The new carbon economy constitution, governance and contestation

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The New Carbon Economy

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Antipode Book Series
General Editor: Dr Rachel Pain, Reader in the Department of Geography, Durham University, UK
Like its parent journal, the Antipode Book Series reflects distinctive new developments in radical
geography. It publishes books in a variety of formats – from reference books to works of broad
explication to titles that develop and extend the scholarly research base – but the commitment is
always the same: to contribute to the praxis of a new and more just society.

Published
The New Carbon Economy: Constitution, Governance and Contestation
Edited by Peter Newell, Max Boykoff and Emily Boyd
Capitalism and Conservation
Edited by Dan Brockington and Rosaleen Duffy
Spaces of Environmental Justice
Edited by Ryan Holifield, Michael Porter and Gordon Walker

The Point is to Change It: Geographies of Hope and Survival in an Age of Crisis
Edited by Noel Castree, Paul Chatterton, Nik Heynen, Wendy Larner and Melissa W. Wright
Privatization: Property and the Remaking of Nature-Society
Edited by Becky Mansfield
Practising Public Scholarship: Experiences and Possibilities Beyond the Academy
Edited by Katharyne Mitchell
Grounding Globalization: Labour in the Age of Insecurity
Edward Webster, Rob Lambert and Andries Bezuidenhout
Privatization: Property and the Remaking of Nature-Society Relations
Edited by Becky Mansfield
Decolonizing Development: Colonial Power and the Maya
Joel Wainwright
Cities of Whiteness
Wendy S. Shaw
Neoliberalization: States, Networks, Peoples
Edited by Kim England and Kevin Ward
The Dirty Work of Neoliberalism: Cleaners in the Global Economy
Edited by Luis L. M. Aguiar and Andrew Herod
David Harvey: A Critical Reader
Edited by Noel Castree and Derek Gregory
Working the Spaces of Neoliberalism: Activism, Professionalisation and Incorporation
Edited by Nina Laurie and Liz Bondi
Threads of Labour: Garment Industry Supply Chains from the Workers’ Perspective
Edited by Angela Hale and Jane Wills
Life’s Work: Geographies of Social Reproduction
Edited by Katharyne Mitchell, Sallie A. Marston and Cindi Katz
Redundant Masculinities? Employment Change and White Working Class Youth
Linda McDowell
Spaces of Neoliberalism
Edited by Neil Brenner and Nik Theodore

Space, Place and the New Labour Internationalism
Edited by Peter Waterman and Jane Wills

Forthcoming
Banking Across Boundaries: Placing Finance in Capitalism
Brett Christophers
Fat Bodies, Fat Spaces: Critical Geographies of Obesity
Rachel Colls and Bethan Evans
Gramscian Geographies: Space, Ecology, Politics
Edited by Michael Ekers, Gillian Hart, Stefan Kipfer and Alex Loftus
Places of Possibility: Property, Nature and Community Land Ownership
Fiona D. Mackenzie
Radical Democratization: Inventing Networks of Equivalence
Mark Purcell

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The New Carbon Economy
Edited by
Peter Newell, Max Boykoff and Emily Boyd

A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication

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This edition first published 2012
Originally published as Volume 43, Issue 3 of Antipode
Chapters © 2012 The Authors
Book compilation © 2012 Editorial Board of Antipode and Blackwell Publishing Ltd
Blackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007. Blackwell’s publishing
program has been merged with Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical, and Medical business to form
Wiley-Blackwell.
Registered Office
John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United
Kingdom
Editorial Offices
350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148-5020, USA
9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK
The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK
For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services, and for information about how
to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at
www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell.
The right of Peter Newell, Max Boykoff and Emily Boyd to be identified as the authors of the
editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,

or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the
prior permission of the publisher.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print
may not be available in electronic books.
Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All
brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or
registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product
or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative
information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher
is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance
is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data is available for this book.
The new carbon economy / edited by Peter Newell, Max Boykoff and Emily Boyd.
p. cm.
Includes index.
“Originally published as Volume 43, Issue 3 of Antipode.”
ISBN 978-1-4443-5022-7 (pbk.)
1. Energy industries–Environmental aspects. 2. Energy consumption–Environmental aspects.
3. Energy policy–Environmental aspects. 4. Carbon offsetting. 5. Carbon dioxide mitigation.
6. Environmental policy. 7. Climactic changes–Economic aspects. I. Newell, Peter (Peter John)
II. Boykoff, Maxwell T. III. Boyd, Emily. IV. Antipode.
HD9502.A2N485 2012
363.738 746–dc23
2011038340
Set in 11pt Times by Aptara Inc., New Delhi, India.
1 2012

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Contents
List of Contributors
1 The “New” Carbon Economy: What’s New?
Emily Boyd, Maxwell Boykoff and Peter Newell

vii
1

2 The Matter of Carbon: Understanding the Materiality of tCO2 e
in Carbon Offsets
Adam G. Bumpus

13

3 Making Markets Out of Thin Air: A Case of Capital Involution
Mar´ıa Guti´errez

41

4 Between Desire and Routine: Assembling Environment and Finance
in Carbon Markets
Philippe Descheneau and Matthew Paterson

65

5 Ecological Modernisation and the Governance of Carbon:
A Critical Analysis
Ian Bailey, Andy Gouldson and Peter Newell

85

6 Accounting for Carbon: The Role of Accounting Professional
Organisations in Governing Climate Change
Heather Lovell and Donald MacKenzie

107

7 Realizing Carbon’s Value: Discourse and Calculation in the
Production of Carbon Forestry Offsets in Costa Rica
David M. Lansing

135

8 Resisting and Reconciling Big Wind: Middle Landscape Politics
in the New American West
Roopali Phadke

159

Index

183

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List of Contributors
Ian Bailey

University of Plymouth

Emily Boyd

University of Reading

Maxwell Boykoff

University of Colorado

Adam G. Bumpus

University of Melbourne

Philippe Descheneau

University of Ottawa

Andy Gouldson

University of Leeds

Mar´ıa Guti´errez

Consultant

David M. Lansing

University of Maryland

Heather Lovell

University of Edinburgh

Donald MacKenzie

University of Edinburgh

Peter Newell

University of Sussex

Matthew Paterson

University of Ottawa

Roopali Phadke

Macalester College

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Chapter 1
The “New” Carbon Economy:
What’s New?
Emily Boyd, Maxwell Boykoff and Peter Newell

Introducd commercial drivers for
95
project processes 6, 66, 69, 97
value of transactions 1–2, 94
Climate Action Network (CAN) [cited]
56, 61n[26]
Climate Care [cited] 30
climate change
economical optimism about solution
87
landscape reconfiguration in response
to 5
market-based responses 2–3, 5–6,
107

role of accountancy profession in
governing 107–30
technological optimism about solution
87
Climate Change Capital, advertising by
74–5
Climate, Community and Biodiversity
standards 98, 99

11-16-2011

187
Climate Disclosure Standards Board
(CDSB) 127, 129
Technical Working Group 109, 124,
127, 129
ClimateChangeCorp [cited] 6
Coase, R 79n[1]
Cohen, J 24
Cole, J C 14, 29
collaborative conservation/development
of wind energy projects 177, 179
“command-and-control” regulation
and climate change 2
compared with “cap-and-trade”
schemes 90
commodification 81n[18]
of carbon, as environmental “fix”
138, 153
of carbon sinks 58

of emission reductions 17, 19–24
of nature 16, 23, 136, 153
compliance markets 1, 94
see also Clean Development
Mechanism (CDM); Joint
Implementation (JI) mechanism
constitution of “new” carbon economy
4–5
Convery, F 92
Cook, A 111, 117, 119
cookstove projects as carbon offsets 29
see also improved cookstoves (ICS)
project
Coomes, O T 14
Copenhagen Conference [2009] 78,
100, 121, 124
ACCA position paper 121, 124
Corbera, E 136
Cordell, K 175
cost–benefit calculations, land use
practices 135, 139, 145–9, 152
Costa Rica, carbon forestry offset
projects 135–54
“counterfactual material nature” 21, 25,
34n[6]
“counterfactual” scenarios 16, 34n[6]
Court of First Instance [cited] 92
credit rating agencies, in carbon markets
75
Crotched wind energy project [New

Hampshire, USA] 165
Culp, S 178

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188
“cultural circuit of capitalism” 68
“cultural circuit of carbon markets” 70
cultural political economy 66–7, 69
Dahlquist, R M 140, 144
Dalby, S 73, 80n[9]
Dean, M 109, 113, 115
Deegan, C 118
defensive localization 162, 164
deforestation see avoided deforestation;
REDD initiatives
DEFRA 107
della Porta, D 168
Deloitte [cited] 117
Department of Energy [DoE, USA], wind
energy report 165, 170
DePillis, P 168
Depledge, J 42, 66
derivative products 76
Designated Operational Entities (DOEs)

97
desire [to do good], carbon markets
mobilised by 70–5, 79
development, and liberal capitalism
138
Devine-Wright, P 171
Diani, M 168
diet analogy in carbon marketing 71
discursive formation, and agricultural
cost–benefit calculations 136, 138,
139, 148
Dominguez, L 144
Doody, H 127
du Gay, P 67
Duke Energy Corporation wind energy
project 159, 172
see also Searchlight . . . Project
Duncan, J S 163, 164
Duncan, N G 163, 164
Earth image, use in advertising 73,
81n[12]
ecological modernisation (EM)
as institutional learning 102, 103
as technocratic project 88, 102,
103
ecological modernisation (EM) theories
85
critical perspectives 88–9
and emissions trading 90, 93

11-16-2011

Index
and environmental governance 9,
86–9
and offset markets 95, 96
eco-Marxist analysis, of carbon markets
67, 68, 78–9
Edwards, J 172
Edwards, R 30
Ellerman, A 90
Ellis, G 165
emission allowances
compared with offsets 13
financial accounting of 116–17,
131n[4]
emission reduction credits market, risk
and time factors in access to 57
emission reductions
“creation” of 13, 16, 19
problems of defining and measuring
22
see also Certified Emission Reductions
(CERs)
Emission Reductions Purchase
Agreements (ERPAs) 20, 80n[5]
emissions reductions treaty
difficulties in producing 2
market-based solutions 2–3, 95
emissions trading 1, 3

compared with regulation and carbon
tax 90
reframed by ecological modernisation
principles 90, 93
see also European Union Emissions
Trading Scheme (EU ETS)
“environmental fixes” 137, 138, 153
environmental impact assessment
for carbon sink projects 56
for wind energy projects 169, 172
environmental issues, accountants’ views
[in 2003] 118–19
epistemic communities 113–15
accounting professionals in 119,
126–7, 129
contrast with governmentality
approach 114
defining features 114
environmental scientists in 114, 115
meaning of term 113–14
mechanisms by which influence is
exerted 115
Escobar, Arturo 14, 29, 162–3

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Index
EU emission allowances (EUAs)
and CERs 76, 92
financial accounting of 116–17,
131n[4]
European Commission 91, 93
powers over ETS 91–2
European Union Emissions Trading
Scheme (EU ETS) 6, 66, 89–94
carbon accounting in 108–9, 116–17,
129
carbon governance through 89–94
concessions and dispensations 91
coverage of scheme 89, 117
environmental effects 92–3
factors affecting consensus 91, 100
future developments 101
linking with CDM 76, 91, 97
organising and maintaining 90–2
political drivers for adoption of
89–90
political effects 93–4
questionable practices 92
strengthening of regulatory framework
91–2
facilitator state 88
fallow land 135
value/carbon-fixation ratio 147, 148
Fenhann, J V 14, 22, 32

Ferguson, J 138
Figueres, C 13, 22
financial accountancy 108
financial accountancy professional
organisations, climate change
activities 108, 118–19, 121–3,
124, 125
Financial Accounting Standards Board
(FASB, USA)
Emerging Issues Task Force 119
Emissions Trading Schemes Project
[with IASB] 117, 120, 130
financial practices, routinisation of
carbon markets through 7, 68–9,
75–7
Fine, B 80n[2]
Fisher, D 88
FitzSimmons, M 14
flexibility mechanisms 2, 46, 56, 96
political and commercial drivers for
95–6

11-16-2011

189
see also Clean Development
Mechanism (CDM); emissions
trading; Joint Implementation (JI)
mechanism
Fly, M 175

Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO), definition of forest 49
forest fires, as carbon loss 51
forests
canopy cover based definition 49
definitions 44, 48–51
FAO definition 49
IPCC definitions 49
and plantations 50
Fortmann, L 163
fossil fuels, consequences of regulation 5
Foster, J B 59, 61n[27]
Foucault, M [cited] 109, 112, 139, 148
Foucault’s archaeological method 139,
148
Foucault’s governmentality approach
112–13
fraud in carbon markets 92, 99
Freudenberg, W 88
Friends of the Earth (FoE) [cited] 1, 96,
129
Fry, I 41, 61n[17]
fuel switching 92
functional abstraction, in carbon offsets
20–2
fungible commodity
carbon emission reduction as 4
carbon offsets as 23, 96
carbon sink as 43, 44
futures contract, carbon sinks market as

59
Gareau 80n[2]
Geertz, C 42, 57, 58, 60
Germany, emissions trading 90
Gibbs, D 89
Giddens, A 3, 85
Gidwani, V 138
Gilbertson, T 3
Gillenwater, M 24
Gipe, P 170
Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) 119,
123, 128
global warming potential (GWP) 15,
45, 60n[5], 99

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190
Gold Standard 24, 28, 30, 99
Goldenweiser, A 42, 43, 58
Gonzalez, J 145
Goodman, D 14
Goodman, M K 14
Gorman, H 79n[1]
Gough, C 114

Gouldson, A [cited] 85, 87, 88
governance of “new” carbon economy
5–8
governmentality approach 112–13
climate change accounting 120
contrasted with epistemic community
approach 114
Graham, J B 180n[8]
Gray, T 165, 179
Green, J 96
greenhouse gas accounting 119
greenhouse gas reductions, carbon
dioxide equivalence 4, 15
Greer, J 72
Grubb, M 46, 47, 101
GTZ [cited] 29
guilt motivation, and carbon markets 71
Gunther, M 22
Guti´errez, M [cited] 60n[1]
Guzm´an, J 136
Haas, P 109, 113, 114, 115
Haggett, C 165, 179
[The] Hague Conference [2000] 47
Hajer, M A 60n[3], 86, 88, 102
Hamilton, K 5, 17, 24, 29, 72
Hardie, I 69
Harrington, J 71
Hartwick, E 24
Harvey, A 30
Harvey, C A 145

Harvey, D 43, 56, 57, 59, 60n[3], 163
Hatherly, D 127
Hawn, A 17, 72
Helleiner, E 69
Hepburn, C 13, 129
Herbert, H J 170
Herbohn, K 118
Heynen, N 67
Hills, P 85
Hindmarsh, R 165, 171
Hinojosa Sardan, V R 140, 144, 145
Hobley, Anthony 80n[6]

11-16-2011

Index
Holifield, R 80n[2]
Honduras, carbon mitigation projects
15, 25–31
biomass efficiency project 15, 26–7,
28, 29–30
renewable energy project 15, 25,
26–7, 27–9, 28
Hopwood, A G 109, 110, 111
House, J C 66
HSBC 72
Hughes, A 112
hydroelectricity project [Honduras] 15,
25, 27–9
material dimensions and responses

28
principal components 26–7
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs),
reduction/destruction of 17, 21,
99, 130
IASB [cited] 120
see also International Accounting
Standards Board (IASB)
ICAEW [cited] 118, 119, 122, 125
see also Institute of Chartered
Accountants in England and Wales
IETA [cited] 70, 117
see also International Emissions
Trading Association
improved cookstoves (ICS) project
[Honduras] 15, 29–30
material dimensions and responses
28
principal components 26–7
indigenous agricultural system in Costa
Rica
complementary production systems in
141, 142
factors affecting 140
“improvement” projects 141, 143
indigenous land manager 136, 140
as rational economic agent 148
individuation 20
in carbon offsets 20–2
in cookstove project 29–30

Indonesian agrarian economy [in
19th/20th century] 42, 57–8
industrial gas destruction projects 17,
99, 130
see also hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)

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Index
Institute of Chartered Accountants in
England and Wales (ICAEW) 122
climate change activities 108,
118–19, 122, 125
Sustainability report 118
integrity, meaning in carbon market
advertising 74
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC), on carbon sinks
45, 60n[4]
International Accounting Standards
131n[4]
International Accounting Standards
Board (IASB)
Emissions Trading Schemes Project
117, 120, 130

International Financial Reporting
Interpretations Committee 117
International Auditing and Assurance
Standards Board (IAASB) 123
climate change activities 123, 124
international carbon market, and local
socionatural relations 15, 19, 25,
31, 32
International Emissions Trading
Association (IETA)
Carbon Expo organised by 80n[4]
sponsorship of accounting meetings
119
International Financial Reporting
Interpretations Committee (IFRIC)
117
accounting guidance on emission
rights (IFRIC-3) 117, 130, 131n[4]
International Standards on Auditing
(ISAs) 123
involution 43, 58
carbon sinks market resulting in 43,
59
IPCC [cited] 15, 45, 49, 107
see also Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC)
Jackson, R B 53
J¨anicke, M 87
Jenner, N 31
Jepma, C 24

Jessop, B 66, 67, 68
Joint Implementation (JI) mechanism
34n[7], 75, 94

11-16-2011

191
Jonas, A 14
Jones, R 175
Jotzo, F 66
Kahn, R 170
Karatani, K 139, 149
Karmali, A 6
Katz, C 42, 43
Kempton, W 171
Kingdon, J W 113
Knorr-Cetina, K 68
Knox-Hayes, J 66, 67, 69
Kollmuss, A 24
Kruger, J 91, 94
Kyoto Protocol
emission reduction commitments 47,
151
flexibility mechanisms 1, 2, 56, 96
negotiations on carbon sinks 45–8
rejection by USA 2, 48, 95
see also Clean Development
Mechanism (CDM)
Laforge, M 140, 141, 142, 144
Lake Mead National Recreation Area

[Nevada, USA] 172
Land Institute, study on climate change
planning in American West 164
land use activities, direct human-induced
effects 51
land use changes
and carbon finance 139
cost–benefit calculations 139, 145–9
opportunity cost calculations 146
reasons for 55
value-to-carbon ratio calculations
146, 147
land use conflicts in American West
177
land use, land use change, and forestry
(LULUCF) activities, rules on 48,
51, 60n[13]
landscape reconfiguration, and responses
to climate change 5, 160, 164,
170, 175–6
Larrinaga-Gonzalez, C 117, 119
Lash, S 86
Latour, B 60n[3]
Le Billon, P 14, 25
Leung, D 127

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192
Levy, D 96
Leyshon, A 69
Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, study on
planning for climate change in
American West 178
Litfin, K T 114
Liverman, D M 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19,
24, 29, 32, 33n[5], 34n[7], 66, 67,
138, 139
local socionatural relations, and
international carbon market 15,
19, 25, 31, 32
Lohmann, L 1, 14, 20, 28, 29, 32,
34n[6], 65, 99, 111
L¨ovbrand, E 14, 32, 66, 67, 74
Lovell, H [cited] 13, 14, 15, 24, 29, 32,
33n[5]
Lucas, C 144
Lund, H G 49
McCarl, B 54
McCarthy, J 163, 177
McGready, M 117
MacKenzie, D [cited] 14, 15, 30, 65,
66, 67, 68, 69, 80n[2], 107, 108,

110, 111, 117, 119, 128, 129, 146
Magdoff, F 59, 61n[27]
management accountants
climate change activities 122, 125–6
see also Chartered Institute of
Management Accountants
Mann, P 29
Mansfield, B 20, 67
Maresh, S 13, 91, 93
Marland, G 47
Marrakesh Accords 48, 95
Marx, Karl, quoted 149, 150
Marx, Leo, The Machine in the Garden
160, 161, 162, 177
Marxian approach to value 137, 149–50
Masera, O 30
Massey, D 33
Matthews, C 165, 171
Meikle, J L 180n[5]
methane, capture and burning of 8, 99
Michaelowa, A 16, 66, 139, 146
“middle landscape” ideal 160, 162, 177
Miller, P 68, 109, 110, 111, 112
Millo, Y 69
Mitchell, T 25, 29, 32

11-16-2011

Mojave National Preserve [USA] 172
Mol, A 85, 87, 88, 89

monilia fungus 140
effect on cacao production 140, 143,
144
Monroy, Marco 80n[7]
Montreal Protocol, negotiations for
114, 115
multilateral environmental agreements
2
Muniesa, F 69
Murphy, J 85, 87, 88
Murray Li, T 113, 115
Nair, P K R 143
¨ project [Costa Rica] 141,
NAMASOL
155n[2]
national allocation plans (NAPs) in EU
ETS 91
National Wind Watch group 168
Natural Resources Defense Council
(NRDC) 178
neoliberal approaches to environmental
governance 86, 88, 96, 101
Neumann, I B 112
“new” carbon economy
constituting 4–5
effects 8–9
governing 5–8
role of accountants in governing
107–30
“new economy” 68

Newell, P [cited] 3, 10, 31, 61n[18], 88,
95, 96, 100
NIMBYism 160, 170
and “aspirational ruralism” 176
Oates, W E 91, 94
Oels, A 14
offset markets see carbon offset markets
O’Leary, T 111, 112
Olsen, K H 14, 22, 32
Oosterlynck, S 66, 67
opportunity costs, calculation for various
land practices 135, 146
Ott, H 48
Ouellet, M 68
Pacala, S 87
Pasqualetti, Michael

170, 175–6, 177

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Paterson, M [cited] 3, 10, 61n[18], 66,
67, 68, 71, 74, 80n[9], 95, 96, 100
Paulsson, E 66, 99

peasant farmers, and carbon sequestration
projects 41, 42, 57
Peck, J 148
Pepper, D 88
Phadke, R [cited] 166
phishing fraud 92
Pizer, W 91, 94
place theory 161, 162–3
Plan Vivo initiative 99
plantain monoculture [in Costa Rica]
140
opportunity costs for switch to cacao
agroforestry 135, 146
value/carbon-fixation ratio 147
plantations, impact of 50–1, 54
policy diffusion among epistemic
community members 115
policy innovation 115
accountancy practices and techniques
116, 119
policy selection 115
Polidoro, B A 140, 142
pollution taxes
compared with “cap-and-trade”
schemes 129
see also carbon taxes
Polyani, K 6
Polycarp, C 24
Power, M 111
Preda, A 69

PriceWaterhouse Coopers [cited] 117
[The] Prince’s Accounting for
Sustainability (A4S) Forum 127
“problematization” 113
and climate change accounting 118
project design document (PDD) 20
property rights 6, 19–20
Prudham, S 7, 14, 19, 21, 30
Pryke, M 32, 67
Randalls 23
rastrojos [recently fallowed land] 135
as carbon offset 136, 148
effect of removal from planting cycle
136
value/carbon-fixation ratio 135, 147,
148, 154

11-16-2011

193
Ray, L 67
Redclift, M 14
REDD (reducing emissions from
deforestation and forest
degradation) initiatives 43
reforestation
definition 50, 61n[15]
in hydroelectricity project [Honduras]
29
regeneration of forest, carbon

sequestration by 49, 53
Reid, Harry [US Senate Majority Leader]
159, 174
reliability, meaning in carbon market
advertising 74
renewable energy (hydroelectric) project
[Honduras] 15, 25, 26–7,
27–9
resource overconsumption, markets
addressing 3
Reuters [cited] 74, 93
Reyes, O 3
Ribot, J C 57
Righter, R 170
risk, in sink projects 57
risk–reward relationship, in carbon
markets 75–6
Rittel, H 86, 87
Robbins, P 163
Robertson, M M 14, 19, 20, 21,
22, 23, 60n[10], 68, 136, 148,
153
Robinson, C 165
Rose 113
Rose, G 32
Ruggie 114
rural developments, local reactions to
171
rural–urban conflicts over climate change
mitigation 178

Sanders, A 154n[1]
sawah system of agriculture [in
Indonesia] 42, 57–8
Sayer, A 67
Schapiro, M 61n[18]
Schlamadinger, B 47
Schreurs, M 89
Schroeder, R A 143, 163
Schurman, R A 14, 19, 30

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JWST131-Newell.cls (1994/07/13 v1.2u Standard LaTeX document class)

194
Searchlight [Nevada, USA] 159,
171–2, 174
household income 172, 175
Searchlight Wind Energy Project 159,
172–6
opposition to 159–60, 173–4, 175–6
secondary forest, carbon sequestration by
136
security, double meaning in carbon
market advertising 73, 74
Segura, M 146, 147, 149
Sending, O J 112

SGS advert 74
Shackley, S 114
Simon, D 33
Simonis, U 87
Sinclair, T J 75
sink projects
baselines for 54–5
“leakage”/externality factors in 54
risk factors 57
social and environmental impacts
55–6
time factors 57
transaction costs 42, 55, 56
Skjaerseth, J B 66, 89, 94
Smith, A 14
Smith, B 170
Smith, K 65, 96
Smith, K R 30
Smith, N 24, 59
Sneddon, C 14, 15
socio-economic impact assessment, for
sink projects 56
socionatural relations see local
socionatural relations
socionatural–technical complexes 29,
32
Socolow, R 87
Solomon, B D 79n[1]
Somarriba, E 140, 141, 143, 144, 145
Sonnenfeld, D 85, 88

Sower, J 167
Spaargaren, G 85
spatial abstraction 22
in carbon offsets 22–3
“Starbucks effect” 171, 179n[4]
Stavins, R 66
Sterk, W 22

11-16-2011

Index
Stern, N 87
Streck, C 66, 96
Stripple, J 66, 67, 68, 71, 74
Sum, N-L 66
Sussman, F 24
sustainability issues, accountants dealing
with 118, 121, 122, 123, 125, 126
sustainable development benefits of
carbon offsets 13, 14, 99
swap deals 76, 92
swidden (slash-and-burn) agricultural
systems 136
abandonment of 135
Swyngedouw, E 14, 16
Szarka, J 165
Szerszynski, B 86
Taiyab, N 24
Talamanca region [Costa Rica]
agricultural development projects

141, 144
cacao cultivation 140, 155n[4]
carbon offset project 145–9
Tetreault, S 172
third-party verification 5, 23
Thompson, G 112
Thornes 23
Thrift, N 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 77, 78
Tiberghien, Y 90
tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent
(tCO2 e), carbon credits expressed as
13, 16, 71
topophilia 162
tradable permits, financial accounting
and 118
Tuan, Yi-Fu 162
TWP [cited] 34n[13]
UK, emissions trading 90
UN Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) 1, 14, 28
carbon sinks included in 45
see also Kyoto Protocol
“uncooperative” carbon 4, 21, 22, 25
accounting for 30
local responses to deal with 28
UNEP-Risoe 17
uneven development, factors affecting
56–7, 98–9

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JWST131-Newell.cls (1994/07/13 v1.2u Standard LaTeX document class)

Index
USA
emissions reduction commitment 47
Kyoto Protocol rejected by 2, 48, 95
sinks used in emissions calculations
46, 47
sulfur dioxide trading scheme 2
wind energy capacity 165
use value of commodity, for carbon offset
150
value
Marxian approach to 149–50
realization of 149, 151
van der Horst, D 171
van der Woerd, F 96
van Staden, C J 118
Vandenbergh, M P 13
Vargas Carranza, J 140
VAT fraud 92
Verdun, A 114
verification of carbon reductions 5, 23
Victor, D F 66
Victor, D G 22
Villalobos, V 142

Villiers, C D 118
Vogt, C 48
voluntary carbon offset (VCO) markets
1, 3, 17
governance in 6
growth in transactions 2, 94
origins 95–6
political and commercial drivers for
95–6
Voss, J-P 66, 90, 93
Wainwright, J 138
Walker, G 171
Walker, P 163
Walters, W 68
Wara, M W 21, 22
Warra, M 130
waste dumps/sites, carbon credits from
8, 99

11-16-2011

195
Webber, M 86, 87
Weitzmann, M L 129
Welford, R 85
Werksman, J 95
Wettestad, J 66, 89, 91, 94
Whatmore, S 32
Wilson, A 81n[12]
Wilson, G 94

wind energy
factors affecting public perceptions
165, 166
oppositional movement [in USA]
165–9
public concerns 169–70
US capacity 165
wind energy industry
investment in local communities
170, 174
response to public concerns 169–70
wind energy projects
federal agency for 169
jobs creation by 170, 172
process for siting and permitting
169
see also Searchlight Wind Energy
Project
Winkler, R 175
Wittneben, B 22
Wolsink, M 165
Woods, M 168, 171
World Bank 1, 22, 29
Carbon Expo organised by 80n[4]
Community Development Carbon
Fund 42
Wynne, B 86
Yamin, F 16, 20, 24, 41, 47, 66
Yengoyan, A A 42
Zink, H 24

Zito, A 90
Zu´eli, K B 148
Zyla, K 19

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