CONCEPTUAL METAPHORS OF LOVE IN LYRICS BY BEE GEES

l

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
HANOI OPEN UNIVERSITY

TRẦN THỊ THUÝ

CONCEPTUAL METAPHORS OF LOVE
IN LYRICS BY BEE GEES
(ẨN DỤ Ý NIỆM VỀ TÌNH YÊU
TRONG CA TỪ CỦA BEE GEES)
M.A. THESIS
Field: English Language
Code: 8220201

Hanoi, 2018


MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
HANOI OPEN UNIVERSITY

TRẦN THỊ THUÝ

CONCEPTUAL METAPHORS OF LOVE
IN LYRICS BY BEE GEES
(ẨN DỤ Ý NIỆM VỀ TÌNH YÊU
TRONG CA TỪ CỦA BEE GEES)
M.A. THESIS
Field: English Language
Code: 8220201
Supervisor: Đặng Nguyên Giang, Ph.D.

Hanoi, 2018


STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP

I, the undersigned, hereby certify my authority of the study project report
entitled “Conceptual Metaphors of Love in Lyrics by Bee Gees” submitted in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master in English
Language. Except where the reference is indicated, no other person‘s work has
been used without due acknowledgement in the text of the thesis.
Hanoi, 2018
Student‘s Signature

Trần Thị Thúy

Approved by
SUPERVISOR

Đặng Nguyên Giang, Ph.D.
Date:……………………

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This thesis is completed with lots of working hours and is contributed by a
large amount of enthusiasm, effort and assistance from many people.
First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Mr.

Đặng Nguyên Giang, Ph. D., my supervisor, who has patiently and constantly
supported me through the stages of the study, and whose stimulating ideas,
expertise, and suggestions have inspired me greatly through my growth as an
academic researcher.
Many thanks go to all my lecturers at Hanoi Open University for their
precious knowledge, which lay the foundation for this study, my colleagues and
many others whose support and encouragement help me to have this thesis
accomplished.
Additionally, I am so grateful for Bee Gees who wrote wonderful songs
which are loved by fans all over the world and me too. Their lyrics are filled by
deep feelings in the different up and down motions, especially in Love. It is the
source of inspirations for me to do this thesis.
Last but not least, I am greatly indebted to my family for their patience,
endless love, and devotion. Whatever choices I have made, they have always
stood by me and believed in me. I am immensely thankful for all the assistance
they have given to me.

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ABSTRACT
This study is an account of an investigation of conceptual metaphors of
love in lyrics by a band group – Bee Gees. In the thesis, the structural metaphors
and ontological metaphors will be analyzed to reflect the opinions of theirs about
love in the lyrics of the composers. The study is mainly carried out through the
documentary analysis and descriptive study with the support of qualitative and
quantitative approach. In other words, the lyrics of the songs are used as the data
source of this research. The results of this research show that there are sixteen
source domains of conceptual metaphors used to express love. They are journey,
light, pain, power, belief, closeness, sadness, music, dream, prison, paradise,

plant, animal, source of warmth, object and flame. These sixteen source domains
of conceptual metaphors have their own unique interpretation of what love
actually is. The source domains prove that the abstraction concept of love can be
reduced and described in more concrete domains of conceptual metaphors.
Finally, I found that conceptual metaphor is being in our everyday life. Thus, we
are not difficult to meet somewhere in life without metaphor. Studying conceptual
metaphor or conceptualization and using it in life is important and useful. It not
only brings students benefits in the process of learning English but also helps
them widen knowledge about a variety of language as well as access to the world
around easily.

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LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 1: List of songs of Bee Gees in ordered number

24

Table 2: List of Structural Metaphors in lyrics by Bee Gees

52

Table 3: Structural Metaphors in lyrics of Bee Gees‘ twenty songs

53

Table 4: List of Ontological Metaphors in lyrics by Bee Gees

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Table 5: Ontological Metaphors in lyrics of Bee Gees‘ twenty songs

54

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LIST OF CHARTS
Page
Chart 1: The percentage on structural metaphors in selected songs of Bee

57

Gees
Chart 2: The percentage on ontological metaphors in selected songs of
Bee Gees

v

58


TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP

i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ii

ABSTRACT

iii

LIST OF TABLES

iv

LIST OF CHARTS

v

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1. Rationale

1

1.2. Aims of the study

2

1.3. Research questions

2

1.4. Scope of the study

2

1.5. Significance of the study

3

1.6. Research methods

3

1.7. Design of the study

4

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Metaphors and conceptual metaphors

4

2.1.1. Metaphors from traditional view

4

2.1.2. Metaphors from cognitive view

5

2.1.3. Conceptual metaphors

6

2.1.4. Classifications of conceptual metaphors

8

2.2. Music and lyrics

12

2.2.1. Pop music

12

2.2.2. Pop lyrics

14

2.3. Love

15

2.3.1. Love defined

15

2.3.2. Conceptual metaphors of love

17

2.4. Previous research

19

2.4.1. Previous research works carried out in foreign countries

19

2.4.2. Previous research works carried out in Vietnam

20

2.5. Summary

21

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CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOLY
3.1. Theoretical framework

23

3.2. Analytical framework

23

3.3. Data collection

24

3.4. Data analysis

25

3.5. Procedures

26

3.6. Summary

28

CHAPTER 4: STRUCTURAL AND ONTOLOGICAL
METAPHORS OF LOVE EMPLOYED IN LYRICS BY BEE GEES
4.1. Structural metaphors

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4.1.1. Love is a journey

29

4.1.2. Love is light

31

4.1.3. Love is pain

33

4.1.4. Love is power

34

4.1.5. Love is belief

35

4.1.6. Love is closeness

36

4.1.7. Love is sadness

39

4.1.8. Love is music

40

4.1.9. Love is a dream

42

4.2. Ontological metaphors

43

4.2.1. Love is a prison

43

4.2.2. Love is a paradise

44

4.2.3. Love is a plant

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4.2.4. Love is an animal

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4.2.5. Love is a source of warmth

46

4.2.6. Love is an object

48

4.2.7. Love is a flame

50

4.3. Implications for English teaching and learning

51

4.4. Summary

52

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION
5.1. Summary of the findings

56

5.2. Concluding remarks

59

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5.3. Recommendations for further studies
REFERENCES
APPENDIX 1: Conceptual metaphors selected from Bee Gees‘ songs
APPENDIX 2: Bee Gees‘ twenty songs used in the thesis

viii

60


CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1. Rationale
Metaphors play an important role in language. Metaphors appear
everywhere in literature, daily life and music. Particularly, using metaphors in
music is one of the most creative jobs of the people. It is a way of expressing
feelings, emotions and a source of inspiration of all song writers. Furthermore,
it not only makes words more and more beautiful and interesting but it also
clarifies our understanding of literature, arts and life. As a result, employing
metaphors of love in lyrics is an essential and indispensable factor for
musicians in the world to compose their songs. There is no denying the fact
that love is always an eternal topic of human beings of all time. The majority of
texts in any language, in any country have been written on love. It has been
described as an emotion, a way of life, and even as it is considered as the most
important thing in one‘s life. Most of the songs in English are mainly attached
to this incredible feeling so as to express love between male and female people
through mood and emotions of the composers.
Conceptual metaphors are also known as cognitive ones. These are not
only the chemical forms of the ideas but also a process of cognitive and
functional manifestations forming new ideas. The cognitive metaphors are
exploited and decoded due to the background knowledge, cultural patterns,
psychological characteristics, ethnic thinking, etc. about the human spirit.
Thus, approaching language towards cognitive linguistics is a new direction in
which more current linguists and supporters are interested.
Bee Gees were one of the world‘s most successful groups of all time.
They made a considerable contribution to music of the world. Images of human
beings, love and life which were appeared in the greatest songs composed by
Bee Gees made a great impression on people in the globe as well as
Vietnamese people.
The researcher, as a teacher of English, believes that teaching English
through the songs will make an interest, a source of inspiration and motivation
for the learners. They widen their knowledge and develop their reading and

listening skills about a variety of language items such as vocabulary, grammar,
pronunciation, stress on words or sentence rhythm, especially they can make
out implying meanings about love with the appearance of conceptual
metaphors of love in the songs the author would like to focus on. In addition,
the study on the conceptual metaphors in lyrics by Bee Gees will contribute a

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new direction of love values as well as highlight the profound philosophy of
human life in the songs. For these reasons, the author has made a decision to
choose the topic: "Conceptual metaphors of love in lyrics by Bee Gees‖.
1.2. Aims of the study
The study is conducted to improve the English teaching and learning
through the English songs in general and the songs by Bee Gees in particular.
The findings of the study, to some extent, help the teachers and the learners
have a better way to teach and learn English.
In order to achieve the aim, the study is expected to reach the following
objectives:
- Uncovering the structural and ontological metaphors of love implicitly
indicated in the lyrics by Bee Gees;
- Giving some implications for English teaching and learning through
the songs by Bee Gees.
1.3. Research questions
The objectives of the study can be elaborated into the research questions
as follows:
What structural and ontological metaphors of love are employed in
lyrics by Bee Gees?
What are the possible suggestions for English teaching and learning
through conceptual metaphors of love in lyrics by Bee Gees?

1.4. Scope of the study
Metaphor in cognitive linguistic is regarded as new in recent. But it is
studied by multiple researchers in various perspectives. Because of a large
studying scope to be researched by researchers in the past that is over my time
so this thesis concentrate on the conceptual metaphor. Basically, the view of
conceptual metaphor of LOVE is written by them having the same ideal, so the
study of many different authors made me have more examples and source of
knowledge of conceptual metaphor of LOVE.
The scope of the research is mainly viewed on the structural metaphor
and ontological metaphor of LOVE in Bee Gees‘ song lyrics. During their
career, they composed more than 1000 songs with many hit songs performed
by themselves and other famous singers. Of all the mentioned hit songs, 20
most famous songs of theirs will be investigated and analyzed in the present
study to reflect the opinions of the composers about love in the lyrics. These
songs chosen are about love between male and female people (e.g. How Deep

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is Your Love, You are my love, Love so right, Too much heaven, Don’t stop the
night, My eternal love, Love you inside out, Love me…).
1.5. Significance of the study
Theoretically, the research results will confirm the theory of cognitive
linguistics as a believable approach to analyze the language in general and
clarify several issues about the conceptual metaphors of love through the lyrics
by Bee Gees in particular. Indeed, conceptual metaphor, which is not just a
figure of speech but also a matter of thinking, is an extremely important
mechanism for people.
Practically, the findings of the research are applied to analyze, evaluate
and translate English songs. They help the readers and the listeners uncover the

implicit thinking of Bee Gees through the lyrics they use in their songs. It can
be seen that knowledge from this sort of work will be of great benefits to
learners, who have more understanding about metaphors especially conceptual
metaphors since this topic is still not familiar to them. In addition, it is a good
way for teachers to achieve contribution and additional data for teaching and
apply these kinds of patterns to their semantic teaching periods.
1.6. Methods of the study
The study is mainly carried out through the documentary analysis and
descriptive study with the support of qualitative approach.
The data is quantitatively analyzed in terms of the percentage of the
occurrence of metaphorical images in all the songs to see the preference for
which sets of expressions as well as frequencies of two types of metaphors:
structural and ontological metaphors. With the help of qualitative approach, the
metaphors, after being divided into categories according to the procedure of
transferring meaning from the vehicles to the tenors guided by a theoretical lens,
will be analyzed in details, synthesized and evaluated.
1.7. Design of the Study
The present study consists of five chapters, in addition to the appendices
and the references:
Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Literature Review
Chapter 3: Data and Methods
Chapter 4: Structural and Ontological Metaphors of Love Employed in
Lyrics by Bee Gees
Chapter 5: Conclusion

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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Metaphors and conceptual metaphors
2.1.1. Metaphors from traditional view
Metaphor is for most people a device of the poetic imagination and the
rhetorical flourish – a matter of extraordinary rather than ordinary language.
Moreover, metaphor is typically viewed as characteristic of language alone, a
matter of words rather than thought or action.
Metaphor has been studied extensively and there are many different
theories concerning them. The traditional view on metaphor originates from
Aristotle who discussed it in his texts, for example in Poetics. According to
Aristotle, metaphor is ―the application of an alien name by transference either
from genus to species or from species to species, or by analogy, that is,
proportion‖. Aristotle agrees that metaphoric use of language gives language
distinction, but then again he refers to it by a means of making language more
beautiful and less ordinary. Some figures of speech Aristotle considers as
metaphors do not actually fit in the definition anymore; instead, as for example
Rapp (2002/2010) writes, some of them are seen as cases of metonymy or
synecdoche. Rapp considers Aristotle‘s view on metaphor to be actually slightly
closer to the modern approach as he says that the later tradition to interpret
metaphors sees them as instruments of decoration to delight the hearer.
The traditional concept of metaphors gave them the following five figures
(Kovecses, 2002/2010):
Metaphors are properties of words and they are linguistic phenomena.
Metaphors are used in order to add some artistic and rhetorical purpose.
Metaphors are based on a resemblance between the entities compared and
identified by them.
Metaphors are used consciously and deliberately and using them requires
certain talent.
Metaphors are by no means an inevitable feature of language; instead,
they are used for special effects.

When talking about metaphors in the traditional sense, we need to be able
to grasp three concepts that are actually the elements of metaphor: “tenor”,
“vehicle” and “ground”. Through these concepts, it will be easier to
understand the corresponding concepts in Lakoff and Johnson‘s (1980) theory.

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Montgomery et al. (2007) stated that the vehicle was the word or phrase in a
sentence that cannot be taken literally in the context whereas the tenor was the
implied meaning of, or the meaning that was referred to, by the vehicle. The
ground can be understood when we identify what tenor and vehicle have in
common - their ―common ground‖, that is and filter the aspects of the vehicle
not related to tenor, they continue. They also make a distinction between two
groups of metaphors: explicit and implicit metaphors; when a metaphor is
explicit, both vehicle and tenor are clearly specified and also present in the text.
This can be seen in the example Love is a roller coaster ride, for instance. In
this metaphoric expression, Love is the tenor, a roller coaster ride is the
vehicle and the ground is the similarity between the two. Similarly, to a roller
coaster ride, love has its ups and downs, for example; going uphill is usually
slower and less exhilarating compared to the ride down, but the anticipation
and the memories of excitement and thrill carries through the tough times.
2.1.2. Metaphors from cognitive view
The cognitive metaphor theory takes a completely different approach to
traditional metaphors. It does not see them as unnecessarily flamboyant
language use of poetry but rather as an integral part of our being human beings.
Kövecses (2002/2010) sketched the idea by giving examples of metaphoric
language use:
He‘s without direction in life.
I‘m where I want to be in life.

I‘m at a crossroads in my life.
She‘ll go places in life.
He‘s never let anyone get in his way.
She‘s gone through a lot in life.
All these examples speak about life and use expressions to do with
journeys. Kövecses (2002/2010) explained that the domain of journey was used
extensively when referring to the sometimes very abstract concept of life.
According to cognitive linguists, we do this in order to grasp the abstract concept
that is of life in terms of the more concrete and tangible concept of journey, he
continues. According to him, in order for us to try to fully understand an abstract
concept, it was actually better to use a concept more concrete, physical or
tangible than the abstract target concept we were trying to grasp the idea of. He
saw only natural and logical beings to rely on our experiences with the physical
world as a foundation in this process.

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Lakoff & Johnson introduced their groundbreaking and at the time even
radical theory on metaphors in their book Metaphors We Live By (1980/2003).
They did not consider metaphor as simply ―a device of the poetic imagination
and the rhetorical flourish‖ and a mere tool of extraordinary language use with
little or no connection to our thought and action as understood according to the
prevalent theories of metaphor. Instead, they claimed that metaphors were in
fact present in our everyday life and not only in language use, but in
thought and action as well. This pervasive nature of metaphors arises from
the fact that the very nature of our ordinary conceptual system was
fundamentally metaphoric, they continued, and the concepts governing our
thought were not only matters of the intellect but they also governed our
everyday functioning. It is our concepts that structure what we perceive and

even how we relate to other people and this means our conceptual system
indeed plays a crucial part in defining our everyday realities (Lakoff &
Johnson, 1980/2003). Bearing in mind the metaphoric nature of our conceptual
system, the metaphor indeed is omnipresent in the way we think, what we
experience and what we do every day. Language is where our conceptual
system can be studied as we are typically not aware of how this system works.
2.1.3. Conceptual metaphors
The theory of conceptual metaphors was developed by Lakoff &
Johnson in the 1980's, and their collaboration resulted in the book Metaphors
We Live By where they explained and listed various linguistic examples that
their theory was based on. An example of one of the commonly used conceptual
metaphors is "argument is war". This metaphor shapes our language in the way we
view argument as war or as a battle to be won. It is not uncommon to hear
someone say "He won that argument" or "I attacked every weak point in his
argument". The very way argument is thought of is shaped by this metaphor of
arguments being war and battles that must be won. Argument can be seen in other
ways than a battle, but we use this concept to shape the way we think of argument
and the way we go about arguing. Conceptual metaphors are used very often to
understand theories and models. A conceptual metaphor uses one idea and links it
to another to better understand something. For example, the conceptual metaphor
of viewing communication as a conduit is one large theory explained with a
metaphor. So not only is our everyday communication shaped by the language of
conceptual metaphors, but so is the very way we understand scholarly theories.

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These metaphors are prevalent in communication and we do not just use them in
language; we actually perceive and act in accordance with the metaphors.
Conceptual metaphors typically employ a more abstract concept as target

and a more concrete or physical concept as their source. For instance,
metaphors such as ―the days [the more abstract or target concept] ahead‖ or
―giving my time‖ rely on more concrete concepts, thus expressing time as a
path into physical space, or as a substance that can be handled and offered as a
gift. Different conceptual metaphors tend to be invoked when the speaker is
trying to make a case for a certain point of view or course of action. For
instance, one might associate "the days ahead" with leadership, whereas the
phrase "giving my time" carries stronger connotations of bargaining. Selection
of such metaphors tends to be directed by a subconscious or implicit habit in
the mind of the person employing them.
According to Ungerer & Schmid (2006) War, Money and Journey are
source concepts; the conceptual domains generally easier to grasp, and
Argument, Time and Love are target concepts; the conceptualized more
abstract domains (p.118). Source concepts and target concepts not only
establish a way of understanding the nature of certain ideas, but two completely
different conceptual domains can also be linked even if they seem to be by
nature impossible to connect.
However, there is not only one possible source concept for each target
concept, but a target concept can be described by several source concepts. For
instance, Love is a Journey is a very common conceptual metaphor, but love
can likewise be described by the source concept of war; similar to that one can
Win an Argument, one is likewise able to win someone's hand in marriage and
fight for someone in order to win their heart (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980, p.49).
Target concepts are not exclusive to one particular source concept, and
likewise Argument is a Journey is a possibility; one can arrive at a conclusion
in an argument. In this manner conceptual domains can be linked in multiple
directions and to numerous other conceptual domains even though the
conceptual domains may not be very close or generally connected by nature.
Conceptual metaphors are perhaps often seen as the means for simplifying and
explaining abstract conceptual domains. However, even if people suppose that

such metaphors are simply used as rhetorical devices, or simply to colour
―ordinary‖ language, Lakoff & Johnson (1980) argue that metaphors are used
continually and that ―the ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we

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both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature‖ (p.3). Not only is
language structured in a way where conceptual domains are explained by
means of other conceptual domains, but people use such expressions because
they think in the same manner.
Moreover, the use of conceptual metaphors is not always a conscious
choice, but something used automatically (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980, p.3).
Because conceptual metaphors are such fundamental and deeply integrated
parts of language and thought, they are used continually to a great extent
without people realizing it. Therefore, describing one conceptual domain via
another may not be as uncommon as one first may think.
2.1.4. Classifications of conceptual metaphors
According to the function Conceptual metaphor can be divided into
three kinds: ontological metaphor, structural metaphor, and orientational
metaphor (Kovesces, 2002, pp.33-34), he had the distinct types of conceptual
metaphor and possibly to classify metaphors in a variety of way but rely on
especially important role of cognitive linguistic view he divided conceptual
metaphor in this ways rely on the ―conventionality, function, nature and level
of generality of metaphor‖ (p.33). Depending on cognitive function: structural,
ontological, orientational, their nature: knowledge-based or image-based, their
conventionality: conventional or unconventional, their complexity: simple or
complex, and so forth (p.310). Lakoff and Johnson: ―The division of metaphors
into three types - orientational, ontological, and structural - was artificial‖
(1980/2003, p.264). They claim that all types of conceptual metaphor are

structural and ontological metaphor, and ―many are orientational metaphor‖
(p.264) orientional metaphors are rarely used to.
Basically, conceptual metaphor is classified into three types:
orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor, structural metaphor which
divided by Lakoff and Johnson, Kovesces. And following them, structural
metaphor is used in most case vice versa orientational and ontolotical
metaphors are less.
i) Orientational metaphors
Conceptually, spatial orientation is regarded as locating something
somewhere

in space, Orientational metaphors were said by Lakoff and

Johnson (1980/2003) ,that is one concept is organized by a whole system of
concepts with regard to one other, most of orientational metaphors having to do
with spatial orientation: un-down, in-out, front-back, on-off, deep-shallow,

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central-peripheral, and so on. It is different from culture to culture because
orientional metaphors are basic to our physical and cultural experience.
Following lakoff and Johnson, physical and cultural basic here are human point
of view in one culture or physical characteristic of human beings, in a vertical
position we rises from ―DOWN‖ to polar opposition ―UP‖ . It is Clearly that
HAPPY IS UP (happy is good emotion, feeling, they are rising higher), GOOD
IS UP (the same as happiness, health, life and control the principle
characteristic of what is good for a person are all UP), MORE IS UP (quantity
and number of a substance or physical objects are rising, or their container goes
up), VIRTUE IS UP (a point of human view about the human nature, is good in

the society), HIGHT STATUS IS UP (status is correlated with social and
physical power, status up mean more social and physical power), have different
means in our experience so gives rise to many different metaphors. They
recognized that most of their fundamental concepts are organize with respect to
one or more spatialization metaphors and metaphor has many possible physical
and social bases, but which is chosen that depending on a part of the coherence
in overall system, this is the reason that why one concept structure in vertical
orientation not breadthwise orientation, this is found that in some
circumstances spatialization is an important part of a concept that is so hard to
take place of metaphor that it might structure the concept, examples: ―STATUS
IS UP‖ , ―HAPPY IS UP‖, etc.
Kovesces defined orientatonal metaphors ―the name ―orientational
metaphor‖ derives from the fact that most metaphors that serve this function
have to do with basic human spatial orientations such as up-down, centerperiphery, and the like‖ (2002, p.40), ―Orientational metaphors have primarily
an evaluative function. They make large groups of metaphors coherent with
each other‖, he also call orientational metaphor as ―coherence metaphor‖, and
claimed that it is in accordance with the cognitive function in performing
metaphors. ―Coherence‖ meant that certain target concepts were tendentiously
conceptualized in a uniform manner. He gave the examples about orientations
such as: ―upward‖ orientation and opposite orientation ―downward‖ so he
found that Upward orientation were consider with positive evaluation, vice
versa downward orientation is negative evaluation. He pointed out that lot of
spatial image schemas are ―bipolar and bivalent‖, having two evaluation such
as positive-negative evaluation.

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ii) Structural metaphors
Most of metaphors is structural metaphor, following Lakoff and Johnson

(1980), he called metaphors in the cases that one concept is metaphorically
structured in terms of another to be structural metaphor. In other words,
structural metaphors are that restructuring the target domain in the perspective
of sense when receiving new knowledge which to be mapped by conceptual
domain. Or it is more clearly that: ―Structural metaphors (such as RATIONAL
ARGUMENT IS WAR) provide the richest source of such elaboration.
Structural metaphors allow us to do much more than just orient concepts, refer
to them, quantify them, etc.‖ (p.61), this means that we structure one concept
by other highly structure and clearly delineated concept in systematic
correlations within our experience. ―Structural metaphor involves structuring
one kind of thing or experience in terms of another kind, […]. Structural
metaphor involves imposing part of one gestalt structure upon another‖
(1980/2003, p.178).
More simply, Kovesces (2002) stated that structural metaphor is which
―the source domain provides a relatively rich knowledge structure for the target
concept‖, in other ways we understand ―target A by means of the structure
mapping of source B‖, most of structural metaphors provide this type of
structuring and understanding for their target concepts. Conceptually, domain B
here is the complicated and abstract experiences is used as means to understand
domain A (the simple and specific experiences), domain A here often are the
concepts that is difficult to imagine if we would not have metaphor, so it is
difficult for us understanding.
So we see, structural metaphor is defined as using the experience of
domain B to understand domain A, or Domain A is often the abstract concept
that is difficult to understand which is understand by using the experience of
domain B which is often the concrete or physical concepts. This means that we
structure one concept by other highly structure and clearly delineated concept
in systematic correlations within our experience or structural metaphor is the
using experiences of a conceptual metaphor to understand other one.
iii) Ontological Metaphors

Kovesces (2002) claim that ontological metaphor has much less
cognitive structuring for target concepts than structural metaphors do (p.38),
―Ontological conceptual metaphors enable speakers to conceive of their
experiences in terms of objects, substances, and containers in general, without

10


specifying further the kind of object, substance, or container‖ (p.328), it seems
that: ontological metaphor is means, that to be structured further structural
metaphors. He considered that, abstract target in this case is brought new
abstract entities. This means target domain will become the concept with more
experiences than initial one in terms of objects, substances and containers (our
experience in objects, substances, containers). And vice versa, personalization,
when nonhuman is understood as human.
Following Lakoff and Johnson (1980), always having a consistent set of
ontological metaphors in each structural metaphors, so structural metaphors is
structured more complicated than ontological or ontological metaphor is subparts of structural metaphor. They thought that: ―Understanding our
experiences in terms of objects and substances allows us to pick out parts of
our experience and treat them as discrete entities or substances of a uniform
kind. Once we can identify our experiences as entities or substances, we can
refer to them, categorize them, group them, and quantify them—and, by this
means, reason about them‖ (1980, p.25), thus understanding, experiences about
objects or substances, which provide principle for unusual wide variety of
ontological metaphor, that is the ways we view events, activities, emotions,
ideas, and so on. Ontological metaphors have different diverse purposes in use,
each kind of metaphors reflect the kind of particular target. They also asserted
that using personification the physical object as a person that is ―the most
obvious ontological metaphors‖ the most popular ontological metaphors which
we often use in life and literature. Personification here is defined as a ―general

category that covers a very wide range of metaphors, each picking out different
aspects of a person or ways of looking at a person‖ (p.34), commonly they
consider as extensions of ontological to provide us making sense of phenomena
in human terms that can be experience of own motivations, goals, actions, and
characteristics basically.
Container metaphors is part of ontological metaphor, thus when we use
ontological this means that to use ontological metaphors to understand events,
actions, activities, and state which are conceptualized as objects, activities as
substances, states as containers metaphorically. This one arises from the fact
that: ―Each of us is a container, with a bounding surface and an in-out
orientation. We project our own in-out orientation onto other physical objects
that are bounded by surfaces‖ (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980/2003, p.25), each
person is a container and all thing (objects, substance), which we can see by

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sight, they all have boundary. That is, considered our visual field as a container
then we conceptualize all thing what we see as being inside it, each can see or
not but all of them can be conceptualize by one boundary of another one, if
personification is experiences with nonhuman entities in terms of human
motivations, characteristic, and activities, human have boundary to be bounded
by the surface of our skins, so by using ontological metaphor activities, actions
and state would have imagined boundary that come from experience of human
boundary.
2.2. Music and lyrics
2.2.1. Pop Music
Unlike in the 1950s and the 1960s, today it is not necessary anymore to
try to prove the validity of popular culture – or popular music in this case – as
the target of academic study, as so much research has already been conducted

in this field. This was not the case even some decades ago. As Middleton
(1990/2000) writes in Studying Popular Music, originally written in 1990,
although popular music is almost omnipresent and everywhere in modern
society, the study of popular music is still, in a way, in its infancy. Popular
music often used to be shunned by both traditional musicology and the
relatively new field of cultural studies, despite the encouraging development of
recent years. We need to bear in mind that Middleton‘s book was first
published in 1990 and the situation has improved since. In fact, Frith and
Goodwin write in the same year in the preface of On Record (1990) that
although semiotics in the field of cultural studies and musicology use a very
different language, they both attempt a similar project and that there already is
a budding synthesis between these two approaches. This interdisciplinary is
indeed what Frith and Goodwin concentrate on; that it is impossible to separate
sociological, political and semiotic arguments from each other in this matter –
and it is by no means productive to do so (Frith & Goodwin, 1990, pp. x-xi).
True enough, pop music and the study of pop music have both faced a
lot of critique. Frith (1988) states that most of this can be derived from 1930s
Leavisite arguments, referring to the British literary. These Leavisites, as Frith
puts it, consider pop songs banal and their wordings, imagery and emotion
feeble. Furthermore, they claim that pop lyrics picture an unreal world and that
pop ideals are worn out, he continues. According to the Leavisites, pop songs
are of mass culture and mass culture turns the extraordinary into clichés of the
ordinary and corrupts real emotions, Frith writes. He continues by writing that

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in the Leavisites‘ opinion, the typical themes of pop, namely love and romance,
are ―the sentimental ideology of capitalist society‖, and that pop songs, with
their love lyrics also express popular sexual attitudes and thus work for the

reproduction of social relations. In this light, (pop) songs can be interpreted as
a form of propaganda (pp. 108-110). Along this lyrical banalism, Frith
introduces the idea of lyrical realism, which implies that there is a direct
relationship between a lyric and the socio-emotional condition the lyric in
question is describing and representing. He claims that the problem of pop for
mass-culture critics is that, according to them, fans treat all pop songs as they
were real, which leads to a false view of life; understandably, pop lyricists find
this interpretation very bemusing. Interestingly enough, pop has been defended
from these charges of corruption based on the claim that nobody listens to the
lyrics anyway. Frith has a different view on the matter: in his opinion even
commercial pop lyrics, which may be silly love songs, are not insignificant as
words are a reason for people for buying records, as instrumental hits are rather
unusual. He agrees that pop lyrics may not be listened to as messages and they
may lack some of the finesse of rock realism or blues poetry but, as statistics
show, people do still want them (pp. 112, 118, 120).
Although Randle and Evans (2013) mainly concentrate on the
development of American popular music in their article So What Does ―Set
Fire To The Rain‖ Really Mean?, most of their work can be applied to other
traditions of popular music as well. Randle and Evans refer to the lyrical
narrative origin and explain that the American popular music has its foundation
on storytelling. They continue by referring to Cooke‘s argument that American
pop has its roots in Anglo-American folk music, which again arises from
European mythic and epic storytelling (as cited in Randle & Evans, 2013, p.
127). They continue by referring to Tick and Beaudoin who support this view
by writing about wandering performers in Medieval and Renaissance Europe,
whose music was directed to commoners, and their importance in cementing
―the oral transmission and regionally distinct nature of folk narratives‖ (as cited
in Randle & Evans, 2013, p. 127). Furthermore, Randle and Evans cite
Abrahams and Foss who state that the choice of repetition and the simplicity of
subject matter were not an artistic choice but a practical one as folk music was

transmitted orally and this required that it needed to be understood and
memorized easily (as cited in Randle & Evans, 2013). The utilization of simple
forms and repeated phrases and lyrics, which are typical characteristics of

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modern pop music as well, can be considered to be at least partially derived
from this era, Randle and Evans conclude. When the practice of printing song
lyrics and tune names became popular, songs were turned into collectable
merchandise – and the catchiness of modern pop lyrics must be indebted to also
this – but this practice was also the beginning of the end to the oral nature of
American folk music (p. 127).
Frith (1983) writes about what pop music means to us – he states that
the pleasure of pop is in it enabling us to feel its tunes and perform them for
ourselves in our imagination (p. 123). He cites Donald Horton who, according
to Frith (1988), concluded in his analysis that the popular song actually plays
an important role in dating rituals and relationships: the dialectic of love, which
is found in abundance in pop songs, gives people an easily approachable,
linguistic means to express their profound feelings (as cited in Frith, 1988).
Thus, Frith gathers, the singer became a messenger of love, spreading the
message of emotional possibilities. Frith (1983, 1988) concludes this by stating
that people listen to music for pleasure and that pop love songs do not actually
reflect emotions but instead they make it possible for people to articulate – and
so experience – their emotions by giving them the romantic terms to do this.
Later Frith (1996) also writes that we tend to add a certain amount of sexuality
in music because music makes us feel (p. 142).
Music indeed affects our feelings, which is one of the thrills of music
and the reasons we listen to music in the first place, as Aho (2007) writes.
Similarly, to Randle and Evans, Aho brings forth the importance of simplicity

in popular music. According to him, especially the rhythm in popular music
needs to be regular, unchanging and simple; it offers the listener a way into the
musical experience and a possibility to be an active participant in it (pp. 244,
246).
2.2.2. Pop lyrics
The word ‗lyric‘ refers to both songs and poetry as the MerriamWebster Online definition (―Lyric‖, 2015) for the word shows:“Lyric: the
words of a song; a poem that expresses deep personal feelings in a way that is
like a song; a lyric poem”.
Although song lyrics may not be fully comparable to poetry, it is good
to bear in mind that the word refers to both song lyrics and lyric poems – they
are not as far from each other as some scholars claim. Salo (2008), for instance,

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defines song lyrics as its own genre, albeit sharing many characteristics and
features, such as figurative use of language, with lyrical poetry (pp. 35-37).
The world of music is vast and billions of songs in different genres have
been produced through the years. Every song produced has some kind of
message to it that is forwarded through the lyrics.
Frith (1988) indicates that the performance and the way lyrics are sung
play an important role in interpreting the song. Singers use verbal and non-verbal
devices in making their points in their interpretation, but Frith points out that
lyrics do have meaning on their own as well; in fact, they are dependent on each
other, as music breathes life into the lyrics and lyrics give a social meaning for
songs (pp. 120-123). In any case, as Frith puts it, ―song words matter the most,
as words, when they are still open to interpretation‖ (p. 123).
The way lyrics are structured and what words the songwriter uses to
describe certain things naturally have an impact on the appearance of the song
and thus the interpretation of it. According to Citron (2000/120), the songwriter

is affected by cultural circumstances that naturally affect the written piece. In
other words, culture of different music genres or areas where a certain music
genre is dominant, affects the outcome of the written lyrics.
When listening to pop music, the lyrics are almost exclusively about
love or unrequited love, which is conveyed in a rather innocent way. Lyrics,
and the nature of their delivery, mine deeper into the emotional complexity of
the human mind and it is lyrics that give us subtle emotional detail, enrich the
surrounding music with narrative context.
Frith and Goodwin also point out the interesting fact that it was indeed
love songs that dominated the charts also back then and agree with Horton
suggesting that love songs actually work in dramaturgical terms and calling this
―a rhetoric of romance‖ (as cited in Frith & Goodwin, 1990, p. 2). Furthermore,
according to Frith, H. F. Mooney claimed that pop song lyrics, in fact, reflect
the emotional needs of their time (as cited in Frith, 1988, p. 106).
2.3. Love
2.3.1. Love defined
As this thesis deals with metaphors of love, I considered it necessary to
try to define love – or at least how love is generally understood in the Western
world and cultures. Of course, in the confines of this study it is impossible to
include an exhaustive description and definition but this section will shed at
least some light on how our conception of love has become what it is today.

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