilizers. Soil management practices such as tillage, cropping
patterns, and pesticide and fertilizer use are known to influence water quality.
However, these management practices can also influence atmospheric quality
through changes in the soil’s capacity to produce or consume important atmospheric gases such as carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and methane (CAST, 1992a;
Rolston et al., 1993). The present threat of global climate change and ozone
depletion, through elevated levels of atmospheric gases and altered hydrological
cycles, necessitates a better understanding of the influence of land management
on soil processes.
Development of sustainable agricultural management systems has been complicated by the need to consider their utility to humans, their efficiency of
resource use, and their ability to maintain a balance with the environment that is
favorable both to humans and to most other species (Harwood, 1990). We are
challenged to develop management systems that balance the needs and priorities
for production of food and fiber with those for a safe and clean environment. In
the U.S.A., the importance of soil quality in maintaining balance between environmental and production concerns was reflected by a major conclusion of a


6

J. W. DORAN ET AL.


recent National Academy of Science report that “Protecting soil quality, like
protecting air and water quality, should be a fundamental goal of national environmental policy” (National Research Council, 1993a).
A recent call for development of a “soil health index” was stimulated by the
perception that human health and welfare are associated with the quality and
health of soils (Haberern, 1992). However, defining and assessing soil quality or
health is complicated by the fact that soils perform multiple functions in maintaining productivity and environmental well-being. Identifying and integrating
the physical, chemical, and biological soil attributes which define soil functions
is the challenge (Papendick and Parr, 1992; Rodale Institute, 1991). Forums were
held in Washington, DC, in the winter of 1995 to ensure that emphasis on
maintaining the quality of our soil resources was included in the 1995 Farm Bill.
Many people recognize that maintaining the health and quality of soil should be a
major goal of a “sustainable” society. An important question, however, is “what
defines a healthy or quality soil and how might soil quality and health be maintained or improved through agricultural and land-use management?”

B. DEFINING
SOILQUALITY
AND SOILHEALTH
1. Soil -A Complex Living Ecosystem

Soil forms the thin skin of unconsolidated mineral and organic matter on the
earth’s surface and functions to maintain the ecosystems on which all life depends. Soil is a dynamic, living, natural body that is vital to the function of
terrestrial ecosystems and represents a unique balance between the living and the
dead (Fig. 1). The perception that soil is “living,” though disputed by some,
results from the observation that the number of living organisms in a teaspoon of
fertile soil (10 g) can exceed nine billion, one and one-half times the human
population of the earth. Soils form slowly, averaging 100 to 400 years per
centimeter of topsoil, through the interaction of climate, topography, living
organisms (microorganisms, animals, plants, and humans), and mineral parent
material over time; thus the soil resource is essentially nonrenewable in human
life spans (Jenny, 1980; Lal, 1994). Soils are composed of different sized inorganic mineral particles (sand, silt, and clay), reactive and stable forms of organic

matter; a myriad of living organisms (earthworms, insects, bacteria, fungi, algae, nematodes, earthworms, etc.), water, and gases including O,, CO,, N,,
NO,, and CH,. The physical and chemical attributes of soil regulate soil biological activity and interchanges of molecules/ions between the solid, liquid, and
gaseous phases which influence nutrient cycling, plant growth, and decomposition of organic materials. The inorganic components of soil play a major role in
retaining cations through ion exchange and nonpolar organic compounds and


SOIL HEALTH AND SUSTNNABILITY

7

Figure 1 A healthy soil is full of macro- and microorganisms in proper balance with the physical
and chemical condition of soil (Courtesy of American Journal of Alternative Agriculture, Volume 7 ,
1992).

anions through sorption reactions. Essential parts of the global C, N , P, and S
and water cycles occur in soil and soil organic matter is a major terrestrial pool
for C, N, P, and S; the cycling rate and availability of these elements is continually being altered by soil organisms in their constant search for food and energy
sources.
The sun is the basis for most life on earth and provides radiant energy for
heating the biosphere and for the photosynthetic conversion of carbon dioxide
(CO,) and water into food sources and oxygen for consumption by animals and
other organisms. Most living organisms utilize oxygen to metabolize these food
sources, capture their energy, and recycle heat, CO,, and water to the environment to begin this cycle of life again. A simplified version of this “Equation of
Life” can be depicted as follows.


J. W. DORAN ET AL.

8


Photosynthesis
KO,

(radiant)
Energy
(heat)

+ 6H,O +

*

(food)
C6H1206

+

602

(fuel)
Decomposition & Combustion

The amount of CO, in the atmosphere is rather small and represents less than
0.04% of all gases in the atmosphere. If all the combustion and respiration
processes on earth were halted the plant life of the earth would consume all
available CO, within a year or two (Lehninger, 1973). Thus, there is a fine
balance between CO, production and utilization in the biosphere. Decomposition
processes in soil play a predominant role in maintaining this balance. These
processes are brought about by a complex web of organisms in soil, each playing
unique roles in the physical and chemical breakdown of organic plant and animal
residues. The physiological diversity of this decomposer community, however,

enables continued activity over a wide range of conditions, an essential attribute
in a soil environment which is continually changing. Soils breathe and play a
major role in transforming sunlight and stored energy and recycling matter
through plants and animals. As such, living soils are vital to providing human
food and fiber needs and in maintaining the ecosystems on which all life ultimately depends.

2. The Concept of Soil Quality-Soil Function
Blum and Santelises (1994) describe a concept of sustainability and soil resilience based on six main soil functions-three ecological functions and three
which are linked to human activity. Ecological functions include biomass production (food, fiber, and energy); the soil as a reactor which filters, buffers, and
transforms matter to protect the environment, groundwater, and the food chain
from pollution; and soil as a biological habitat and genetic reserve for many
plants, animals, and organisms which should be protected from extinction. Functions linked to human activity include the soil as a physical medium, serving as a
spatial base for technical and industrial structures and socioeconomic activities
such as housing, industrial development, transportation systems, recreation, and
refuse disposal; soil as a source of raw materials supplying water, clay, sand,
gravel, minerals, etc.; and soil as a cultural heritage, forming part of our cultural
heritage, and containing palaentological and archaeological treasures important
to preserving the history of earth and humankind.
Our concepts of soil quality change as we become aware of the many essential
functions soil performs in the biosphere, in addition to serving as a medium for
plant growth, and as societal priorities change. In the late seventies, Warkentin
and Fletcher (1977) discussed the evolution of soil quality concepts in intensive
agriculture. The oldest and most frequently used concept was one of “suitability


SOIL HEALTH AND SUSTAINABILITY

9

for chosen uses,” with emphasis on capability to support crop growth or engineering structures. This evolved to a “range of possible uses” concept which is

ecologically based and recognizes the importance of soil to biosphere function
and its multiple roles in enhancing biological productivity, abating pollution, and
even serving to enhance human health and aesthetic and recreational use of
landscapes. Another stage in this evolution was development of the “intrinsic
value” concept of soil as a unique and irreplaceable resource, of value apart from
its importance to crop growth or ecosystem function. As noted by Warkentin
(1995), this view of soils is not widely explored by soil scientists but is held in
various forms by naturalists and people who see a special relationship with the
earth (Leopold, 1949). Historically soil has been used as an ideal waste disposal
system, a biological incinerator destroying all the organic wastes deposited on or
in it over time. However, in the 1960s and 1970s it became increasingly apparent
that soils were receiving wastes of a type and at a rate that overwhelmed their
assimilative capacity, threatened soil function, and called for a major responsibility by agriculturists in defining soil quality criteria (Alexander, 197 1).
The quality of soil, as opposed to its health, is largely defined by soil function
or use and represents a composite of its physical, chemical, and biological
properties that: (i) provide a medium for plant growth and biological activity; (ii)
regulate and partition water flow and storage in the environment; and (iii) serve
as an environmental buffer in the formation and destruction of environmentally
hazardous compounds (Larson and Pierce, 199 1, 1994).
Soil serves as a medium for plant growth by providing physical support, water,
essential nutrients, and oxygen for roots. The suitability of soil for sustaining
plant growth and biological activity is a function of physical properties (porosity,
water holding capacity, structure, and tilth) and chemical properties (nutrient
supplying ability, pH, salt content, etc.), many of which are a function of soil
organic matter content. Soil plays a key role in completing the cycling of major
elements required by biological systems ( C , N , P, S , etc.), decomposing organic
wastes, and detoxifying certain hazardous compounds. The key role played by
soils in recycling organic materials into carbon dioxide and water and degrading
synthetic compounds foreign to the soil is brought about by microbial decomposition and chemical reactions. The ability of a soil to store and transmit water
is a major factor regulating water availability to plants and transport of environmental pollutants to surface and ground water.

Much like air or water, the quality of soil has a profound influence on the
health and productivity of any given biome and the environments and ecosystems
related to it. However, unlike air or water for which we have quality standards,
the definition and quantification of soil quality is complicated by the fact that it is
not directly ingested or respired by humans and animals as are air and water. Soil
quality is often thought of as an abstract characteristic of soils which cannot be
defined because it depends on external factors such as land use and soil manage-


10

J. W. DORAN ET AL.

ment practices, ecosystem and environmental interactions, socioeconomic and
political priorities, and so on. Historically, perceptions of what constitutes a
“good” soil vary depending on individual priorities for intended soil and land
use. However, to manage and maintain our soils in an acceptable state for future
generations, soil quality must be defined, and the definition must be broad
enough to encompass the many functions of soil. These considerations led to the
following definition: Soil quality is the capacity of soil to function, within ecosystem and land-use boundaries, to sustain biological productivity, maintain
environmental quality, and promote plant, animal, and human health (after Doran and Parkin, 1994).

3. Defining Soil Health
The terms soil quality and soil health are often used interchangeably in the
scientific literature and popular press with scientists, in general, prefemng “soil
quality” and producers preferring “soil health” (Harris and Bezdicek, 1994).
Some prefer the term soil health because it portrays soil as a living, dynamic
organism that functions holistically rather than as an inanimate mixture of sand,
silt, and clay. Others prefer the term soil quality and descriptors of its innate
quantifiable physical, chemical, and biological characteristics. Much discussion

at a recent soil health conference in the midwest U.S.A. centered on the importance of defining soil health (Soil Health: The Basis of Current and Future
Production, Decatur, IL, December 7, 1994). In those discussions it was observed
that efforts to define the concept of soil health have produced a polarization of
attitudes concerning the term. On the one hand are those, typically speaking from
outside agriculture, who view maintenance of soil health as an absolute moral
imperative-critical to our very survival as a species. On the other hand is the
attitude, perhaps ironically expressed most adamantly by academics, that the
term is a misnomer-a viewpoint seated, in part, in fear that the concept requires
value judgments which go beyond scientific or technical fact. The producers, and
therefore society’s management of the soil, are caught in the middle of these
opposing views and the communication failures that result.
“Health” is defined as “the condition of an organism or one of its parts in
which it performs its vital functions normally or properly” (Webster’s Third New
International Dictionary, 1986). The word is derived from the Old English word
haelrh, which was itself derived from the concept of “whole” from hal-whole,
healthy-more at whole. Dr. David White, a natural resource economist and
speaker at the aforementioned soil health conference, proposed that any definition of soil health should: (i) reflect the soil as a living system; (ii) address all
essential functions of soil in the landscape; (iii) compare the condition of a given
soil against its own unique potential within climatic, landscape, and vegetation
patterns; and (iv) somehow enable meaningful assessment of trends. It is interest-


SOIL HEALTH AND SUSTAINABILITY

11

ing to note that with some modification, the definition of soil quality presented
earlier could serve as a definition of soil health.
With consideration of the aforementioned factors, soil health can be defined
as: the continued capacity of soil to function as a vital living system, within

ecosystem and land-use boundaries, to sustain biological productivity, maintain
the quality of air and water environments, and promote plant, animal, and human
health. The challenge we face, however, is in quantitatively defining the state of
soil health and its assessment using measurable properties or parameters. Unlike
human health, the magnitude of critical indicators of soil health ranges considerably over dimensions of time and space.
For the remainder of this chapter the terms soil quality and soil health will be
used synonymously. However, the term soil health is preferred in that it more
clearly portrays the idea of soil as a living dynamic organism that functions in a
holistic way depending on its condition or state rather than as an inanimate object
whose value depends on its innate characteristics and intended use.

111. EARLY PROPONENTS OF SOIL HEALTH CONCEPTS

A. EARLY
SCHOLARS
AND PHILOSOPHERS
Concepts related to soil health have been articulated since ancient times.
Roman philosophers were especially aware of the importance of soil to agricultural prosperity, and reflected this awareness in their treatises on farm management. Cato, Varro, Virgil, and Columella stressed the value of soil and
promoted agricultural practices that maintained its fertility. Having to work within boundaries of natural fertility, they keenly recognized that many soil attributes
were a function of landscape position and parent material, and accordingly
recommended cropping practices that would maximize agricultural efficiency.
They also offered qualitative criteria for evaluating soil health, with indicators
similar to many being used today (Garlynd et a / ., 1994). Though the reasoning
used by the philosophers was simple, the principles of farm management espoused in their treatises offer many lessons to current agriculturists: lessons of
patience and thoroughness required of an agricultural paradigm based on natural
fertility (Harrison, 1913, p. 2).
Inherently, fertile soil was held in high regard among the philosophers. When
outlining criteria for choosing a farmstead, Cato considered fertile soil to be a
primary component: “Take care that you choose a good climate, not subject to
destructive storms, and a soil that is naturally strong’’ (after Harrison, 1913,

p. 2 I). Varro took this notion further by considering the quality of a farm’s soil to
be the deciding factor that determined its worth: ” . . . it is to the nature of the


12

J. W. DORAN E T AL.

soil that we generally allude when we speak of a farm as good or bad’ (after
Storr-Best, 1912, p. 28).
Maintaining a fertile soil, then, was of paramount importance to the philosophers. Practices suggested to maintain soil fertility included the use of rotations
that incorporated green-manuring or legume crops, application of livestock manure to soil, and fallowing. The Georgics of Virgil, translated by Lewis (1940),
outlined numerous methods for maintaining soil fertility. Regarding crop rotation
and fallowing, Virgil wrote: “So too are the fields rested by a rotation of crops,
and unploughed land in the meanwhile promises to repay you” (Book 1, I. 8283). On using livestock manure, he noted: “Whatever plantations you’re setting
down on your land, spread rich dung and be careful to cover with plenty of earth”
(Book 11, 1. 346-347).
Sensitivity to soil characteristics was evident in the cropping practices advocated by the philosophers. Cropping to the character of the land was the rule, not
the exception. This belief was expressed by Varro when he wrote: . . . the
same soil is not equally suited for all kinds of produce . . . for it is better to plant
crops that do not need much nutriment on thinner soil” (after Storr-Best, 1912,
p. 28, 63). Cropping to specific soils was suggested by both Cat0 and Varro.
Cato, in De Agriculturu, wrote: “Where the soil is rich and fertile, without
shade, there the corn-land ought to be. Where the land lies low, plant rape,
millet, and panic grass” (after Harrison, 1913, p. 42).
Using senses of sight, taste, touch, and smell, the philosophers set down
qualitative guidelines for evaluating soil and its suitability to promote growth of
particular crops. Soil color was used often in their treatises as an indicator of
productivity, with black soils considered the most productive and suitable for
corn production. Saline or acid soils were identified by a simple taste test recommended by Virgil: “The taste of fresh water strained through sour soil will twist

awry the taster’s face” (after Lewis, 1940, Book 11, 1. 246-247). The soil’s
physical condition was considered an important component for successful crop
production. In his classification of farmland, Varro found crumbling soils of
medium texture to be ideal for farming: . . . the kind of land which will repay
cultivation . , . easily crumbles when dug, and neither resembles ashes in texture, nor is very heavy” (after Storr-Best, 1912, p. 36). Similarly, Columella
classified “rich and mellow” soils best for crops and pasture (after Simonson,
1968). Pliny used his sense of smell to test soil. He considered the musty odor of
freshly plowed soil to be the most telling assessment of a soil’s quality: “It is the
odor which the earth, when turned up, ought to emit, and when once found, can
never deceive any person: and this will be found the best criterion for judging the
quality of the soil’’ (after Harrison, 1913, p. 91). Interestingly, this same criterion
is currently being considered by the USDA National Soil Tilth Laboratory for use
as a potential indicator of soil health (T. Parkin, 1995, personal communication).





SOIL HEALTH AND SUSTAINABILITY

B.

l ! h H AND

20TH

13

C E N T U R Y SCIENTISTS AND PRACTITIONERS


The nineteenth century brought widespread concern over a potential food
crisis caused by a rapid increase in human population. As the need to increase
food production was apparent, chemists sought to understand better relationships
between soils and plants. Initial work focused on the concept that plants fed
directly on soil humus. This theory, put forth by Wallerius in the middle of the
eighteenth century, was developed further during the first half of the nineteenth
century by Thaer and von Wullfen (Usher, 1923). They believed organic matter
in soils had to be kept at or near original levels to maintain fertility and avoid
reductions in crop yield. Humus, therefore, was considered a primary indicator
of soil quality. Research by these scientists indicated levels of soil humus to
decrease under cultivation. This finding resulted in predictions that, without
additions of organic matter, soils in central Europe would quickly be exhausted
causing significant declines in crop yield (Usher, 1923).
The humus concept, though profoundly important for its time, was considered
simplistic and limited in scope because of its theoretical basis in phlogiston
chemistry (Krohn and Schafer, 1983). Among its foremost critics was Justus von
Liebig. Liebig acknowledged the importance of hunius as a critical component of
soil fertility, but claimed that a number of key elements were essential for plant
nutrition instead. Relying on methodological advances in organic elementary
analysis, Liebig found plant nutrient requirements could be estimated by analyzing the elemental concentrations in plants and soils and striking a balance between the amounts in the soil and those in the growing plant.
Liebig’s thesis centered on the concept that maintenance of soil quality for
growth of plants required the establishment of natural, unbroken cycles of essential plant nutrients within the soil. These cycles, however, were perceived as
nonexistent in agricultural practices of the time. According to Liebig, the nutritionally extractive characteristics of agriculture could only be offset by addition
of essential plant nutrients to the soil in the form of artificial fertilizers. By doing
this, producers could claim to develop a nonexploitative relation to nature “like a
wave motion within a cycle” (Liebig, 1862, after Krohn and Schafer, 1983).
This new paradigm of plant nutrition caught on rapidly and by the turn of the
twentieth century, agriculture had evolved into a major production industry.
Under this method of agriculture, soil had acquired the status of a “nutrient bin”
for plant roots (Simonson, 1968). In opposition to this form of agriculture was a

group of scientists and farmers of “privilege” who regarded soil as a living
resource. Sir Albert Howard, J. I. Rodale, Lady Eve Balfour, and William
Albrecht represented a handful of individuals who believed soil vitality (i.e., soil
life) to be a fundamental component of successful and socially responsible agriculture. By their standard, soil was a form of biological capital: capital that could


14

J. W. DORAN E T AL.

be used wisely by adoption of agricultural practices that relied on balanced
natural fertility, or unwisely through continued use of practices that relied on external inputs of artificial fertility. They accordingly held the view that the health
and prosperity of society depended upon the condition of the soil.
Agricultural systems that promoted soil vitality were strongly advocated by
this group. In their view, soil vitality was achieved by maintaining a balance of
growth and decay in the soil. This balance was considered to be absent in
conventional agricultural systems as a result of a disproportionate emphasis on
production (Howard, 1943). Sustainable agricultural systems were regarded as
balanced by relying upon vast natural reserves of decaying material. In terms of
agricultural management, this implied replenishing organic and mineral matter in
the soil.
Application of compost to soil was generally accepted as the primary method
to maintain soil organic matter. J. I. Rodale, in Pay Dirt (1945), outlined 36
advantages of using compost, 15 of which were directly related to improving soil
health. Rodale strongly believed the value of compost could not be estimated by
chemical composition alone. In his view, the greatest value of compost was in its
potential to improve the biological and physical condition of the soil.
Although emphasized less than organic matter application, addition of mineral
constituents to the soil was encouraged. Howard regarded the success of Hunzan
agriculture to be partly due to the silt-size glacial material found in the irrigation

water (Howard, 1947, p. 177). Albrecht and Rodale both stressed the importance
of renewing the soil mineral fraction by suggesting the application of lime, wood
ash, and even rocks to soil.
Primary to the philosophy of this group was the belief that soil quality impacted plant, animal, and human health. Diet was considered to be the primary
determinant of good health, and nutrition for all terrestrial organisms began
“from the ground up” (Albrecht, 1975). So strong was this belief that they
claimed soil quality to be an important element of public health. Lady Eve
Balfour, in The Living Soil (1948), declared issues of soil management and
public health to be inseparable. In fact, she proposed that agriculture should be
looked upon as one of the health services, if not the primary health service.
Attainment of this status, however, depended on the need to clearly identify a
relationship between soil quality and public health using rigorous scientific methods; a difficult or impossible task.

IV. SOIL HEALTH AND HUMAN HEALTH
For much of modern agricultural history, the value of new farming techniques
and products was judged primarily, if not solely, on their ability to increase food


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