SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHER’S PERCEPTIONS OF TASKBASED LANGUAGE TEACHING AND THEIR BELIEFS ABOUT THE CURRENT SERIES OF ENGLISH TEXTBOOKS (Nhận thức của giáo viên THPT về Phương pháp dạy học Tiếng Anh dựa vào nhiệm vụ và niềm tin của họ về bộ sách giáo khoa

SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHER‟S PERCEPTIONS OF
TASK-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING AND THEIR
BELIEFS ABOUT THE CURRENT SERIES OF ENGLISH
TEXTBOOKS
(Nhận

thức của giáo viên THPT về Phương pháp dạy học Tiếng Anh dựa

vào nhiệm vụ và niềm tin của họ về bộ sách giáo khoa Tiếng Anh )


TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION .................................................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
DEDICATION ...................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................................I
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................ V
LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... VII
ABBREVIATIONS ...........................................................................................................VIII
PART I. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 1
1. Rationale ............................................................................................................................. 1
2. Aim of the Study ................................................................................................................ 5
3. Objectives of the Study...................................................................................................... 5
4. Research Questions............................................................................................................ 5
5. Significance of the Study ................................................................................................... 6
6. Scope of the Study.............................................................................................................. 7
7. Organization of the Study ................................................................................................. 7
PART II. DEVELOPMENT ................................................................................................. 9
CHAPTER 1. LITERATURE REVIEW............................................................................. 9
1.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 9
1.2. The Main Concepts Related to the Research ............................................................... 9

1.2.1. Teacher Cognition ..................................................................................................... 9
1.2.2. Teacher Perception and Teacher Belief .................................................................. 12
1.2.3. Task and TBLT......................................................................................................... 13
1.3. Theoretical Issues of Task-Based Language Teaching ............................................. 16
1.3.1. Theoretical Foundations of TBLT ........................................................................... 16
1.3.2. Framework of TBLT ................................................................................................ 20
1.3.2.1. Definition of TBLT Framework ............................................................................ 20
1.3.2.2. Different TBLT Frameworks ................................................................................ 20
i


1.3.2.3. TBLT Framework by Willis (1996)....................................................................... 23
1.3.2.4. Principles of TBLT................................................................................................ 25
1.3.2.5. Task Features ....................................................................................................... 27
1.3.2.6. Differences between TBLT and Other Teaching Models...................................... 30
1.3.3. Techniques of TBLT ................................................................................................. 31
1.4. The Current Series of English Textbooks for Upper Secondary Schools in Vietnam
............................................................................................................................................... 33
1.4.1. Textbook Objectives................................................................................................. 33
1.4.2. Content of the Textbooks ......................................................................................... 34
1.4.3. Target Knowledge Covered in the Textbooks .......................................................... 35
1.4.4. Language Skills Taught in the Textbooks Series ..................................................... 36
1.4.5. Tasks and Activities ................................................................................................. 38
1.5. Previous Related Research .......................................................................................... 39
1.5.1. Research into Teachers’ Perceptions and Beliefs in Task-Based Language
Teaching ............................................................................................................................ 39
1.5.2. Research Related to Teachers’ Beliefs about the Current Series of English
Textbooks ........................................................................................................................... 42
1.6. Summary ....................................................................................................................... 43
CHAPTER 2. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .............................................................. 45

2.1. Research Approach ...................................................................................................... 45
2.2. Research Setting and Participants .............................................................................. 47
2.2.1. Research Context ..................................................................................................... 47
2.2.2. Participants ............................................................................................................. 48
2.3. Research Collection Instruments ................................................................................ 53
2.3.1. Survey Questionnaire .............................................................................................. 53
2.3.2. Interview .................................................................................................................. 54
2.3.3. Classroom Observation ........................................................................................... 55
2.4. Research Procedure ...................................................................................................... 55
2.4.1. Quantitative Analysis in Phase 1............................................................................. 56
ii


2.4.2. Qualitative Analysis in Phase 2............................................................................... 57
2.5. Data Analysis Techniques ............................................................................................ 59
2.5.1. Descriptive Techniques............................................................................................ 59
2.5.2. Comparative Techniques ......................................................................................... 61
2.6. Reliability and Validity ................................................................................................ 62
2.6.1. Reliability and Validity of the First Questionnaire (Teachers’ perceptions of TBLT)
........................................................................................................................................... 62
2.6.2. Reliability and Validity of the Second Questionnaire (Teachers’ beliefs about
Textbooks).......................................................................................................................... 65
2.7. Credibility, Transferability, Dependability and Confirmability.............................. 67
2.8. Confidentiality .............................................................................................................. 68
2.9. Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................ 69
CHAPTER 3. THE FINDINGS .......................................................................................... 70
3.2. General Findings about Teachers‟ Perceptions of TBLT ........................................ 71
3.2.1. Teachers’ Perceptions of “the Philosophies of TBLT” ....................................... 71
3.2.2. Teachers’ Perceptions of “the Definitions of TBLT” .......................................... 74
3.2.3. Teachers’ Perceptions of “the Principles of TBLT” ............................................ 77

3.2.4. Teachers’ Perceptions of “the Features of TBLT” ............................................... 82
3.2.5. Teachers’ Perceptions of “the Stages of TBLT” .................................................. 86
3.2.6. Teachers’ Perceptions of “the Techniques of TBLT” .......................................... 89
3.3. General Findings about Teachers‟ Beliefs about the Textbooks ............................. 93
3.3.1. Teachers’ Beliefs about “the Textbook Objectives” ................................................ 93
3.3.2. Teachers’ Beliefs about “the Content of the Textbooks” .................................... 97
3.3.3. Teachers’ Beliefs about “the Knowledge of the Textbooks” ............................ 101
3.3.4. Teachers’ Beliefs about “the Skills taught in the Textbooks” .......................... 103
3.3.5. Teachers’ Beliefs about “the Tasks and Activities of the Textbooks”.............. 106
3.3.6. Teachers’ Beliefs about “the Teaching Method of the Textbooks” ..................... 109
CHAPTER 4. DISCUSSION AND INTERPRETATION ............................................. 113
4.1. Discussions of the Findings about Teachers‟ Perceptions of TBLT ...................... 113
iii


4.1.1. Teachers‟ Perceptions of TBLT .............................................................................. 113
4.1.1.1. Teachers have fair perceptions of TBLT ............................................................ 113
4.1.1.2. Higher Score on Teachers’ Perceptions of TBLT in the Quantitative Phase than
in the Qualitative Phase .................................................................................................. 115
4.1.1.3. Differences in Perception of TBLT between Groups .......................................... 118
4.1.1.4. Teachers’ Perceptions of TBLT Tends to be Task-supported Language Teaching
......................................................................................................................................... 122
4.1.2. Factors Affecting Teachers‟ Perceptions of TBLT ............................................... 126
4.2. Discussions of the Findings about Teachers‟ Beliefs about the Textbooks ........... 130
4.2.1. Teachers‟ Beliefs about the Textbooks .................................................................. 131
4.2.1.1. Teachers Have Fair Beliefs about the Textbooks ............................................... 131
4.2.1.2. Higher Score on Teachers’ Beliefs about the Textbooks in Quantitative Phase 1
than in the Qualitative Phase 2 ....................................................................................... 133
4.2.1.3. Differences in Beliefs about the Textbooks between Teachers in Groups .......... 136
4.2.2. Factors Affecting Teachers‟ Beliefs about the Textbooks and Main Proposals. 138

PART III. CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................. 145
1. Summary of the Major Points of the Study ................................................................ 145
1.1. Summary of the Study ............................................................................................... 145
1.2. Conclusions .............................................................................................................. 145
1.3. Pedagogical Implications ......................................................................................... 147
2. Limitation of the Study ................................................................................................. 148
3. Implications for Future Research ................................................................................ 148
RESEARCHER‟S ARTICLES RELATED TO THE THESIS .................................... 151
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................. 152

iv


LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1: Components of teacher cognition
Table 1.2: General objectives to achieve in Grade 10 to Grade 12 (MOET, 2006: 19-25)
Table 1.3: Topics in English 10, English 11 and English 12
Table 1.4: Themes covered in the English curriculum
Table 2.1: Demographic Data of Survey Participants‟ Background Information
Table 2.2: Brief profiles of 30 cases in case study phase
Table 2.3: Overview of the data analysis procedure case studies
Table 2.4: The reliability of questionnaire 1 and its domains
Table 2.5: Unreliable Items that need being left out the analysis
Table 2.6: Correlation between domains in the whole questionnaire
Table 2.7: Factor Analysis of Students‟ attitudes towards TBLT
Table 2.8: The reliability of questionnaire 1 and its domains
Table 2.9: Correlation between domains in the whole questionnaire (5.2.1.4.1)
Table 2.10: Factor Analysis of Students‟ attitudes towards TBLT
Table 3.1: The descriptive statistics for Domain 1

Table 3.2: The interview‟s main themes for Domain 1
Table 3.3: The descriptive statistics for Domain 2
Table 3.4: The interview‟s main themes for Domain 2
Table 3.5: The descriptive statistics for Domain 3
Table 3.6: Teachers‟ perception of principles of TBLT
Table 3.7: The descriptive statistics for Domain 4
Table 3.8: Teachers‟ perception of features of TBLT
Table 3.9: The descriptive statistics for Domain 5
Table 3.10: The descriptive statistics for Domain 6
Table 3.11: Teachers‟ perception of techniques of TBLT
Table 3.12: The descriptive statistics for Domain 1
Table 3.13: Teachers‟ beliefs about objectives of textbooks
Table 3.14: The descriptive statistics for Domain 2
Table 3.15: Teachers‟ beliefs about content of textbooks
Table 3.16: The descriptive statistics for Domain 3
Table 3.17: Teachers‟ beliefs about knowledge of textbooks
Table 3.18: The descriptive statistics for Domain 4
v


Table 3.19: Teachers‟ beliefs about skills of textbooks
Table 3.20: The descriptive statistics for Domain 5
Table 3.21: Teachers‟ beliefs about tasks and activities of textbooks
Table 3.22: The descriptive statistics for Domain 6
Table 3.23: Teachers‟ beliefs about teaching method of textbooks
Table 4.1: The descriptive statistics for the whole questionnaire and domains
Table 4.2: Perception percentage of the whole questionnaire and domains
Table 4.3: Typical focused themes of teachers‟ perception of TBLT
Table 4.4: Differences in teachers‟ perception of TBLT according to provinces
Table 4.5: Differences in teachers‟ perception of TBLT according to economic

Table 4.6: Differences in teachers‟ perception of TBLT according to first degree
Table 4.7: Qualitative data of teachers‟ perception of TBLT
Table 4.8: Model summary of the whole questionnaire and domains “Teachers‟ perception
of TBLT”
Table 4.9: Coefficient of prediction model 3 for the main domain “Teachers‟ perception of
TBLT”
Table 4.10: Unfocused themes of teachers‟ perception of TBLT
Table 4.11: The descriptive statistics for the whole questionnaire and domains
Table 4.12: Belief percent of the whole questionnaire and domains
Table 4.13: Typical focused themes of teachers‟ beliefs about textbooks
Table 4.14: Differences in teachers‟ beliefs about textbooks according to provinces
Table 4.15: Model summary of the whole questionnaire and domains
Table 4.16: Coefficient of prediction model 3 for the main domain
Table 4.17: Unfocused themes of teachers‟ beliefs about textbooks

vi


LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1: The construct of teacher cognition (Borg, 2003)
Figure 1.2: Modification construct of teacher cognition
Figure 1.3: Willis‟ framework of TBLT (Willis, 1996)
Figure 1.4: Difference between exercise and task
Figure 1.5: Research framework
Figure 2.1: Analytical framework for the research
Figure 4.1: Mean plots according to province
Figure 4.2: Mean plots according to economic state
Figure 4.3: Mean plots according to first degree
Figure 4.4: Mean plots according to locality

Figure 4.5: Mean plots according to province
Figure 5.1: Model of task sequence

vii


ABBREVIATIONS

MOET: Ministry of Education and Training
HNUE: Hanoi National University of Education
ULIS: University of Languages and International Studies
NFL 2020: National Foreign Languages 2020
NWA: Northwest Area
TBLT: Task-Based Language Teaching
TSI: Task-Supported Instruction
TST: Task-Supported Teaching
BA: Bachelor of Arts
MA: Master of Arts
ESL: English as Second Language
ELT: English Language Teaching
CLT: Communicative Language Teaching
L1: Mother Tongue/First Language/Native Language
L2: Second Language

viii


PART I. INTRODUCTION

1. Rationale

1.1. Practical Reasons
In 2002, the Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) decided to
reform the English curriculum for lower and upper secondary schools toward greater
emphasis on students' ability of using English for communicative and academic purposes.
According to the MOET, the policy “one curriculum, many sets of textbooks” is adopted.
Under this policy, students would start English according to task-based curricula from Grade
6, instead of Grade 10. The researcher‟s particular attention focuses on the English curriculum
for secondary schools as this level is considered to be the preparatory stage for Vietnamese
students to study at higher levels. In practice, universities in Vietnam require graduate
students and even newly-entered students to have certain English competency. A good
English curriculum for secondary schools can contribute significantly to the development of
the knowledge-based economy for the country. It motivates the researcher to investigate
secondary school teachers‟ cognition of the English curriculum.
This research focuses only on a specific area as contextual features are very important
in the consideration of the language policy in a country. Due to the English curriculum for
secondary schools, students from all areas have to get the same expected learning outcomes
no matter where they come from. The matter is if it is feasible for students from difficult areas
such as the Northwest of Vietnam, the Central Highlands, and the Southwest to have the same
learning materials, lessons and exams as students from central urban areas like Hanoi, Hai
Phong, Da Nang, and Ho Chi Minh City to achieve one common standard of competence,
knowledge and skills in English. The researcher chose the Northwest Area (NWA) because it
is the area within the researcher‟s reach and it is one of the three most difficult areas in the
country. Furthermore, the researcher has some knowledge of the geography, the culture, the
customs, and the traditions of the people of this region from many visits to the area and many
friends living there.
The researcher intended to study teachers‟ cognition of the task-based curriculum, so
the idea of a research title of “Secondary school teachers‟ cognition of the new curriculum”
1

was initiated. However, in Vietnam, curricula are fixed by the MOET, and the contents of the
curricula are realized in a series of textbooks. Modules for units, revised units, and tests are
decided in the English curriculum for Vietnamese schools. Basing on the curriculum of the
MOET, book designers develop learning tasks and activities for each unit. Through the review
of the English curriculum by the MOET (2006) and the textbooks which have been
implemented for secondary schools in Vietnam, it can be confirmed that this new curriculum
is the task-based one. As the textbook series has been claimed to adopt task-based language
teaching (TBLT) methodology, the investigation into teachers‟ beliefs about the book series
focusing on its TBLT features will help give room to implications helpful to the
implementation of TBLT relevant to the book series in practice. According to Nunan (2004),
in investigation of a task-based curriculum, the three main dimensions that should be focused
on are textbook content, teaching pedagogy and learner assessment. In fact, according to the
English curriculum, the series of textbooks adopt task-based syllabus design and the teaching
method imbedded in the textbooks is TBLT; the student assessment is still aligned to the
traditional manner when it does not focus on students‟ performance, but their linguistic
knowledge. Hence, the current study investigates teachers‟ cognitions of two dimensions,
namely teachers‟ cognitions of the series of English textbooks for secondary schools, and the
teaching method (TBLT). Therefore, instead of investigating teachers‟ cognitions of the
English curriculum, the researcher decided to study teachers‟ cognitions of the new series of
textbooks and teaching method (TBLT) imbedded in the series of textbooks. As in the
literature concerning teachers‟ cognitions, this concept can umbrella teachers‟ beliefs and
teachers‟ perceptions (Borg, 2003); for that reason, the researcher changed the research title to
“Secondary school teachers’ perceptions of task-based language teaching and their beliefs
about the current series of English textbooks” so as to indicate more explicitly the purpose of
studying two major fields, namely teachers‟ perceptions of TBLT and teachers‟ beliefs about
the current series of English textbooks for secondary schools; through these two fields, the
researcher hope to find out teachers‟ cognitions of the English curricula in Vietnam. In the
two fields, the researcher used two under-umbrella terms of teacher cognition, namely
teacher perception and teacher belief; however, due to the multivalances of the concepts in
the literature, these two constructs can also be understood as teachers‟ understandings.

1.2. Theoretical Reasons
According to Louden (1991), teachers "don't merely deliver the curriculum. They
develop it, define it, and reinterpret it too" (p. iv). Borg (2009) also states that teacher
cognition relates closely with what teachers do; he lists out some sophisticated understandings
2


of the relationships between teachers‟ cognitions and practices. According to Borg (2009),
“teachers were not robots who simply implemented, in an unthinking manner, curricula
designed by others; rather, teachers exerted agency in the classroom – they made decisions,
both before and while teaching; these decisions thus became a new focus for educational
researchers – teacher cognition” (p.3). This reality should have been a provoking mark for the
research related to how teachers think, know, perceive and believe about the series of
textbooks as well as the teaching method imbedded in this series of textbooks, which is like
the way that Borg (2003, 2006) did and named it teacher cognition. It is widely acknowledged
that teachers have their own theoretical beliefs and perceptions about language learning and
teaching, and that those tend to shape the teaching practices (Pajares, 1992; Woods, 1996).
According to Borg (2003), teacher belief and teacher perception are terms under the bigger
umbrella term – teacher cognition.
Regarding the current series of English textbooks for upper secondary schools (Tiếng
Anh 10 (English 10), Tiếng Anh 11 (English 11), and Tiếng Anh 12 (English 12), each set is
comprised of three books: the Student’s textbook, the Workbook, and the Teacher’s books.
When the development of this textbook series was completed, it was piloted in some selected
schools across Vietnam in 2004. After necessary revisions were made, this series of textbooks
was officially approved and was put into use, nationwide, in schools by the MOET in the
academic year of 2006-2007. The presence of the current series of English textbooks is an
effort of the MOET to change teachers‟ attitudes, and teachers‟ awareness of English teaching
in Vietnam from teacher-centered orientation to learner-centered orientation. The series of
English textbooks are claimed to follow the “learner-centered approach and the
communicative approach with task-based teaching being the central teaching method”.

As far as English teaching method is concerned, the implementation of the series of
textbooks approved in 2006 placed all Vietnamese teachers of English in the teaching
renovation in order to raise the quality of English language teaching; teachers in the NWA are
no exceptions. This series of textbooks were claimed to incorporate the latest methodology in
foreign language teaching: communicative language teaching (CLT) and TBLT because the
focus of this series of textbooks is more on the learner than on the teacher, as traditionally
grammar-based textbooks; learning activities were designed in tasks and mainly employed
task-based language teaching method as developed by the framework of Willis (Hoang Van
Van, 2011, p.103). The adoption of the communicative approach and its guiding principles of
English language teaching from this series of English textbooks are specified as follows:
1. Attaining communication skills is the goal of the teaching and learning process; linguistic
knowledge is the means by which communication skills are formed and developed.

3


2. Students play an active role in the teaching and learning process and teachers‟ roles are as
organizers and guides.
3. Teaching contents are selected and organized according to themes to guarantee a high level of
communicativeness while catering to the accuracy of the modern language system.
4. Textbook writing, management of teaching and learning, testing, assessment and evaluation
follow the curriculum guidelines (MOET 2006: 6).

In this series of English textbooks, learning tasks in TBLT are considered central to
the whole instructional design process, from the identification of learner needs to the
measurement of student achievement. The design of the series of English textbooks from
Grade 10 to Grade 12 organizes each unit in five lessons (reading, speaking, listening,
writing, and language focus), and each lesson consists of three phases (pre-task, while-task
and post-task); each phase has subtasks or activities. This design seems to fit the framework
proposed by Willis (1996a, 1998, 2001, 2007). A little deviation is that the task cycle in the

current series of textbooks is not accomplished in a class teaching period but in five periods
(one periods for each part: reading, speaking, listening, writing, and language focus), so a task
in these textbooks is bigger than a task of other TBLT frameworks stated in the literature.
Besides, in the reality of English language teaching, TBLT has gradually appeared in teaching
though teachers might not have had full conscious awareness of it; therefore, TBLT might not
be fully exploited.
Le Van Canh (2007) and Nguyen Thi Thuy Minh (2007) were the first researchers
starting up research on these series of textbooks in Vietnam right after the new curriculum
was issued. Le Van Canh (2007) reported on 249 in-service secondary school English-as-aForeign-Language (EFL) teachers‟ beliefs about the new textbooks. Nguyen Thi Thuy Minh
(2007) conducted research in which she attempted to evaluate the textbooks to see if they
meet the goals of the curriculum. Her careful analysis of the text showed both the strengths
and weaknesses of the textbooks. Most recently at the University of Waikato, New Zealand,
Barnard and Nguyen Gia Viet (2010) carried out research on the curriculum and textbook
series entitled “Task-Based Language Teaching: A Vietnamese Case Study Using Narrative
Frames to Elicit Teachers Beliefs”. In this research, Barnard and Viet used narrative frames (as
suggested by Barkhuizen & Wette, 2008) to explore what teachers know and believe about the
reformed curriculum in their specific contexts in comparison with the former curricular in the
direction of grounded analysis (Charmaz, 2006). They mainly asked teachers to write (in
Vietnamese) their reflective comments about their attitudes towards TBLT, and their recent
experiences of applying it in their classroom. Some of the research was not conducted on a
large sample size, so the overview of teachers‟ cognitions of the textbooks and the teaching
method were hard to capture. Moreover, in spite of the importance of understanding of
4


teachers‟ beliefs about what the textbooks really are with respect to different cultural regions
(Byrd, 2001); no practical research has been done in the NWA. In practice, through casual
talks with secondary school teachers, and through some minor research assignments from my
practicum students in secondary schools where they did their teaching practice, surprising
information was verbalized, in which teacher-centeredness was admitted to be popular and

learner-centeredness was by far reachable although teachers usually led their teaching
according to what the textbooks instructed. Moreover, some issues related to the content and
knowledge from the textbooks were supposed to be inadequate to students in this area.
For all the reasons mentioned above, I have decided to carry out this research to
uncover two main fields: (i) teachers‟ perceptions of TBLT and (ii) teachers‟ beliefs about the
series of textbooks. For field (i), I will explore six domains: (1) the definition of task and
TBLT, (2) the philosophy of TBLT, (3) the principles of TBLT, (4) the features of TBLT, (5)
the stages of TBLT, and (6) the techniques of TBLT. And for field (ii), I will also explore six
domains: (1) the objectives of the textbooks, (2) the content of the textbooks, (3) the
knowledge of the textbooks, (4) the skills taught in the textbooks, (5) the tasks and activities
of the textbooks, and (6) the teaching method imbedded in the textbooks.
2. Aim of the Study
The overarching aim of this research is to investigate Vietnamese secondary school
teachers‟ cognitions of the task-based English curriculum. As indicated in the title, the
research is realized into two main aims, focusing on two dimensions, namely teachers‟
perceptions of TBLT and their beliefs about the series of English textbooks which have been
used throughout Vietnam since 2006.
3. Objectives of the Study
Given the aim above, the research sets for itself the following objectives:





Identifying how secondary school teachers of English in the North-Western Area
(NWA) of Vietnam perceive or understand task-based language teaching (TBLT) in
terms of theory.
Exploring what shapes their perceptions of TBLT.
Finding out what secondary school teachers of English in the NWA of Vietnam
believe about the current series of English textbooks in their teaching context.

Discovering what shapes their beliefs about the current series of English textbooks.

4. Research Questions
The above objectives are translated into the following questions and subquestions for
exploration:
5


1. What are the NWA secondary school teachers’ perceptions of TBLT?
1.1. How do the teachers perceive TBLT in terms of theory?
1.2. What shapes their perceptions of TBLT?
2. What are the NWA secondary school teachers’ beliefs about the current series of
English textbooks?
2.1. How do the teachers believe about the current series of English textbooks?
2.2. What shapes their beliefs about the current series of English textbooks?
5. Significance of the Study
As a first attempt to look at the NWA teachers‟ cognition of the task-based English
curriculum, specifically their perceptions of TBLT and their beliefs about the current series of
English textbooks for secondary schools, this research would be beneficial not only to ELT in
the NWA but also to ELT in Vietnam. It may also be beneficial to some stakeholders
including textbook designers, the English teachers in the NWA, and the education
administrators of ELT in the study area.
Through an investigation of teachers‟ perceptions of TBLT, the research would be of
both theoretical and practical value. In the theoretical perspective, with the hope of making a
small contribution to ELT in the NWA and in Vietnam, the researcher proposes a general
theoretical ELT model modified from TBLT when CLT is making teachers confused and
embarrassed in application as there is no specific and precise teaching model of this method
officially issued. The model is only the reasoning and generalization of the researcher in the
theoretical field based on what previous researchers and educators mentioned about TBLT;
therefore, there needs to be further research into it in the future. In the practical perspective, it

cannot be denied that TBLT is adhered to as the teaching instruction model of the current
series of English textbooks for secondary schools in Vietnam; accordingly, investigating as
well as improving teachers‟ understanding of the method is an indispensable need. The result
of teachers‟ perceptions of TBLT can serve as sources for the solutions to improve their
understandings of this teaching model.
With the investigation of the current series of English textbooks for Vietnamese
secondary schools, the research would be of practical value in teaching practice. In an EFL
context like Vietnam, textbooks are regarded as the main source of learner‟s language input
and language practice. For many Vietnamese teachers, textbooks may even help them
construct their class instruction. The research is a chance for secondary school teachers to
raise their voices about what they are facing everyday. As a result, the understanding of
teachers‟ beliefs about the current series of English textbooks is source of reference for the
curriculum designers, textbook writers, teacher trainers and education officials; and it can
6


help them evaluate the effectiveness of the series of English textbooks after having been put
into use on a large scale for nearly ten years. For that further adjustments and even revisions
need to be made to perfect the materials so that the textbooks can meet the increasing needs of
modern Vietnamese education. Hopefully, some of the results of this primary research can be
considered in the design of the forthcoming series of textbooks when the MOET exercises the
policy of “one curriculum, many sets of textbooks” to fit different contexts and areas in
Vietnam in the coming years.
6. Scope of the Study
Given the title of the thesis, it is necessary to narrow the research down to a scope
which can be manageable. The title of the thesis is “Secondary School Teachers’ Perceptions
of Task-Based Language Teaching and Their Beliefs about the Current Series of English
Textbooks”, the research confines itself to investigating the perceptions of task-based
language teaching of secondary school teachers of English and their beliefs about the current
series of secondary English textbooks in six provinces, including Hoa Binh, Son La, Dien

Bien, Lai Chau, Lao Cai, Yen Bai. With regard to the title of this research project, I would
like to investigate the whole current series of English textbooks, being implemented in
nationwide secondary schools, from Grade 10 to Grade 12.
7. Organization of the Study
The study is organized around three parts: Part I, Part II, and Part III
Part I – Introduction – presents rationale for the study, aim of the study, objectives of
the study, research questions, significance of the study, scope of the study, and organization
of the study.
Part II – Development – comprises four chapters. Chapter 1 – Literature Review –
reviews theoretical issues related to TBLT, textbook design and evaluation, teachers‟
perceptions of the teaching method and teachers‟ beliefs about the textbooks.
Chapter 2 – Methodology – describes research context, explains the reasons for
research method choice and how the two phases of data collection and analysis were set up,
clarifies the reasoning behind the various decisions which were made along the way, outlines
the context within which the data were gathered and presents a composite picture of the
teachers who participated in the study, and describes the teachers' values and shows how the
teachers from both phases of the study held similar sets of perceptions of the nature of TBLT
and sets of beliefs about textbooks.
7


Chapter 3 – Findings – presents main findings of the teachers' understandings of
TBLT and teacher beliefs about textbooks according to themes.
Chapter 4 – Interpretations and Discussions – interprets and discusses data according
to research questions stated at the beginning of the study.
Part III – Conclusion – recapitulates what has been investigated, draws conclusions
from major findings, points out limitations of the study, and makes some suggestions for
further research. Special recommendations are made on what should be done to increase the
perception secondary school teachers of English in the NWA about TBLT as well as increase
the ability to implement the English textbooks, including the textbook modifications, and

teachers‟ self-study in a more effective way to fit the context of the NWA.

8


PART II. DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1. LITERATURE REVIEW
1.1. Introduction
The aim of this chapter is to set up a framework for the study. To do this, the chapter
will (1) re-examine some of the main concepts relevant to the dissertation, (2) discuss TBLT
framework, (3) present main features of the current series of English textbooks for
Vietnamese upper secondary schools, and (4) look at previous research related to the
dissertation.
Towards the overview of TBLT and features of the current series of English textbooks,
issues related to domains are deeply discussed so as to lay the theoretical base for the design
of items in each domain. With TBLT, the following theoretical issues accordant with six
investigated domains of TBLT are considered: (1) the definition of task and TBLT, (2) the
philosophy of TBLT, (3) the principles of TBLT, (4) the features of TBLT, (5) the stages of
TBLT, and (6) the techniques of TBLT. With the current series of English textbooks, the
following theoretical issues in harmony with six investigated domains of the textbooks are
considered: (1) the objectives of the textbooks, (2) the content of the textbooks, (3) the
knowledge of the textbooks, (4) the skills taught in the textbooks, (5) the tasks and activities
of the textbooks, and (6) the teaching method imbedded to the textbooks.
1.2. The Main Concepts Related to the Research
1.2.1. Teacher Cognition
Though this research only investigates two concepts, namely teacher perception and
teacher belief, it is necessary to preliminarily mention the concept the concept teacher
cognition because teacher cognition has been considered to be the umbrella term of teacher
perception and teacher belief (Borg, 2003).
In the mainstream educational literature, the concept of teacher cognition was first

proposed by Borg (2003). Before that it was labeled under a number of terms: teacher
judgment (Clark & Yinger, 1977; Peterson & Clark, 1978), theoretical beliefs (Johnson,
1992), belief (Pajares, 1992), specific pedagogical knowledge (Shulman, 1987; Spada &
Massey, 1992), conceptions of practice (Freeman, 1993), theories for practice consisting of
thinking and beliefs (Burns, 1996), personal pedagogical systems consisting of beliefs,
knowledge, theories, assumptions and attitudes (Calderhead, 1996; Borg, 1998), pedagogical
knowledge (Shulman, 1987; Gatbonton, 1999), practical knowledge (Meijer, Verloop, &
9


Beijaard, 1999), pedagogic principles (Breen et al., 2001), teacher cognition including belief,
perception, and knowledge (Calderhead, 1996; Borg, 2003, 2006, 2009; Woolfolk, Davis &
Pape, 2006) in which most dominant and notable notions are belief and knowledge. The most
common referenced perspective of teacher cognition in the recent studies in this decade has
been contributed by Borg (2006). The reason is that Borg can summarize and analyse the
complete picture of the mainstream literature of teacher cognition from those overlapping and
divergent constructs to add up a new construct with proper components and clear
categorization of related terms.

Figure 1.1: The construct of teacher cognition (Borg, 2003, p.82)

Borg (2003, 2006) made his own model of teacher cognition based on most of the
scholars‟ viewpoints mentioned above in this field. According to Borg (2009), research on
teachers‟ cognitive dimensions had primitively emerged in the late 1970s; however, it was
only until late in the 1990s that the study of L2 teacher cognition bloomed, and from the mid1990s onwards, there was a rapid increase in the research examining various aspects of what
L2 teachers know, believe and think, and the research of the relationships to what teachers do.
Borg (2003) revised hundreds of works about terminologies and constructs of teacher
cognition from 1970s to his present time. Actually, he made a remarkable contribution to the
literature by graphing previous research of terminologies into categories for ease of
understanding into a new construct; “teacher cognition” has appeared to be the most cited

viewpoint from its first appearance up to now.
As seen in Figure 1.1, the construct of teacher cognition by Borg has four components
coming from four main sources or sectors, and incorporates many other related under10


umbrella notions, such as attitudes, beliefs, conceptions, perceptions, images, theories,
perspectives, etc. Inheriting a view from Borg‟s previous works and acknowledging research
by Phipps and Borg (2007), Borg (2009, pp.2-3) summarized the nature of teacher cognition
and its relationship to what teachers do as follows:








Teachers‟ cognitions can be powerfully influenced by their own experiences as learners.
These cognitions influence what and how teachers learn during teacher education.
Teachers act as a filter through which teachers interpret new information and experience.
Teachers may outweigh the effects of teacher education in influencing what teachers do in the
classroom.
Teachers can be deep-rooted and resistant to change.
Teachers can exert a persistent long-term influence on teachers‟ instructional practices.
Teachers are, at the same time, not always reflected in what teachers do in the classroom.
Teachers interact bi-directionally with experience (i.e. beliefs influence practices but practices
can also lead to changes in beliefs).

With regard to teacher cognition research, Borg (2006) claims that: “Teacher
cognition research is concerned with understanding what teachers think, know and believe. Its

primary concern, therefore, lies with the unobservable dimensions of teaching - teachers‟
mental lives” (p.1). He explained the definition by further stressing that the questions being
addressed now were not simply “what do teachers do?” but also “what do they think?”, “what
decisions do they make?”, and “why?”… (2009, p.3).
Inevitably, a further critical discussion of Borg‟s model of teacher cognition can be
made contribution to the literature in this field. For there are four sections determining teacher
cognition as indicated in the figure, it may be inferred that if we want to change teachers‟
teaching practice according to a new theory (for example from learner-centredness to
learning-centredness or the imbed of the two), we can act on one in three, or all of three
sections (i.e., professional courseworks, contextual factors, classroom practice) except for
schooling as we cannot turn teachers‟ time back to their university moment. In this sense, it
seems that Borg mentioned sources for the activeness of changes in teacher cognition. For
example, if teachers are forced to change their theory or method of teaching by a policy from
the MOET that requires changes to all subject teaching pedagogies aligned with modern
education systems without the need of careful social surveys for the context adaption because
politicians believe what come from modern society is superior; while to some extent, teachers
are passive recipients of the compulsory change. It is, equally, clear that Borg‟s category
cannot incorporate the situation in this case; the reason may be assumingly possible that Borg
might get used to modern system of education like the USA, Hong Kong, the UK, Canada,
and Australia, where teachers persist the right to act according to their thoughts; and
educational policies are inquiry-based, and due to social investigations. Borg might not have
11


sufficient information about the top-down educational policies in other parts of the world;
hence, for second language pedagogy in the context of some developing countries, a reference
to the active role of teacher cognition alone according to Borg‟s theory proves to be
insufficient. The question one may raise to Borg‟s model is “Why aren‟t there more than four
components for teacher cognition, such as political factors, religious factors?” In other words,
in order to develop the Borg‟s category model, it is highly likely, if not inevitable, that the

consideration of an alternative one may be put in this way:

Figure 1.2: Modification construct of teacher cognition (adapted from Borg, 2003, p.82)

1.2.2. Teacher Perception and Teacher Belief
The differentiation between the under-umbrella terms of teacher cognition is not easy;
the following component terms, belief and perception, attitude, conception, images, theories,
perspectives, knowledge, awareness, and so on, are usually overlapping in meaning (Woolfolk
et al., 2006). Verloop et al. (2001) explains that “… in the mind of the teacher, components of
knowledge, beliefs, conceptions, perception and intuitions are inextricably intertwined”
(p.446). The proliferation of terms has led to “definitional confusion” (Eisenhart, Shrum,
Harding & Cuthbert, 1988; Woolfolk et al., 2006). Clandinin and Connelly (1987) point out
those identical terms have been defined in different ways and different terms have been used
to describe similar concepts, which can cause conceptual ambiguity.
For ease of understanding and distinguishing the two terms, teacher perception and
teacher belief, and for avoiding the ambiguity of these notions, in this study I categorize the
term teacher cognition into under-umbrella terms as in Table 1.1 below:
Table 1.1: Components of teacher cognition about their teaching (Nguyen Viet Hung, 2012c, p.100)
Construct
Teacher
cognition

Components
belief, attitude, judgment, personal
theories, perspective, etc.
perception, conception,
knowledge, strategy, pedagogical

12

Characteristics
being emotional, subjective,
easily-emerged, unreasonablyset, stative, stable
being logic, objective,
reasonably-set, dynamic,


principle, awareness,
understanding, etc.

changeable

According to Table 1.1, belief is interchangeable with attitude, judgment, value,
opinion, and ideology (Shepard & Smith, 1989; Tomchin & Impara, 1992; Eisenhart et al.,
1988; Pajares, 1992); perception is interchangeable with knowledge, awareness and
understanding. Belief is different from perception as belief relates to internal mental processes
that are more static; whereas perception is more dynamic like knowledge, and it changes or
reconstructs when more or different knowledge is acquired (Nespor, 1987; Woolfolk et al.,
2006). The category above serves best for the purpose of this study because under the
umbrella term - teacher cognition, beliefs and perceptions are a little distinctive from each
other (Borg, 2006). In other words, the terms teacher perception and teacher belief in this
research can be understood as follows:
Teacher perception is mainly concerned with teachers‟ thinking is interpretations or
understanding of the teaching and learning issues based on teachers‟ knowledge, the past
experience, the current context, the needs, the goals, and the expectations (Borg, 2009). This
viewpoint should indicate that I could intertwine use of the term understanding and
conception as synonym of the term perception elsewhere in this thesis.
Teacher belief includes the information, attitudes, viewpoints, values, expectations,
theories and assumptions about teaching and learning that teachers build up over time and
bring with them to the classroom (Borg, 2009).

1.2.3. Task and TBLT
Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT) can be regarded as one particular approach to
implementing the broader “communicative approach” in general (Littlewood, 2004, p.1). In
other words, communicative language teaching is the origin of task-based language teaching
(Skehan, 2003).
The definition of „task‟ and „TBLT‟ has been so numerous and various in the literature
(e.g. Prabhu, 1987; Bygate et al., 2001; Ellis, 2000, 2003; Lee, 2000; Long, 1985, 1997, 2005;
Nunan, 2004; Richards and Rodgers, 2001; Salaberry, 2001; Skehan, 1998a, 1998b, 2003;
Willis, 1996a, 1996b, 1998) that it is not an easy matter to offer a unique and unanimous
definition. In what follows, I shall present some of the most cited and acknowledged
conceptualizations of „task‟ and „TBLT‟ in the literature.
Prabhu (1987, p.12), being considered to be the first methodologist in TBLT research
when he carried out the Bangalore Project, regards a task as “an activity which required
learners to arrive at an outcome from given information through some process of thought, and
13


which allowed teachers to control and regulate that process”. He additionally discussed that
the TBLT is a fruitful way of language practice as effective learning is urged when students
are fully engaged and attached to a language task, rather than just learning linguistic forms
(p.17).
Another definition of „pedagogical task‟ comes from Richards and Rodgers (2001,
p.224) which regards task as: “… an activity or action which is carried out as the result of
processing or understanding language (i.e. as a response)”. The examples of task from
Richards and Rodgers (ibid.) are drawing a map while listening to a tape, listening to an
instruction and performing a command may be referred to as tasks. Notably, in Richards and
Rodgers‟ conception, involving the production of language may not be a prerequisite of a
task, but it is usually required as for full completion. They believe that “the use of a variety of
different kinds of tasks in language teaching is said to make language teaching more
communicative… since it provides a purpose for a classroom activity which goes beyond the

practice of language for its own sake” (p.228).
Breen (1987, p.23) offers another definition of a „pedagogical task‟:
. . . any structured language learning endeavour which has a particular objective, appropriate
content, a specified working procedure, and a range of outcomes for those who undertake
the task. „Task‟ is therefore assumed to refer to a range of work plans which have the overall
purposes of facilitating language learning – from the simple and brief exercise type, to more
complex and lengthy activities such as group problem-solving or simulations and decisionmaking.

This definition is very broad, and implies that nearly anything the learner does in the
classroom qualifies as a task. It could, in fact, be used to justify any procedure at all as “taskbased” and, as such, is not particularly helpful.
With Swales (1990), tasks are “…sequenceable goal-directed activities…relatable to
the acquisition of pre-genre and genre skills appropriate to a foreseen or emerging…
situation" (p. 76), while Bygate, Skehan, and Swain (2001, p.11) view a task as “an activity
which requires learners to use language, with emphasis on meaning, to attain an objective”..
Lee (2000) defines a task is “(1) a classroom activity or exercise that has: (a) an objective
obtainable only by interaction among participants, (b) a mechanism for structuring and
sequencing interaction, and (c) a focus on meaning exchange; (2) a language learning
endeavor that requires learners to comprehend, manipulate, and/or produce the target
language as they perform some sets of work plans”.
Long (1985) described a „task‟ as "… a piece of work undertaken for oneself or for
others, freely or for some reward . . . By “task” is meant the hundred and one things people do
14


in everyday life, at work, at play, and in between" (p. 89). As for Willis (1996a), and then in
Willis and Willis (2001): “a classroom undertaking where the target language is used by the
learner for a communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome” (p. 173). The
very concise notion does not mention the meaning of a communicative task as it is
incorporated in “outcome” through the exchange of meanings. As stated in Willis and Willis
(2009), “a task has a number of defining characteristics, among them: does it engage the

learners‟ interest; is there a primary focus on meaning; is success measured in terms of nonlinguistic outcome rather than accurate use of language forms; and does it relate to real world
activities? The more confidently we can answer “yes” to each of these questions the more
task-like the activity is” (p.4). Basing on various different authors, Skehan (1996) advances
four key features of a task in a pedagogical perspective: (1) meaning is primary, (2) there is
some sort of relationship to comparable real-world activities, (3) task completion has some
priority, and (4) the assessment of the task is in terms of outcome. Ellis (2003, p. 16) provides
a composite definition:
A task is a workplan that requires learners to process language pragmatically in order to achieve
an outcome that can be evaluated in terms of whether the correct or appropriate propositional
content has been conveyed. To this end, it requires them to give primary attention to meaning
and to make use of their own linguistic resources, although the design of the task may
predispose them to choose particular forms. A task is intended to result in language use that
bears a resemblance, direct or indirect, to the way language is used in the real world. Like other
language activities, a task can engage productive or receptive, and oral or written skills, and also
various cognitive processes.

Another useful definition of TBLT is provided by Samuda and Bygate, who put that
„TBLT‟ refers to “contexts where tasks are the central unit of instruction: they “drive”
classroom activities, they define curriculum and syllabuses and they determine modes of
assessment” (2008, p.58). This conceptualisation of TBLT takes the agreement of writers as
Le Van Canh (2004a, p.102), Long and Crookes (1992), Skehan (1998) and Willis (1996a).
Typically, Le Van Canh (2004a) states:
Tasks provide a purpose for the use and learning of language other than simply learning
language items for their own sake. Viewed from a broader perspective, tasks are simply a
context for learners to experience language in a range of ways, for teachers and learners to
evaluate process and product, and for teachers to select from, exploit and develop.

From the aforementioned viewpoints of „task‟ and „TBLT‟, it is evident that the
conceptualisations of task and TBLT between researchers are not unanimous. They are
variously defined. For this reason it is necessary to clarify the common features of task and

TBLT into following groups: (1) task and TBLT are meaning-focused (Prabhu, 1987; Willis,
1996a, 1998, 2007; Ellis, 2003, 2006, 2009; Lee, 2000; Robinson, 2005), which bear some
characteristics including (a) basing on the synthetic approach to language teaching, (b) not
15


being based on grammar, (c) being based on involvement in the completion of a task, (d)
using authentic or real-life tasks, (e) making the learner central to the learning and teaching
process, and so on; (2) task and TBLT are form-focused (Long, 1997; Nunan, 1989) which
bear some characteristics as (a) basing on the analytic approaches to language, (b) being
focused on grammar, (c) there being room for explicit learning of forms, (d) building
grammatical scaffoldings before doing task, (e) selecting tasks according to learners‟ needs,
and so on; and (3) task and TBLT are balance-focused (i.e., they are focused on both form and
meaning) (Skehan, 1998, p.121).
Despite the fact that different task-based approaches exist today (Johnson, 2008, p.
184), TBLT, in its broadest sense, is based on “the use of tasks as the core unit of planning
and instruction in language teaching” (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.223). My own view of a
task and TBLT is strongly influenced by Willis (1996) and Skehan (1996), and Lee (2000), in
which pedagogical tasks involve communicative language use in which the user‟s attention is
focused on meaning rather than grammatical form. However, this does not mean that form is
not important. My proposed working definition on TBLT can be expressed as:
„Task-Based Language Teaching‟ (TBLT) is the implementation of pedagogical tasks, which
are inspired from real world tasks, fitted well to students‟ needs and interests, and socially
contextualized. A „task‟ is goal-oriented, meaning-focused first and form-focused then, contextualized,
and implemented as the basis for teaching and learning. It can enable teacher‟s teaching in the
direction of strong form realization of CLT, and help students achieve reachable and communicative
outcomes when they are exposed to authentic and comprehensible input, then do the task through
interactions (in pairs or in small groups) in which their own experiences of target language are
exploited, and lastly access the completeness through the outcome (Nguyen Viet Hung, 2014, pp.3948).

My definition refers to the deployment of learners‟ knowledge, experience and skills
to express meaning, highlighting the fact that meaning and form are highly interrelated, and
that grammar exists to enable the language user to express different communicative meanings.
Supports for this choice of notion of tasks come from other reasons. According to Hoang Van
Van (2011), the series of the textbooks of English subject is based on the TBLT framework
proposed by Willis (1996a). Thus, a unanimous choice of a task notion and TBLT framework
corresponding to Willis‟ theory is a suitable act.
1.3. Theoretical Issues of Task-Based Language Teaching
1.3.1. Theoretical Foundations of TBLT
As TBLT grows out of the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), it certainly
remains present with those theoretical philosophies as a base (Ellis, 2003; Richards &
Rodgers, 2001; Swan, 2005). Nunan (2003, p.10) pointed out that TBLT can be seen as the
16