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Using Italian
This is a guide to Italian usage for students who have already acquired
the basics of the language and wish to extend their knowledge. Unlike
conventional grammars, it gives special attention to those areas of
vocabulary and grammar which cause most difficulty to English
speakers. Careful consideration is given throughout to questions of
style, register, and politeness which are essential to achieving an
appropriate level of formality or informality in writing and speech.
The book surveys the contemporary linguistic scene and gives ample
space to the new varieties of Italian that are emerging in modern Italy.
The influence of the dialects in shaping the development of Italian is
also acknowledged. Clear, readable and easy to consult via its two
indexes, this is an essential reference for learners seeking access to the
finer nuances of the Italian language.
j. j. k i nde r is Associate Professor of Italian at the Department of
European Languages and Studies, University of Western Australia. He
has published widely on the Italian language spoken by migrants and
their children.
v. m . sav i n i is tutor in Italian at the Department of European
Languages and Studies, University of Western Australia. He works as
both a tutor and a translator.


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Using Italian
A guide to contemporary usage

J. J. K I N D E R and V. M . S AV I N I


  
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo
Cambridge University Press
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge  , UK
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521485562
© J. J. Kinder and V. M. Savini 2004
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of
relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place

without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published in print format 2004
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guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.


Contents

Preface and acknowledgments
Abbreviations
xviii

1

1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10

Varieties of language

page xvii

1

The Italian language today
1
The dialects
2
Dialect and language in contemporary Italy
2
Dialect and Italian in contact
4
Registers of language
5
Examples of regional variation: pronunciation
5
Examples of regional variation: grammar

7
Examples of register variation: grammar
8
Examples of regional variation: vocabulary
10
Extracts illustrating registers of Italian
12
Example of R1 (Sicilian and Northern varieties)
12
Example of R1 (Roman variety)
15
Example of R1 (Tuscan variety)
16
Example of written R1–2: SMS messages
17
Example of spoken R2: Un’agenzia di viaggi
19
Example of spoken R2: TV game show
20
Example of R2–3: magazine editorial
22
Example of R3: written communication from bank
to its customers
24
Example of R3: police report
25
Example of R3: formal letter
27

WORDS AND THEIR MEANINGS

2
2.1

Misleading similarities

30

Similar form – different meaning: False friends
30
2.1.1 ‘Falsi amici’ i
30
2.1.2 ‘Falsi amici’ i i : English (or English looking) words with
different meanings in Italian
39

v


Contents

2.2
2.3

2.4
2.5
2.6

2.7
2.8

3

Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”

4

Complex verbal expressions

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5

5
5.1
5.2
5.3

6
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5

7
7.1
7.2

vi

Similar form – partly similar meaning: Partial
deceptive cognates
41
Paronyms with similar meanings
51
2.3.1 Paronyms with similar meanings: a general list
52
2.3.2 Paronyms with similar meanings: misleading “alterati”
Paronyms with different meanings
67
Verbs with similar stems
70
Gender paronyms
75
2.6.1 Gender paronyms with similar meanings
75
2.6.2 Gender paronyms with different meanings
79
Deceptive minimal pairs
83
Other types of misleading similarities
87

89
158

Single English verbs corresponding to complex Italian
expressions

158
Single Italian verbs corresponding to complex English
expressions
160
Complex Italian expressions corresponding to complex English
expressions
161
Italian “impersonal” verbs
162
Verbal expressions with la, ne, ci
164
4.5.1 Idiomatic verbal expressions with la
164
4.5.2 Idiomatic verbal expressions with ne
166
4.5.3 Idiomatic verbal expressions with ci
166

Affective suffixes

168

Diminutive suffixes
169
Augmentative suffixes
172
Suffixes for verbs
173

Idioms, similes, and proverbs

174

Idioms
174
Similes based on adjectives
184
Similes based on verbs
185
Other proverbial comparisons
185
Proverbs
186

Personal names

188

The ancient world: Greece and Rome
The Bible
189
7.2.1 Old Testament
189
7.2.2 New Testament
190

189

66

Contents

7.3

8
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
8.10
8.11
8.12
8.13

9

The Middle Ages to the twentieth century
190
7.3.1 Non-Italian names
190
7.3.2 Italian names with a Latinized or Anglicized
form in English
191

Geographical and astronomical names
Italy: administrative regions
193
Italy: cities
193
Continents
196
Europe: countries and regions
196
The Americas: countries and regions
199
Asia: countries and regions
199
Africa: countries and regions
200
Oceania: countries and regions
201
Historical or mythical places
202
Cities of the world
203
Rivers of the world
205
Mountains and volcanoes of the world
205
Planets, stars, and constellations
206

Abbreviations and acronyms

207

9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4

Titles and other frequently used abbreviations
International organizations
212
Italian non-political organizations
213
Italian official political organizations,
unions etc.
214

10

Latin expressions and sayings

10.1
10.2

11
11.1
11.2
11.3

12
12.1

12.2

192

Latin expressions
217
Latin proverbs and mottoes

Grammatical terms

208

217

220

221

Grammatical terms
221
Punctuation marks
224
Other common terms and expressions

225

Numerals and telephone conventions
Numerals and mathematical conventions
12.1.1 Decimals

226
12.1.2 Mathematical operations
226
12.1.3 Ordinal numbers
226
Telephone conventions
227
12.2.1 Telephone numbers
227
12.2.2 Telephone alphabet
227

226
226

vii


Contents

13
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
13.6
13.7
13.8

Measurement

229

Length
230
Weight
231
Area
232
Volume
233
Capacity (liquid)
233
Currency
234
Temperature
234
Time
235

THE CLAUSE – combining words
14
14.1

14.2

14.3
14.4
14.5

14.6
14.7

15
15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4
15.5

16
16.1
16.2
16.3
16.4
16.5

viii

Gender

239

Gender and sex
239
14.1.1 Persons
239
14.1.2 Animals
240

Formation of masculine/feminine pairs
240
14.2.1 Unrelated m-f nouns
241
14.2.2 Related m-f nouns: anomalous m-f
correspondence
242
14.2.3 Related nouns: patterns of m-f correspondence
Gender associated with types of noun
243
Gender associated with noun ending
245
Gender of compound nouns
248
14.5.1 Verb + noun
248
14.5.2 Noun + noun
249
14.5.3 Noun + adjective/adjective + noun
250
14.5.4 Other compounds
250
Homonyms distinguished by gender
252
Nouns with both masculine and feminine plurals
253

Number

256

Formation of plurals
256
Plural of compound nouns
258
Italian plurals which correspond to English singulars
Italian singulars which correspond to English plurals
Number concord
261

Pronouns

262

First- and second-person pronouns
Third-person pronouns
263
Order of object pronouns
265
Pronouns and verb
266
Pronouns of address
268

262

259
260

242

Contents

17
17.1

17.2
17.3
17.4
17.5

18
18.1
18.2
18.3
18.4
18.5

19
19.1
19.2
19.3
19.4
19.5
19.6

20
20.1
20.2

20.3
20.4

Comparison

270

Comparison of inequality
270
17.1.1 Nouns and pronouns
270
17.1.2 Other parts of speech
271
17.1.3 Alternatives to di/che
272
Comparison of equality
272
Comparison involving a clause
273
Superlatives
273
Irregular comparatives and superlatives

Word order

276

Subject and verb
276
Subject, verb, and object

277
Verbs, objects, and adverbs
279
Noun and adjective
280
Numerals and altro
283

Negation

284

No
284
Non
285
Negative pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs
Apparent negatives
288
Negation of single words
288
Other negative expressions
289

Periphrases

Stare + gerund
290
Stare a + infinitive, essere dietro a + infinitive
Andare + gerund

291
Venire + gerund
292

Verbs of movement

22

Auxiliary verbs in compound tenses

23
23.1
23.2

286

290

21

22.1
22.2
22.3
22.4
22.5
22.6

274

291

293
295

Verbs that always take avere
295
Verbs that always take essere
296
Verbs that take either, according to grammatical construction
Verbs that take either, according to meaning
302
Modal verbs
306
Pronouns and auxiliaries
307

The passive

298

308

Passive with venire
Passive with andare

308
309

ix

Contents

23.3
23.4
23.5
23.6

24
24.1
24.2
24.3
24.4
24.5
24.6
24.7
24.8
24.9
24.10

Passive with rimanere and restare
Expression of the agent
309
Indirect objects
310
Other ways of expressing the passive

Reflexives and impersonals

309

310

311

Direct reflexives
311
Indirect reflexives
311
Reciprocal reflexives
312
Inherent reflexives
312
The reflexive as marker of the intransitive
313
The passive reflexive
314
The impersonal reflexive with transitive verbs
314
The impersonal reflexive with intransitive verbs
315
Other impersonal subjects
316
Impersonal objects
316

THE SENTENCE – combining clauses
25
25.1

25.2

25.3

25.4

25.5

x

Italian prepositions

321

a
321
25.1.1 Basic meanings
321
25.1.2 Expressing time
322
25.1.3 Expressing rate
322
25.1.4 Expressing manner
322
25.1.5 Expressing place
323
25.1.6 Expressing kind
324
25.1.7 Expressing instrument
324

25.1.8 Adverbial idioms with a
324
25.1.9 “Personal” a
325
25.1.10 Complex prepositional expressions with a
attraverso
326
25.2.1 Movement
326
25.2.2 Used as an adverb
326
con
326
25.3.1 Basic meanings
326
25.3.2 In adverbial phrases
327
25.3.3 Idiomatic expressions with con
327
contro
327
25.4.1 Before nouns and pronouns
327
25.4.2 Used as adverb
328
da
328
25.5.1 Basic meanings
328
25.5.2 Expressing time

329
25.5.3 Expressing purpose
329
25.5.4 Expressing characteristics or description

325

329


Contents

25.6

25.7

25.8

25.9
25.10

25.11

25.12

25.13

25.14

25.5.5 da used with parte

330
25.5.6 With a verb in the infinitive
330
25.5.7 Adverbial expressions with da
331
davanti a, prima di, avanti, di fronte a
331
25.6.1 Basic meanings
331
25.6.2 Used as adverbs
332
di
332
25.7.1 Basic meanings
332
25.7.2 In expressions of description or origin
333
25.7.3 Expressing time
333
25.7.4 Expressing price and measurement
333
25.7.5 Idiomatic expressions
334
25.7.6 “Grammatical” uses of di
334
dietro, dopo
335
25.8.1 dietro
335
25.8.2 dopo

335
25.8.3 dopo, dietro, and indietro used as adverbs
335
fino a, sino a, verso
336
fuori
336
25.10.1 Used as preposition
336
25.10.2 Used as adverb
337
in
337
25.11.1 Basic meanings
337
25.11.2 Expressing location or movement
337
25.11.3 Expressing change
338
25.11.4 Expressing time
338
25.11.5 Expressing manner, means, or material
338
25.11.6 Common idioms and expressions involving in
339
25.11.7 In complex prepositional expressions
339
per
340
25.12.1 Basic meanings

340
25.12.2 Expressing movement
340
25.12.3 Expressing time
340
25.12.4 Expressing purpose
341
25.12.5 Expressing reason or cause
341
25.12.6 In expressions of quantity
341
25.12.7 Common idioms and expressions involving per
341
sotto
342
25.13.1 Basic meanings
342
25.13.2 Idiomatic expressions with parts of the body
342
25.13.3 Used as an adverb
342
su, sopra
343
25.14.1 Basic meanings
343
25.14.2 Expressing location or direction
343
25.14.3 Expressing time or number
343
25.14.4 su expressing subject-matter

344
25.14.5 su in idiomatic expressions
344
25.14.6 su and sopra used as adverbs
345

xi


Contents

25.15

26
26.1

26.2
26.3
26.4
26.5
26.6
26.7
26.8

26.9
26.10

26.11
26.12
26.13

26.14

26.15
26.16
26.17
26.18

xii

tra, fra
345
25.15.1 Basic meanings
345
25.15.2 Expressing time or distance
346
25.15.3 Common idioms and expressions involving
tra, fra
346

English prepositions

347

about
347
26.1.1 In the sense of “concerning”
347
26.1.2 In the sense of “approximately”
347
above

348
according to
348
across
348
along
348
among
348
as
349
at
349
26.8.1 Expressing place
349
26.8.2 Expressing time
349
26.8.3 In other expressions
350
because of
350
before
350
26.10.1 Expressing place
350
26.10.2 Expressing time
350
26.10.3 Expressing order of importance etc.
351
below

351
beneath
351
beyond
351
by
351
26.14.1 Expressing place
351
26.14.2 Expressing time
352
26.14.3 Expressing measure
352
26.14.4 Expressing means
352
26.14.5 Expressing cause or agent
353
26.14.6 In other expressions
353
down
353
during
353
except (for)
354
for
354
26.18.1 Expressing benefit
354
26.18.2 Expressing purpose

354
26.18.3 Expressing cause
354
26.18.4 Expressing time
354
26.18.5 Expressing place
355
26.18.6 In other expressions
355


Contents

26.19

26.20

26.21
26.22
26.23
26.24
26.25
26.26

26.27
26.28
26.29
26.30
26.31
26.32

26.33

26.34
26.35
26.36
26.37
26.38

27
27.1

27.2

from
355
26.19.1 Expressing place
355
26.19.2 Expressing time
356
26.19.3 In other expressions
356
in
356
26.20.1 Expressing place
356
26.20.2 Expressing time
357
26.20.3 In other expressions
358
inside

358
instead of
358
into
359
of
359
off
359
on
359
26.26.1 Expressing place
359
26.26.2 Expressing time
360
26.26.3 In other expressions
360
out of
361
outside
361
over
362
past
362
round
362
through
362
to

363
26.33.1 Expressing direction
363
26.33.2 In other expressions
363
towards
363
under
364
until, till
364
up
364
with
364

Prepositional constructions with verbs
and adjectives
365
Verbs with no preposition before an infinitive
365
27.1.1 Infinitive as subject of the verb
365
27.1.2 Infinitive as object of the verb
367
27.1.3 Verbs of perception
367
27.1.4 Causative construction
368
di before an infinitive

368
27.2.1 The subject of certain “impersonal” verbs
368
27.2.2 Verbs of saying, promising, agreeing
369
27.2.3 Verbs of mental states
370
27.2.4 Verbs of feeling, opinion, or will
370
27.2.5 Other verbs
371
27.2.6 Verb + direct object + di + infinitive
371

xiii


Contents

27.3

27.4

27.5

27.6

27.7

28

28.1
28.2
28.3
28.4
28.5
28.6
28.7
28.8
28.9
28.10

xiv

27.2.7 Verb + indirect object + di + infinitive
372
27.2.8 Adjectives + di + infinitive
373
a before an infinitive
374
27.3.1 Verbs that refer to the beginning, continuing,
or ending of an action
374
27.3.2 Verbs that express movement (literal or
figurative)
374
27.3.3 Verbs that express a mental attitude or disposition
(e.g. state, tendency, or will)
375
27.3.4 Verbs that express being or staying
375

27.3.5 Verb + direct object + a + infinitive
376
27.3.6 Verb + indirect object + a + infinitive
376
27.3.7 Adjectives + a + infinitive
376
27.3.8 a + infinitive in place of a che clause
377
da before an infinitive
378
27.4.1 After verbs
378
27.4.2 After adjectives or adverbs
379
27.4.3 After nouns
379
per before an infinitive
379
27.5.1 After verbs
379
27.5.2 After adjectives or adverbs
380
27.5.3 After nouns
380
con, da, in + article before an infinitive
380
27.6.1 con
380
27.6.2 da
381

27.6.3 in
381
Prepositional constructions
382
27.7.1 No preposition in Italian: preposition in English
27.7.2 Preposition in Italian: no preposition in English
27.7.3 Some prepositions which do not correspond
in Italian and English
388

Use of tenses

387
388

389

Present tense (faccio, vado)
389
Future tense (faro,
` andro)
`
391
Future Perfect tense (avro` fatto, saro` andato)
392
Present Conditional tense (farei, andrei)
392
Conditional Perfect tense (avrei fatto, sarei andato)
393
Perfect tenses – Passato Prossimo and Passato Remoto

393
Imperfect and Perfect
394
28.7.1 Imperfect tense: other uses
396
Pluperfect tense (Trapassato Prossimo – avevo fatto,
ero andato)
396
Past Anterior tense (Trapassato Remoto – ebbi fatto,
fui andato)
397
Modals
397


Contents

29
29.1
29.2

30
30.1

30.2

30.3
30.4

30.5

Sequence of tenses

399

Sequence of tenses in the indicative
399
Sequence of tenses in the subjunctive
400
29.2.1 Main verb in the Present or Future
29.2.2 Main verb in the Past or Conditional

The Subjunctive

400
401

402

The Subjunctive in main clauses
403
30.1.1 Wishes
403
30.1.2 Third person imperative
403
30.1.3 Third person exhortations
403
30.1.4 Questions
404
The Subjunctive in noun clauses

404
30.2.1 With main clauses expressing emotion
404
30.2.2 With main clauses expressing opinion, doubt,
uncertainty, or certainty
405
30.2.3 With main clauses expressing knowing and
understanding
405
30.2.4 Saying
406
30.2.5 Illusion, dream, and pretense
406
30.2.6 With main clauses expressing
wanting
406
30.2.7 Permission and prohibition
407
30.2.8 With impersonal verbs
407
30.2.9 The verb aspettare
409
30.2.10 The position of the noun clause
409
30.2.11 il fatto che
409
30.2.12 come meaning che
409
30.2.13 Modal attraction
410

Indirect questions
410
Subordinating conjunctions
410
30.4.1 although, however
410
30.4.2 before
411
30.4.3 in order that, such that
411
30.4.4 unless, except
412
30.4.5 until
412
30.4.6 without
412
30.4.7 provided that
412
30.4.8 in case, in case that
413
30.4.9 when
413
30.4.10 as if
413
Relative clauses
413
30.5.1 After an indefinite antecedent
413
30.5.2 After a negative or non-existent antecedent
414

30.5.3 After unique and superlative antecedents
414
30.5.4 Expressing a hypothesis
414

xv


Contents

30.6
30.7

31
31.1

31.2

32
32.1
32.2

30.5.5 “Modal attraction”
Comparatives
414
Conditional sentences
415

Conditional sentences

414

416

Hypothetical conditionals
416
31.1.1 Verb mood and tense
416
31.1.2 Other ways of saying “if”
418
Factual conditionals
419

Subordinate clauses

421

Explicit subordinate clauses
421
32.1.1 Relative clauses
422
Implicit subordinate clauses
424
32.2.1 Infinitive
424
32.2.2 Gerund
425
32.2.3 Participles
427
32.2.4 Nominalization

428
32.2.5 Ways of translating words in “-ing”

428

TEXTS AND THEIR STRUCTURE
33

Interjections

433

34

Fillers

35

Connector words and expressions

439

Bibliography
443
Italian word index
445
Grammar index
467

xvi

441


Preface and acknowledgments

This book aims to offer a description of contemporary Italian, suitable for
advanced students as well as teachers and linguists who are interested in the
actual usage of the contemporary language. The authors hope they have
usefully filled a gap in the available descriptions of the Italian language by
providing an account which at every point combines linguistic description
with an indication of the sociolinguistic weight that various ways of
“saying the same thing” actually have in contemporary Italian society.
The book assumes a reasonable knowledge of the basics of Italian
vocabulary and grammar and focusses on a selection of areas which cause
difficulty to English-speaking students and/or which are difficult in
themselves to explain adequately. This selection covers a wide range from
matters of vocabulary to different levels of grammar. Thus the book begins
in chapter 1 with an overview of the uniquely complex linguistic situation
in contemporary Italy and gives a selection of examples of the types of
Italian one may encounter in Italy. This is followed by a number of
chapters, 2 to 13, on “Words and their meanings.” These cover areas
which pose problems for English speakers and include lists and
descriptions of types of words not always covered by traditional
dictionaries and grammars. The next chapters, 14 to 24, deal with “The
clause – combining words” and describe matters of morphology such as
gender and number and some matters often not adequately dealt with in
many grammars, such as word order and the choice of auxiliary verbs. The
next group of chapters, 25 to 32, is devoted to the next level of grammar,
that of “The sentence – combining clauses,” and addresses some

difficulties in the use of verbs and sentence construction. The final three
chapters, 33 to 35, move to the level of “Texts and their structure” and
look at various ways of combining sentences and paragraphs into coherent
and effective written or spoken texts.
We have attempted to follow closely the companion volumes in this
series, Using French and Using Spanish, even to the point of using the same
examples where possible. In this way, we hope that those interested in
studying more than one of the principal Romance languages will find
these volumes useful for comparison and contrast.
We are grateful to our colleagues and students in the Department of
Italian at the University of Western Australia for answering our frequent
questions, reading sections of the manuscript, and making several useful
suggestions.
JJK
VS

xvii


Abbreviations

Common abbreviations
adj
adv
Aus
aux
do
esp
f
fig

gen
indic
inf
intr
inv
io
lit
m
n
O
pl
qc
qu
S
s
sb
sth
subj
tr
UK
US
usu
V

xviii

adjective
adverb
Australian English
auxiliary

direct object
especially
feminine
figurative(ly)
general(ly)
indicative
infinitive
intransitive
invariable
indirect object
literally
masculine
noun
object
plural
qualcosa
qualcuno
subject
singular
somebody
something
subjunctive
transitive
United Kingdom (English)
United States (English)
usually
verb


Abbreviations

Other abbreviations
abstr.
art.
ch.
chem.
comm.
comp.
conj.
econ.
gram.
idiom.
interj.
Lat.
leg.
math.
mech.
med.
milit.
mus.
p.p.
pres.
pres. p.
refl.

abstract
article
chapter
chemical term
commercial term

computer related term
conjunction
economic term
grammatical term
idiomatic
interjection
Latin
legal term
mathematical term
mechanical term
medical term
military term
musical term
past participle
present
present participle
reflexive

xix



1 Varieties of language

1.1

The Italian language today
Italian is the official language of the Republic of Italy. It is spoken by the
58 million inhabitants of Italy and in the Canton Ticino area of
Switzerland, as well as by many millions of Italian migrants and their

descendants in many parts of the world, especially Europe, North and
South America, and Australia. The Italian language has a fascinating and in
many ways unique history, which reflects the political and cultural history
of Italy. The Italian language was based, during the Renaissance, on an
idealized version of fourteenth-century Florentine. Because of the political
fragmentation which beset Italy up to the Risorgimento, however, this
“language” was predominantly used in writing, while for everyday speech
the usual form of communication remained the local dialects. This was
true, with exceptions of course, for all parts of Italy and for all social
classes. Since political unification in 1861, the language has become
universally adopted, and in the process has adapted rapidly to the demands
of a modern, diversified society.
The Italian standard is therefore a modified version of
fourteenth-century Florentine dialect. This standard is found in good
dictionaries and is taught to classical actors and to newsreaders on national
television. However, the Italian spoken and, to a lesser extent, written in
most everyday situations differs from this standard in various ways.
Furthermore, all Italians show their regional origin by their accent. A
regional accent is not, in itself, indicative of register or of the social
characteristics of the speaker, though local accents are usually stronger in
informal speech than in formal uses of language. Furthermore, Italian, like
all languages, is spoken and also written in different ways, not only
according to where the speaker comes from, but also according to his/her
educational, professional and cultural background, what the speaker is
doing, what s/he is talking about, and so on.

1


1

Varieties of language

1.2

The dialects
An essential, ever-present feature of the Italian linguistic landscape is
dialect. The word “dialect” in English describes a regional variety of the
standard language, the way English is spoken in a particular place, e.g. the
“Midlands dialect” (UK), the “mid-West dialect” (USA). In Italian the
word has a quite different meaning. The Italian dialects (or “dialects of
Italy”) are actually separate languages, geographically distributed
throughout the country, which may differ from one another so much
that they can be mutually unintelligible if they are from non-adjacent areas.
Italian is a Romance language, like Portuguese, Spanish, French, and
Romanian. The Romance languages are so called because they are all
derived from Latin, the language of ancient Rome and the Roman
Empire. Over time, Latin developed into new forms in many different
parts of the former Empire: these were referred to as the “vernacular” and
correspond to what we now call “dialects.” At some stage, in each
Romance area, one vernacular eventually emerged as the official
“language” of the nation: in Italy, this vernacular was Florentine. The
selection of one vernacular as “language” meant that the other
vernaculars then assumed the label and status of “dialects.” Thus the
dialects are derived from Latin, as Italian is, and are more or less closely
related to Italian; but they are distinct languages, not varieties of Italian.
The dialects of Italy fall into three main geographical areas, divided by
two “lines”: the La Spezia–Rimini line divides North from Center, and
the Rome–Ancona line divides Center from South (see map on p. 3). In
the North, the Gallo-Italic group covers all regions except the Veneto and

Friuli–Venezia Giulia. In the South, Sicily and the southern tips of
Calabria and Puglia (Apulia) form a separate sub-group. Friulian and
Sardinian are often referred to as “minor (or minority) languages,” in
recognition of their very significant differences from Italian, and their
historical status as languages of their respective regions.

1.3

Dialect and language in contemporary Italy
At the time of Unification in 1861, almost all inhabitants of Italy spoke a
dialect as their native language, while Italian was restricted to a small
section of the population. Estimates of how many Italians knew Italian in
1860 vary from 2.5% to 12% of the population, so that approximately nine
out of ten Italians were monolingual in their dialect. Progress in the spread
of Italian was slow until the second half of the twentieth century. Recent
surveys show that around 7 per cent of the population claim to be still
dialect-only speakers and around 30 per cent claim to speak only Italian.
At least 60% of the Italian population uses both Italian and a dialect on a
regular basis.
Dialects are used more within the home than outside, more in informal
situations than in formal ones, and more in the Northeast, the South, and

2


1.3

Dialect and language in contemporary Italy

Friulian

Venetian
Gallo-Italic
Central
Central-Southern
Sardinian

La Spezia−Rimini
line

Extreme Southern

Rome−Ancona
line

Italian dialects

3