FOOD EXPRESSIONS IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE EQUIVALENTS FROM a CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAING
HANOI OPEN UNIVERSITY
----------------------------

NGUYỄN VĂN TÁM

FOOD EXPRESSIONS IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE
EQUIVALENTS FROM A CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE
(THÀNH NGỮ LIÊN QUAN ĐẾN ĐỒ ĂN VÀ CÁCH DIỄN ĐẠT TƯƠNG
ĐƯƠNG TRONG TIẾNG VIỆT TỪ KHÍA CẠNH VĂN HÓA)

M.A THESIS
Field: English Language
Code: 8220201

Ha Noi, 2018


MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAING
HANOI OPEN UNIVERSITY
----------------------------

NGUYỄN VĂN TÁM
FOOD EXPRESSIONS IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE
EQUIVALENTS FROM A CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE
(THÀNH NGỮ LIÊN QUAN ĐẾN ĐỒ ĂN VÀ CÁCH DIỄN ĐẠT TƯƠNG
ĐƯƠNG TRONG TIẾNG VIỆT TỪ KHÍA CẠNH VĂN HÓA)

M.A THESIS
Field: English Language
Code: 8220201

Supervisor: Assoc. Prof, Dr. Lê Văn Thanh

Ha Noi, 2018


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS


At the very beginning, I would like to express my thankful to all teachers of Hanoi
Open university in general and teachers of the faculty of foreign language in particular.
I would like to send all of you a profound gratitude and the most sincere for having
taught me for the past time. I especially thank you Associate Professor, Dr. Le Van
Thanh, who is my instructor, for your dedicated guide and support that helped me to
complete this study perfectly.
During the period of my study, I have received generous help from quarters which I
would like to put on this acknowledgement here with deep gratitude and pleasure. First
and foremost, I am grateful to my teacher- Associate Professor, Dr. Hoang Tuyet Minh
she spent her precious time on aiding me tremendously right from the beginning till the
end of my internship. I have no hesitation to say that I would probably fail to complete
in an appropriate manner without their constant support, encouragement and ways for
the meaningful ending the work in a short duration. Last but not least, I would like to
thank all my friends for their sincere co-operation and support.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................. 1
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................... 5
1.1.

Rationale for the study ........................................................................................ 5

1.2.

Aim and objectives .............................................................................................. 7

1.3.

Research Question ............................................................................................... 7

1.4.

Scope of the study ............................................................................................... 7

1.5.

Significance of the study ..................................................................................... 7

1.6.

Design of the study.............................................................................................. 8

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................... 9
2.1.

Previous studies ................................................................................................... 9

2.2.

Concepts of Idioms ........................................................................................... 12

2.3.

Translation ......................................................................................................... 14
2.3.1. Definitions .................................................................................................. 14
2.3.2. Types of translation .................................................................................... 15
2.3.3. Principles of translation .............................................................................. 16
2.3.4. Equivalence in translation ............................................................................. 17
2.3.4.1. Definitions ........................................................................................... 17
2.3.4.2. Types of equivalence ........................................................................... 18

2.4.

Cultural Features ............................................................................................... 25
2.4.1. Cultural Features in English idioms

......................................................... 25

2.4.2. Cultural Features in Vietnamese idioms ....................................................... 25
2.4.3. Cultural Features in English and Vietnamese idioms ................................... 26
2.5.

Idiomatic expressions ........................................................................................ 29
2.5.4. Definitions .................................................................................................. 29
2.5.5. Classifications ............................................................................................. 29

2.6.

Summary ........................................................................................................... 30

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHOLODOGY ........................................................... 31
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3.1. Research approach .................................................................................................. 31
3.2. Research Methods ................................................................................................... 31
3.3. Data collection and data analysis ............................................................................ 31
3.4 Summary .................................................................................................................. 33
CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS .............................................................................................. 34
4.1. Cultural Perspectives behind the food Expressions ................................................ 34
4.1.1. To express manner of an action ..................................................................... 34
4.1.2. To express characteristics of a person ........................................................... 35
4.1.3. To express a description of something or someone ...................................... 37
4.1.4. The Source Meanings .................................................................................... 51
4.2. Comparison between Vietnamese Equivalence. ..................................................... 67
4.3. Implication of using, translating and teaching drink and food idioms. ............ 70
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION ....................................................................................... 74
5.1. Summary of Findings .............................................................................................. 74
5.1.1. Findings of cultural features .......................................................................... 74
5.1.2. Findings of semantics .................................................................................... 75
5.1.3. The findings of problem in use ..................................................................... 76
5.2. Summary of the chapter .......................................................................................... 77
5.3. Limitations of the study .......................................................................................... 78

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Abstract
Idioms are everyday words of the people that contain both the depth of thinking

about production labor, social relations, human morality, aesthetic view.... To
unscramble the miscellaneous food expressions in English for Vietnamese EFL
learners, the present study aims to explore meanings and cultural aspects behind the
idioms and seek possible Vietnamese equivalents. With thirty-five selected food
idiomatic expressions in English, retrieved from BBC World Service Learning English
Forum and VOA English, the present study might shed light on this fascinating
research theme into the role of translation study in practice.Descriptive qualitative
research is used for this study in which Statistical and observational methods are also
used to find out essential findings. The introduction presents the rationale, the aims,
research question, the scope, significance as well as the design of the study in which
the theoretical background about the „food expression in English and Vietnamese
equivalents is presented. Moreover, the culture perspective from the idiomatic
expressions containing the word „food‟ in English and Vietnamese is explored in the
study. The idioms in two languages showed people‟s thought, however they way the
use language is different. In addition, these idioms are analyzed to explore the literal
meanings and the idiomatic meanings that show the relation between English and
Vietnamese. The findings are very interesting because cultural perspectives and
semantic feature and source meaning behind the expressions help the teachers and
learners understand languages deeply. The study play an important role in helping the
teacher know how to teach idioms, especially food idioms..

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CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION
1.1.

Rationale for the study
Foods are elements in cultural aspects (Boniface, 2017). However, translating

names of foods between languages is not an easy task (Terestyenyi, 2011). Also, in
English food is used in idiomatic expressions in a very different way from Vietnamese,
leading to EFL learners‟ inability to understand their meanings easily without any
reference some cultural dimensions. It is because L2 idiomatic expressions are “one of
the most difficult aspects due to the fact they are conventionalized expressions peculiar
to a language community and they are usually frozen in form and often unpredictable
in meaning.” (Liu, 2017)
Idioms have a variety of philosophical perspectives that are diverse and rich, with
views that bear the spirit of human life, not only linguistic but also cultural as stated in
Newmark (1988) & Munday (2016). When analyzing idioms from the source language
(SL) into the target language (TL), the learners needs various techniques and skills, as
well as take into consideration many principles to achieve the goal such as retaining
source meaning and get readers closer to the exact understanding of the texts.
Understanding the linguistic patterns and cultural meanings of the dioms in the
SL to translate into the TL has been an interesting, but difficult job, which normally
requires much linguistic and cultural experience (Terestyenyi, 2011).
In addition, many authors also studied and proposed some methods to improve
the use of idioms for foreign language learners, (Thuy, 1996) methods of teaching
idioms to foreign learners, (Ngan, 1996). The above results are significant for teaching
- learning foreign languages.
All of this motivated the researcher to conduct this small-scale descriptive
qualitative research to open highlights of translating English food idiomatic
expressions which usually causes troubles to EFL teachers and learners.
The analysis and comparison of equivalence of the idioms in the two languages
to find the cultural perspective and semantics of literal and figurative meaning. It helps
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identify the similarities and differences of the two languages and using cultural
characteristics in two or more cultures to analyze the meaning of idioms in English and

Vietnamese languages.
Because of different cultural perspectives between language communities,
Vietnamese EFL learners might find it difficult to express idiomatic expressions
denoting the word food in English. Understanding these idioms could facilitate not only
the communication but also teaching and learning idiomatic expressions.
There are two cultures in the world that make up the great differences of EastWest culture. However, in the end, each people has its own characteristics of
geography, history, material life, spirit, customs ... That is a particular culture and are
reflected clearly in language, especially in the vocabulary of each people.
When idioms are understood by reflecting those cultures into foreign languages,
there are many difficulties and troubles for the learners because the target language is
not available. Such cultural features do not have the corresponding words. Only in
Vietnam, the articles, research works on this topic, with the opposite direction has a lot.
However, the comparison of language has only received much attention in recent
times. The practice has brought to urgent requirements, requiring researchers to focus
on solving.
The present study hence might throw a light on this research theme by stating
and supplying possible Vietnamese equivalence of idomatic expressions denoting the
word food. However, the meaning of these idioms are studied and analysis in context
of cultures and use.
There are some research relating idioms are carried out in Vietnam, especially,
there are few food idioms studied. Thus the studying and learning idioms in English
classes face some troubles. Therefore, it is very reasonable to explore food idioms.

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1.2.

Aim and objectives

The aim of the study is to investigate the cultural semantic features of English food
expressions and their Vietnamese equivalents in order to help the Vietnamese learners
use and translate these expressions in English effectively.
The objectives of the study are.
To discribe the cultural semantic features of English food expressions.
To make a comparison between English food expressions and their Vietnamese
equivalents.
To give implications for using and translating English food expressions into
Vietnamese effectively.
1.3.

Research Question
(1) What are the cultural semantic features of English food expressions.
(2) What are the similarities and differences between English food expressions
and their Vietnamese equivalents.
(3) What are implications for using and translating English food expressions into
Vietnamese effectively.

1.4.

Scope of the study
The study was done in 2018, Researcher chooses 35 idioms of food by chance.

This study examines how English food expression is translated into Vietnamese in
terms of product rather than process. That is, this study focuses on the equivalents
rather than what the translator thought and how she made decisions when translating an
English idioms into Vietnamese.
1.5.

Significance of the study

Theoretically, the study has presented roles of idioms in general and food

idioms in particular that help learners and other researchers understand the way people
use their language to express their ideas, thought and feeling.
Practically, the findings of this research are able to strengthen understanding of
food expression in English with reference in Vietnamese for the learners. Some

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pedagogical solutions are suggested, introducing translation issues in the idiomatic
expression. Those suggestions will help to develop better translation of idioms so that
they can use English more effectively in their personal and career life.
The researcher hopes that from the findings of the study, many teachers of
English can exploit food expression in helping students to acquaint with and upgrade
their English. Moreover, the author want to shares understanding about this interesting
and useful translation and equivalence of idioms in English and Vietnamese with
colleagues who have the same enjoyment of English‟s expression.
1.6.

Design of the study
There are four chapters in the study.
Chapter 1 is the Introduction that raises the problem for the study. Moreover, the

aim of study is presented in which main goals and objectives are showed in details.
Chapter 2 is literature review that discusses for the theoretical background of the
study. There are two main theories including translation and idiomatic expression. In
translation theories, there are definition, types of translation, principles of translation
and equivalents. Therefore,

idiomatic expression theories raise definition and

classification.
Chapter 3 presents methodology of the study in which there are some main
points discussed including research design, research instrument, data collection and
analysis for the findings.
Chapter 4, in this chapter finds the results of the study by analyzing and
contrasting the idioms of the two languages in terms of semantics and culture.
Therefore, we can find out the distinctive features of English and Vietnamese cultures
about the “food” lying behind the similarities and differences between English and
Vietnamese idioms containing the word “ food”. The Conclusion summaries the issues
discussed in the thesis.

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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1.

Previous studies

It can be said that in recent years, idioms have been studied extensively and
from different angles. Especially, if we talk about comparative studies, it can be said
that the tune of some "European languages" has been compared in comparison with
Vietnamese. Master's degree at the University of Foreign Languages - Hanoi National
University since the master's degree course (1992), it can be seen in a series of
dissertations study comparative idioms, such as: only Russian animals in comparison
with English and Vietnamese (Ngo Minh Thuy, 1996), idioms from the human part of
the body in Russian and Vietnamese (Do Hoang Nana, 1996), Russian idioms have
natural counterparts from comparable idioms in English and Vietnamese; Idioms with

the word "hand" in Russian, comparative with Vietnamese language (Nguyen Thi Thu,
1997);
Dao Thanh Tu studied Idiomatic Expressions Containing the Word „Dog‟ in
English and Vietnamese in 2015. The study discovered the symbol of “dog” in English
cultures. They consider “dog” as the symbol of night, darkness and afterlife. In many
myths, dogs or dog-like beings protect the underworld from unwary guests as they live.
However, in the spiritual life of Vietnam, dogs must guard against evils. In Vietnamese
culture, the dog or lion's cry is one of the pure relics of Vietnam, created to protect the
house as well as the spiritual life of the Vietnamese, while in the background British
culture, the dog is considered the guardian of death, not the existence (Tu, 2015).
The word “dog” and the idiomatic meaning of phrases and sentences is studied
literally that contain the word 'dog' can help the author find similarities and differences
in how English and Vietnamese perceive images of animals. Picture of this animal. It is
seen that there are many expressions related to the word 'dog' in that their negative
meaning is more than positive.
Due to limited time and knowledge, in this task, the study is focused only on
idioms “dog” in English and Vietnamese. Therefore, It can be seen the specific cultural
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characteristics of each language community in the use of phrases and sentences related
to the word “dog”.
The author Pham Gia Doan studied the topic “Idioms in English” in 2004 in
Van Lang University. The research presents that the idioms in English appear under
familiar words. Some of the idioms are verb conjugations, such as work out, turn in,
get away with, get up ... A large number of similarities are nouns or phrases from, for
instance, cat, bull in china shop. The word acts as an adjective, for example, pepper
and salt, in his hair is pepper and salt. Other adjectives may be adverbs, such as like a
breeze - easy, not difficult - He takes care of the hot dog like a breeze, or hammer and
tongs- violently- She runs after him hammer and tongs (Doan, 2004).

Besides, idioms are also nationalistic: color and thinking. The same concept,
two different languages will use different idioms to express that concept. The term
bread and butter refers to the normal needs of life - food, clothing, and habitat. If in the
English language (he would surely be the librarian), perhaps the concept of butter and
bread is typical of the normal needs of life, the equivalent of the concept of rice. In
Vietnamese, or as a tiger, it will become eat like a horse in English. However,
sometimes the expression is of similar value, but the value of the content is different,
for example, as hot as fire in Vietnamese refers to temperament, but in English used to
talk about temperature.
In short, idioms as a unit of language, a semantic structure. This body has all the
qualities, colors of cultural thought, and the nation. With those qualities, a careful study
of the idioms will lead to positive results in the learning and teaching of the language,
especially in a language that is as obtuse as English.
The author Pham Thi Tuoi studied the thesis of “A Study on English and
Vietnamese Idioms which Contain Words Denoting Time” in 2012. There are obvious
differences between English and Vietnamese in conformity with parallel structure and
noun phrases. In conformity with the features of syntax, idioms in both of English and
Vietnamese are sundered into seven types of noun phrases, verb phrases, adjective
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phrases, preposition phrases, adverb phrases, sentence structures and parallel structures
(Tuoi, 2012).
On afterthought, the study discovered that no conflict between the mentioned
definitions of idioms is the findings. Irrespective of the clear difference in expression
that cross at a time: Idioms are a meaningful fixed expressed that cannot be made by
combining the literal meanings of individual words. Language props play an important
role in improving language skills. The learners find it difficult to describe their ideas
and feel that they cannot speak fluently or write an absolute essay.
In spite of my limited knowledge as well as the study time stopping here, the

research hopes that it will be more deeply analyzed by tracking those who are
interested in expressions containing expressions of time. Some suggestions for further
studies for researchers interested in topics related to this topic: (1) A study on the
cultural characteristics of English and Vietnamese idioms containing the words
indicates time; (2) A study of Vietnamese and English idioms on expressions of time
The author Hoang Tuyet Minh studied the topic “Culture Features in Idiomatic
Equal Comparisons in English with Vietnamese” in 2014. Through the above analysis,
the comparative idiomatic expressions have given us a vivid picture of the ethnic
cultural traits in English and Vietnamese. The cultural characteristics of human-tohuman relationships, the social community, and self are expressed through the choice
of the use of images in Idiomatic Equal Comparisons in English with Vietnamese. The
characteristics of ethnic culture associated with the geographical characteristics,
weather, climate, living conditions, customs, tools and means of ethnic minorities are
different. Vietnamese language courses utilize richer, more refined and distinctive
images that portray all aspects of life with the characteristics of wet rice civilization,
expressing the spirit and essence of a peace-loving people always live in harmony with
nature, just as Prof. Dr. Nguyen Thien Giap has recognized "more than any other
language field, Vietnamese expressions express bold characteristics of national culture
Vietnam" (Minh, 2014).
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It can be said that the research works have contributed significantly in the study
of idioms in general and comparative study of tambourine in particular. The results of
the comparison of the morphological structure of the tombstone in these works have
pointed out the differences and differences in the morphological structure between the
Vietnamese tombstone and the idioms of other languages.
Comparative meaning of the idioms of idioms in different languages also
provides a valuable result that analyzes and explains the meaning of a large number of
idioms, find idioms equivalent between two
In addition, many authors have researched and produced some "lifting methods"

The ability to use idioms for foreign language learners (Ngo Minh Thuy, Pham The
Minh), teaching methods for foreign language learners (Do Hoang Ngan, To Thi Ngan
Anh, Dinh Trong Nghia, Nguyen Van Hoa). The above results are significant in
teaching - learning foreign languages, with the translation as well as with the
compilation of bilingual dictionary.
2.2.

Concepts of Idioms

Idioms are types of vocabulary that exist in every language. To study the idioms
and idioms of comparisons, we find it necessary to clarify the connotation of idioms,
because there are different understandings of this name in the world, (Mäntylä, 2004).
Idiom is one of the basic units of language in the system of language units. It is
a specific type of linguistic unit, in which the essence of the culture of a people is
expressed in a genuine and extremely rich world view, different cultures, (Wardhaugh,
2006). Therefore, the study of tufa, especially the study of the comparison of pairs of
idioms of two or more languages, will find unique features in the culture of each nation,
co-found have the similarities and differences between one culture and another.
The idiomatic term has two contents. The first is the particular type of unit that
lies within the linguistic system, namely the general vocabulary of a nation, a country,
or even a region, (Krauss, Columbia University). Secondly, in terms of syntax, idiom is
a phrase whose meaning is not simply a "plus" that simply means the words of a
12


member. This shows that we can know the meaning of each word, but when they are
combined, they are very angry or meaningless. For example, the give way, give up ...
With these idioms, we are only allowed to understand their meaning in terms of the
whole phrase. Give way is to compromise, give up, discount, or give up is to quit
something, (Riehemann, 2001).

In addition to basic functions like words, idioms are more likely to contain
language-cultural values, although its physical size is not large. V. Mokienko said: The
idiom unit, along with its phonetics, is the main source of language for the background
knowledge of a people and also capable of accumulating information outside of
language, (Markus, 2013).
English is the most widely used language in the world and in Vietnam today. In
the trend of integration and cross-cultural, it is necessary for learners and users to use
foreign languages, to master their mother tongue, and to have certain theoretical
knowledge of the foreign language they are using, (Brink, 2007). That translates to two
or more foreign languages. Studying this topic, we wish to clarify some of the issues of
the characteristics of the English comparative idiom, in comparison with the
Vietnamese idiom, to improve the ability to use idioms. It is more effective in
communicating, serving the teaching and learning Vietnamese for foreigners at high
level, (Hien, 2017).
Historically, like words in language, idioms are available units, coming
gradually from many sources, at different times and widely used in the life of the
commune. Assembly. The results of the study have confirmed that the elements that
make up the idioms are proprietary words, which are meaningful units of lexical
meaning and have a stable syntactic function, (Liontas, 2001). In the idiomatic system
of languages, however, it is not easy to perceive the meaning of the elements in the
idiomatic view, therefore, the consideration of idiomatic meanings, as well as the
search for origins. It is also becoming more difficult.

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Starting from the point of view of capital from the system of identification units,
Hoang Van Hanh distinguishes the original (or level 1) identifier unit from the derived
identifier unit (or level 2), (Markus, 2013). The original identifier (monosyllabic) is the
morphological, literal, minimalist term used as the basis for the creation of other

identifying units - the idiom is a subtype. Derivative units are born to meet the needs of
human identity. Derivative identifiers are units that are morphologically more complex
than the original, symbolic (in metaphorical or metaphorical form). Derivative
identifiers are created in two ways: (1) By the semantic path, it is possible to multiply
the original identifier (s); (2) By way of morphology - syntax, it is possible to create a
series of identification units with different morphological and structural features,
including the process of making words based on the original unit copying, graffiti, etc.,
and idiom, (Brink, 2007).
2.3.

Translation
2.3.1. Definitions

Newmark (1988) defined translation in his book, entitled A Textbook of
Translation, as the act of transferring written text in one language into another. This
definition is the simplest; however, Newmark (1988) stressed that the act of translation
includes many tensions, namely sound and sense, naturalness, emphasis, the figurative
and the literal, neatness and comprehensiveness, concision and accuracy. Translation is
also related to the transmission of cultures that the languages belong to.
Translation is restated in Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied
Linguistics as “the process of rendering written language that was produced in one
language (the source language) into another (the target language), or the target
language version that results from this process.” (Richards & Schmidt, 2002)
According to Munday (2016), the term translation is currently understood in
three different ways. It can be a general school subject. It can also be the product. It
can be the process of changing original written text in a source language into another
language.
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2.3.2. Types of translation
Jakobson (1959) stated that there are three types of translation: (a) intralingual,
(b) interlingual, and (c) intersemiotic translation. The first type deals with the act of
rewording verbal signs in the same language. The second refers to “an interpretation of
verbal signs by means of some other language.” The third is concerned with “an
interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of non-verbal sign systems.”
Newmark (1988) reported different types of translation, derived from various
methods used for translation. These types are as follows.
+Word-for-word translation: the interlinear, context-free translation in which a
single pattern in a source language is directly translated into a target language.
+Literal translation: the SL grammatical pattern is converted into an equivalent
form in the TL; however, lexical patterns are also translated in a context-free manner.
+Faithful translation: the reproduction of grammatical and lexical patterns in
the SL into those of the TL, with a respect to faithful meanings and cultural values.
+Semantic translation: quite similar to faithful translation, but it does not adopt
any cultural values between two languages. It takes a neutral cultural value to translate
texts aesthetically.
+Adaptation: the freest form of translation which appears in play, comedies,
poems, or dramas, etc.
+Free translation: the free rendering of written language, without much
consideration into the original forms of the SL.
+Idiomatic translation: the reproduction of written texts from the SL into the
TL, but there is a slight difference because the TL translation has distorted or changed
the originality by using different colloquialism or expressions.
+Communicative translation: the translation that is based on contextual
meanings for the sake of more effective comprehension in both the SL and the TL.
All translation types have its own pros and cons. However, Newham (1988)
stressed that semantic and communicative translation could complete all requirements
15

of actual translation as they all could deal with: “stock and dead metaphor, normal
collocations, technical terms, slang, colloquialisms, standard notices, phaticisms, and
ordinary language.” In such kinds the act of translation tends to borrow a neutral or
third cultural value between languages.
Richards & Schmidt (2002) added a type of translation in contemporary
language teaching and learning- Computer-Assisted Translation (CAT).
2.3.3. Principles of translation
According to Newham (1988), the act of translation needs to follow some
principles.
First, each translator has to respect the theories of translation and understand
language functions.
Second, the translator needs to understand the textual level and its referential
level. That is, the translator has to see its purposes, its readers, its writer, and all its
contexts.
Third, the cohesive level should be judged, comprising of the cohesive
structures and mood. The former is shown via conjunctions, enumerations, reiterations,
definite article, general words, referential synonyms, and punctuation marks These are
used to connect known information (theme) to new one (rheme)- proposition,
opposition, continuation, reiteration, conclusion, or thesis, antithesis, and synthesis.
The latter is presented via the use of nouns, adjectives, or any qualities to indicate
feelings or tone: positive, negative, or neutral.
Fourth, the level of naturalness should be taken into consideration. This feature
is grounded from not only grammatical levels but also lexical ones and connectives.
The translator has to determine the level of formality or informality of a translation in
terms of their contexts.
Newham (1988) also recommended that there should be a combination of all
four principles into the act of translation. Meanwhile, the actual translation remains

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most difficulties in the translation of lexis- “words, collocations, and fixed phrases or
idioms”. It is because all those lexis are related to “neologisms and unfindable words.”
Under such circumstances, the act of lexis translation could deal with four types
of meanings: (1) physical or material, (2) figurative, (3) technical, and (4) colloquial.
Therefore, the translation of words or expressions in English to Vietnamese, for
instance, may be problematic because of its own colloquial and cultural features.
2.3.4. Equivalence in translation
2.3.4.1.

Definitions

Translation equivalence refers to “the degree to which linguistic units can be
translated into another language without loss of meanings.” (Richards & Schmidt,
2002).
This definition is in accord with Newham (1988) who considered equivalence in
translation as an effect that creates a close connection between readers in the TL and
ones in the SL. These should pertain the same understanding from the text.
Equivalence is an important criterion because the translation needs to express full
meanings from the SL to the TL. Nevertheless, there are normally some cases when the
cultural values in the SL could not be easily transmitted into the TL. Hence, equivalent
patterns in the TL should be employed to fulfill the translation task.
Translational equivalence is the similarity between a word or expression in one
language and its translation in another. This similarity results from overlapping ranges
of reference.
Meetham and Hudson (1969) give more details on equivalence: "Texts in
different languages can be equivalent to each other at varying degrees (absolute or
partial equivalence), on different presentation levels (contextual, semantic, vocabulary,
vocabulary, function, number, etc.) and at different levels (words with words,

sentences with sentences and language with language).
However, Whorf (1956) states that no two languages can see a reality in the
same way. In addition, reality is largely unconsciously formed from the group's
17


language habits. Two languages are never sufficiently similar to be considered to
reflect the same social reality. Nida (1984) has the same view and affirms that there is
no absolute equivalent in translation.
Obviously, every nation has a culture with its own characteristics. The way of
looking at and evaluating the objective world of each nation is different. Therefore,
when translating a text from source language into target language, sometimes there is
no absolute equivalence. For example, the translator certainly cannot find the English
words that are equivalent to "thắng cố" (a popular dish of upland ethnic people in
Vietnam).
As is known, translating a text from one language into another is not a simple
because it requires the translator to have not only knowledge of the languages but also
the knowledge of cultures. Translators will find it difficult to translate Vietnamese folk
songs, proverbs, and idioms into English. In a nutshell, translation requires a translator
to be skilled in text analysis, and to have specialized knowledge, and cultural
understanding of the source language and target language communities.
2.3.4.2.

Types of equivalence

Equivalence in translation has been studied by many scholars. Using a quantitative
approach, Munday (2001a) suggests four types of equivalents.
The first type is one-to-one equivalence, in which a single expression in the TL is
equivalent to a single expression in the SL.
For example, information technology” is equivalent to “công nghệ thông tin”.

The second type is one-to-many equivalence. In this case, more than one TL
expression is equivalent to a single SL expression.
For example, ”bamboo” is equivalent to “tre”, “nứa”, “trúc”, “mai”, and “vầu”.
Next is one-to-part-of-one equivalence. In this kind of equivalence, a TL expression is
equivalent to part of a concept in the SL.
The last type is nil equivalence. In this kind of equivalence, no TL expression is
equivalent to a SL expression, and hence loaned/borrowed equivalents should be used.
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For example, “the Internet” is equivalent to “mạng Internet”.
Koller (1979) offers five types of translation equivalents: (a) Denotative
equivalence: Equivalence relations are considered to be directed towards realism
beyond language; (b) Connotative equivalence: This equivalence is related to
categories such as style, geography, society; (c) Text-normative equivalence: Words in
the target language are used in the same context as are the words in the source
language; (d) Pragmatic equivalence: Equivalence involves the recipient of the text; (e)
Formal equivalence: related to the form and aesthetics of the text, includes word plays
and the individual stylistic features of the ST.
No Author

Types

of Theories

The Defects

equivalence
1

Formal equivalence is

The problem with this

source-oriented, which is

form of translation is

designated to reveal as

that it assumes a

Formal

much as possible the form

moderate degree of

equivalence

and content of the original

familiarity with the

Nida

message, that is, to match as subject matter on the

(1964)

closely as possible the

part of the reader

formal elements like
grammatical units,
consistency in word usage,
meanings in terms of the
source context, just to name
some
Dynamic

A dynamic equivalence is

Linguistic restrictions,

equivalence

to reproduce "in the

cultural restrictions and

receptor language the

diglot publication that

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closest natural equivalence

make a more literal

of the source-language

translation difficult to

message…", deviating from understand.
the traditional source text-

The reader encounters

centered theories

the text with most of the
decisions already made
and must assume that the
work of the translators is
not prejudicial.

2

Newmark Semantic

Semantic translation

It tends to be more

(1981)

attempts to render, as

complex, more detailed,

closely as the semantic and

and more awkward and

syntactic structures of the

it tends to over translate.

second language allow, the

The translator is denied

translation

exact contextual meaning of this freedom.
the original.
It remains within the
original culture and
language as much as
possible.
Semantic translation is
individual, follows one
single person (the author of
the original text)

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Communicative Communicative translation

Communicative

translation

attempts to produce on its

translation addresses

readers an effect as close as

itself solely to readers in

possible to that obtained on

the target language, who

the readers of the original

do not anticipate

semantic translation is

difficulties or obscurities

basically focused on the

and would expect a

writer of the source

general transfer of

language text and follows

foreign elements into his

his thought – processes.

own culture and

It tends to under translate,

language where

to be smoother, more direct, necessary.
more idiomatic and easier

a communicative

to read.

translation badly or

Communicative translation

inaccurately written

is social, concentrates on

passages should be

the message and the main

corrected

force of the text and serves
a large readership.
3

Koller

Denotative

The equivalent elements in

Translational

(1989)

equivalence

the SL and TL refer to the

equivalence as an

same thing in the real

argument against

world.

theories of general

Connotative

The equivalent elements in

untranslatability (cf. all-

equivalence

SL and the TL trigger the

embracing debates about

same associations in the

linguistic relativity or

minds of the speakers of

language universals).

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both languages.

Since translational
equivalence was seen as

Text-normative

The equivalent elements in

equivalence

the SL and the TL are used
in same or similar contexts
in their respective
languages

Pragmatic

The equivalent elements in

equivalence

the SL and the TL create
the same effect on their
respective readers and

Formal

the equivalent elements in

equivalence

the SL and the TL have the
same orthographic and

existing on the level of
translation as language
use (parole), it was not
reducible to formal
correspondences or
differences between
language systems. The
theories that were so lost
in language systems that
they failed to see the
actual pragmatics of
translation

phonological Features
4

Baker

Grammatical

Grammatical equivalence

Grammatical rules

(1992)

equivalence

refers to the diversity of

across languages may

grammatical categories

differ, which lead to

across languages, focusing

some problems in

on five categories the

finding a direct

translators often encounters

correspondence in the

problems, they are number,

TL

gender, person, tense and
aspect, and voice.
Textual

It refers to the equivalence

The cohesive relations

equivalence

between a SL text and a TL

between TL and SL

text regarding information

should be maintained

and cohesion

depends on three main

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factors, that is, the target
audience, the purpose of
the translation and the
text type
Pragmatic

Pragmatic equivalence

Translator is recognizing

equivalent

looks at how texts are used

the implied meaning of

in communicating situations SL text, and then
that involve variables such

reproducing it in a way

as writers, reader, and

that readers of the TL

cultural context. It refers to

can comprehend clearly

implication of the TL text

without any
misunderstanding
culturally

Table 2. 1: The types of equivalents that have been suggested by researchers
There are many kinds of equivalent for researcher to use. In which, Formal
equivalence tries to remain as close to the original text as possible, without adding the

translator‟s ideas and thoughts into the translation. Thus, the more literal the translation
is, the less danger there is of corrupting the original message.
However, dynamic equivalence is an approach to translation in which the original
language is translated “thought for thought” rather than “word for word” as in formal
equivalence. Dynamic equivalence involves taking each sentence (or thought) from the
original text and rendering it into a sentence in the target language that conveys the
same meaning, but does not necessarily use the exact phrasing or idioms of the
original.
Because dynamic equivalence sacrifices some faithfulness to the original text to
achieve a more natural translation, it is designed to be used when the readability of the
translation is more important than preserving the original wording. The more the
source language differs from the target language, the more difficult it may be to
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