Geology of Late Miocene clayey sediments and distribution of palaeosol clay minerals in the north-eastern part of the Cappadocian Volcanic Province (Araplı-Erdemli), central Anatolia,

Turkish Journal of Earth Sciences

Turkish J Earth Sci
(2013) 22: 427-443
© TÜBİTAK
doi:10.3906/yer-1112-1

/>
Research Article

Geology of Late Miocene clayey sediments and distribution of palaeosol clay minerals in
the north-eastern part of the Cappadocian Volcanic Province (Araplı-Erdemli), central
Anatolia, Turkey
1,

1

2

2

1

Selahattin KADİR *, Ali GÜREL , Hülya SENEM , Tacit KÜLAH
Department of Geological Engineering, Eskişehir Osmangazi University, TR-26480 Eskişehir, Turkey
2
Department of Geological Engineering, Niğde University, TR-51200 Niğde, Turkey

Received: 05.12.2011

Accepted: 19.06.2012

Published Online: 06.05.2013

Printed: 06.06.2013

Abstract: The study area is situated in the Araplı-Erdemli (Kayseri) area in the north-eastern part of the Cappadocian Volcanic Province
(CVP), central Anatolia. The Late Miocene series comprises lacustrine and fluvial deposits interbedded with ignimbrites and lava flows.
The Late Miocene Mustafapaşa member of the Ürgüp Formation comprises yellow to red mudstone that alternates with thin sandstone
beds in the north-eastern part of the CVP. This unit continues upward through the Cemilköy ignimbrite palaeosol layers (comprising
altered Cemilköy ignimbrite, vertisol and well-developed palaeosol layers), the Gördeles ignimbrite and red palaeosol layers, and
includes two fallout levels; it is overlain by the Kızılkaya ignimbrite. The Mustafapaşa member is dominated by smectite±illite±chlorite,
whereas the altered Cemilköy ignimbrite is predominantly kaolinite±smectite±chlorite. The underlying lower level of the Gördeles
ignimbrite contains palaeosol layers, and continues upward through smectite-dominated layers. Alteration of feldspars and glass
shards in the Cemilköy and Gördeles ignimbrites resulted in the depletion of soluble alkaline elements (such as Ca, Na and K) from
these ignimbrites downward to the Mustafapaşa member, and palaeosol levels (Bayramhacılı member) in the Araplı area favoured
precipitation of smectite in an alkaline environment. However, the absence of these elements in these ignimbrites may have resulted in
the enhancement of Al+Fe/Si-favoured precipitation of kaolinite in an acidic environment. Conversely, palaeosol of the Erdemli area
consists of smectite±illite±chlorite. Micromorphologically, flaky smectite rims illite in both the Araplı and Erdemli areas and this can
be explained by the release of K and Al during desorption of feldspar. Additionally, higher Ni, Co and Cr2O3 values in the mudstone
samples of the Mustafapaşa member and palaeosol levels, the presence of iron oxide and partially chloritised pyroxene and hornblende,
together with ophiolitic and metamorphic grains, indicate that the basin also accumulated ophiolitic and metamorphic rock fragments
in its sediment supply. This suggests that the Araplı area in the southern part of the CVP has undergone erosion, and that the present-day
Erdemli area was close to the shallow-lake depositional environment of the northern part of CVP.
Key Words: Palaeosol, ignimbrite, smectite, kaolinite, central Anatolia.

1. Introduction
Since the last quarter of the 20th century,
palaeoclimatological changes have been studied using
sedimentary-petrographic data from marine (Thiry
2000; Ehrmann et al. 2005; Berrocoso et al. 2008) and

non-marine sediments (Singer 1984; Bellanca et al. 1992;
Prudêncio et al. 2002).
This study area covers 100 km2 in the north-eastern
part of the Cappadocia region of central Anatolia (Turkey).
The occurrence of a large clay deposit in the Late Miocene
Mustafapaşa member of the Ürgüp Formation, the altered
Cemilköy ignimbrite, and the palaeosols between the
Gördeles and Kızılkaya ignimbrites are first described in
the area in this work. The Mustafapaşa member consists
of alternating conglomerate, sandstone, and mudstone.
*Correspondence:

The altered Cemilköy ignimbrite, red palaeosols, vertisols
and mature, white palaeosol layers developed between
the Cemilköy and Gördeles ignimbrites. Red palaeosols,
mature brown and red palaeosol levels occur between the
Gördeles and Kızılkaya ignimbrites.
The Cappadocian Volcanic Province in central
Anatolia has been previously studied in order to elucidate
the stratigraphy (Pasquaré 1968; Schumacher & MuesSchumacher 1997; Le Pennec et al. 2005; Viereck-Goette
et al. 2010), the relationship between magmatism and
tectonism (Innocenti et al. 1975; Pasquaré et al. 1988;
Göncüoğlu & Toprak 1992; Temel et al. 1998; Toprak
1998), the mineralogy and origin of clay minerals (Gürel
& Kadir 2006; Gürel & Kadir 2008; Ertek & Öner 2008),
and ecosystem changes (Lepetit & Viereck-Goette 2007).

427

KADİR et al. / Turkish J Earth Sci
Prior to the present study, no information about the
clay sedimentology and mineralogy of the Late Miocene
units between the Araplı and Erdemli areas was available.
Therefore, the aim of this paper is to describe the geology,
mineralogy, and geochemistry of the north-eastern section
of the CVP sediments, and to discuss the genesis of the
clay deposits and their depositional environment.
2. Local geological setting
Basement rocks of the Araplı area comprise Palaeozoic
mica schists and marbles and Late Cretaceous ophiolitic
rocks which tectonically overlie the older units (Figure
1). The Oligocene Yeşilhisar conglomerate contains
metamorphic and ophiolitic rock fragments, and
the Palaeogene-Neogene series discordantly overlies
basement rocks. This unit is discordantly overlain by the
Neogene Ürgüp Formation (Figure 2). The Mustafapaşa
member (Late Miocene) is the earliest unit of the Ürgüp
Formation in the Araplı area, comprising alternating
conglomerate, sandstone and mudstone laid down in
a lacustrine environment. The Late Miocene Cemilköy
ignimbrite overlies the Mustafapaşa member and
separates it from the overlying Bayramhacılı member
(Pasquaré 1968). The Bayramhacılı member is split into
two sub-members (the Lower and Upper Bayramhacılı) by
the Gördeles ignimbrite. The Upper Bayramhacılı unit is
overlain by the Kızılkaya ignimbrite (Gürel & Kadir 2006).
These volcaniclastic units are discordantly overlain by
Quaternary white travertine (outside the study area) and
alluvium.

3. Description of stratigraphic sections
Five north–south stratigraphic sections have been studied,
in the study area between the villages of Araplı and Erdemli
(Kayseri)(Figure 3).
3.1. Araplı - Section I
This section begins with palaeosol layers. Each palaeosol
is mud containing pumice and plant rootlets. These
palaeosol horizons are overlain by a white fallout-I
unit, containing more than 80% pumice. After 3-4 m
of covered section, the section continues upward with
similar palaeosol layers, and the fallout-II layer contains
lithic clasts and pumice (A1-3). This horizon is overlain
by more palaeosol layers which begin with white, pumicebearing palaeosol, and continue upward with palaeosols
containing brown to light brown, fine-grained lithic clasts,
plant rootlets and pumice. These units are overlain by the
pale grey Gördeles ignimbrite, comprising mainly lithic
pumice. This ignimbritic unit is overlain by fine-grained
and coarse-grained palaeosol levels, respectively. Finally,
the massive and columnar-jointed Kızılkaya ignimbrite
sits at the top of this section.

428

3.2. Araplı – Section II
This section has a basal fine-grained, clayey palaeosol layer,
then a fine-grained and lithic-clast-bearing palaeosol layer,
deposited above the Yeşilhisar conglomerate or ophiolitic
rocks. These units are overlain by the pale grey Cemilköy
ignimbrite (Figure 4a), comprising mainly lithic pumice
and altered Cemilköy ignimbrite (Figure 4b,c) layers.

These layers are overlain by palaeosol layers, beginning
with a massive, clayey, fine-grained palaeosol and
continuing with a red, fine-grained palaeosol layer and a
grey vertisol layer (Figure 4d). These units are overlain by
fallout-II deposits with lithic-pumice and lithic clasts and
a red, fine-grained, clayey palaeosol horizon (Figure 4e).
These are overlain by the pale grey Gördeles ignimbrite,
which is in turn overlain by two palaeosol layers: a lightbrown, fine-grained palaeosol and a red, fine-grained
palaeosol. Finally, the Kızılkaya ignimbrite sits at the top
of this section.
3.3. Yeşilhisar Section
At the base of this section is the Yeşilhisar conglomerate,
which contains ophiolitic and metamorphic rock fragments
within a silty to sandy matrix. This unit is overlain by
lacustrine sediments, beginning with greenish-grey,
medium-grained sandstone and continuing sequentially
upward with grey siltstone, greenish-grey sandstone,
siltstone, pinkish-grey mudstone and grey sandstone
horizons. Up to this level, the lacustrine sediments are
mainly greenish-grey and grey. They continue upward
with a level of pinkish-brown conglomerate, with a finegrained matrix, then ignimbritic sandstone, mudstone,
fine-grained conglomerate, sandstone (Figure 4f-g) and
siltstone layers. The Cemilköy ignimbrite sits at the top of
this section.
3.4. Akköy Section
This section has ophiolitic rocks (Figure 4h) at its base.
These are overlain by the Erdemisin agglomerate, and the
Kavak ignimbrite, which comprises volcanic agglomerates,
and pumiceous and vitric tuffites. This unit is overlain by
lacustrine sediments, comprising pumiceous claystone and

sandstone beds (AK-2, AK-3, AK-4) and these sediments
are overlain by the pale grey Cemilköy ignimbrite which
contains lithic pumice. This unit is overlain by palaeosol
beds intercalated with conglomerate and fluvial sandstone
beds. The Kızılkaya ignimbrite sits at the top of this section.
3.5. Erdemli Section
The Erdemisin agglomerate at the base of this section
(Figure 4i), comprises abundant basaltic rock fragments
and marl-rich sediments, and is overlain by lacustrine
claystone beds and the pale grey Cemilköy ignimbrite. This
unit is in turn overlain by palaeosol (E-1, E-2) and white
tuffite beds, and the section continues upward with more
palaeosol layers, which are overlain by fluvial channel


KADİR et al. / Turkish J Earth Sci
Black

Sea

Erdemli
Erdemli section

T U R K E Y
Kayseri
Study area
100 km

Mediterranean Sea

Kurt Mt.
Kỹỗỹkkurt H.

N

Kelik

YELHSAR

Early
Pliocene Quaternary

EXPLANATION
scree slopes
alluvium
unconformity
Kızılkaya ignimbrite
Çataltepe basalt

Akkưy section
Akkưy

Gưrdeles ignimbrite

Bükkale H.

Tahar ignimbrite

Kalekưy

L ate
Miocene

Cemilkưy ignimbrite
Bayramhacılı member
Mustafapaşa member
Kavak ignimbrite
Büyükkale tepe andesite

Olig oMiocene

Erdemisin agglomerate
unconformity
Yeşilhisar conglomerate
unconformity

L ate
Cretaceous

Yeşilhisar section

ophiolitic complex
fault

Araplı

Araplı I

Ar a plı I I

settlement

0

1

2 km

Figure 1. Simplified geological map of the Araplı-Erdemli area of the Ürgüp Basin
(modified from Pasquaré 1968).

429


KADİR et al. / Turkish J Earth Sci
İncesu ignimbrite (2.8 My)
P, L, D, F

Seksenveren lavas
Kızılkaya ignimbrite (4.3 My)

P, L, D, F
P, L, D, F

Catal tepe lavas
double mass flow
Gördeles ignimbrite (5.7 My)

P, L, D, F
P, L, D, F

Tahar ignimbrite (5.8 My)
double pumice fallout

P, L, D, F

mass flow
Cemilköy ignimbrite (6.6 My)

L, F

Topuz dağı lavas
Salur conglomerate
Damsa valley lavas

P, L, D, F

Sarımaden ignimbrite (8.2 My)
Mustafapaşa member
Zelve ignimbrite (8.8 My)

P, F
P, F

40 m

P, F

Kavak ignimbrite

(9.0 My)
(11.2 My)

Güvercinlik ignimbrite (10 My)

P, F

En Yaşlı [oldest] ignimbrite (11 My)

Figure 2. Generalised stratigraphic section of the study area
(modified after Viereck et al. 2010). P: palaeosol, L: carbonate, D:
diatomite, F: fluvial sediments.

sediments (Figure 4j), sandstones and conglomeratic
units. These are overlain by palaeosol horizons, and the
Tahar ignimbrite overlies the former units as three flow
units. The Tahar ignimbrite is overlain by a brown, massive
palaeosol horizon which is intercalated with two layers of
fine-grained, brown, red-clay-pellet-bearing palaeosols.
This unit is in turn overlain by a massive, white limestone
horizon and pale grey, coarse-grained pumice and lithicfragment-bearing lahar deposits. This series is overlain by
the Kızılkaya ignimbrite, and a basaltic flow unit at the top
of this section.
4. Lithofacies Distribution
Eight lithofacies have been distinguished within the Late
Miocene sediments of the Araplı-Erdemli area; these

430

lithofacies are adapted from Miall (1996; Figure 3).

Basement rocks in the study area are metamorphic and
ophiolitic rocks.
4.1. Erdemisin Agglomerate (EA)
The Erdemisin agglomerate is the first product of Neogene
volcanic activity in the study area. It comprises volcanic
agglomerates, pumiceous and vitric tuffites, and marl-rich
sediments. The cobbles in the unit are set in a greenish-grey
or violet tuffaceous matrix containing clayey arenaceous
components consisting of grey andesitic and ophiolitic
rock fragments (Pasquaré 1968).
4.2. Yeşilhisar Conglomerate (YC)
The Yeşilhisar conglomerate consists of thick-bedded
fluvial sediments. It almost entirely comprises more-orless cemented conglomerates. Pebbles of metamorphic
and ophiolitic rock are rounded and vary in diameter from
a few mm to 20-30 cm.
4.3. Conglomerate (C)
This facies is characterised by massive, grey, unsorted and
sub-rounded conglomerates. The conglomerate is mainly
matrix-supported. The average clast size is 10 cm, and
measured profiles range from 20 – 50 cm thick. Palaeoflow
direction is generally from south to north.
4.4. Sandstone (St)
This facies comprises greenish-grey, medium- to finegrained, medium-bedded sandstone with plant rootlets.
This unit also encloses gypsiferous claystone intercalations.
4.5. Mudstone (Mt)
This facies occurs at two levels: the lower unit is generally
greenish-grey claystone, and the upper unit is generally
brownish red. It also encloses plant rootlets and desiccation
cracks.
4.6. Ignimbrite (I)

Four different ignimbrite members of the Ürgüp Formation
have been examined in the study area:
The Cemilköy ignimbrite consists of white, massive
or thick-bedded lahar deposits with lithic, vitric and
pumiceous fragments of ignimbritic origin (Pasquaré
1968).
The Tahar ignimbrite is represented by thick-bedded
pinkish tuffite and fine lahar deposits of ignimbritic
derivation (Pasquaré 1968).
The Gördeles ignimbrite consists of thick-bedded pink
to white ignimbrite, which passes laterally into a tuffite of
similar composition (Pasquaré 1968).
The Kızılkaya ignimbrite is a single pinkish, wellwelded columnar flow unit (Temel 1992).
4.7. Fallout (FO)
This facies is represented by two white fallout levels,
comprising more than 80% pumice.
4.8. Palaeosol (P)
The palaeosol can be considered to be aridisol (Soil Survey
Staff 1975). Based on the system outlined by Retallack


S a nd

fallout I

fallout II

Gördeles
ignimbrite

Gra ve l

Mud
S ilt

A1-1

A1-2

A1-3

A1-4

A1-5

A1-6

S a nd

Cemilköy
ignimbrite

Gördeles
ignimbrite

Mud
S ilt

A1-7

Gra ve l

A2-1

A2-2

A2-3

A2-4

A2-5

A2-6

S a nd

Cemilköy
ignimbrite

YH-12
YH-13
YH-14
YT-2
YT-1

YH-11

YH-10

YH-8

YH-9

YH-7-6

YH-5

YH-2
YH-3
YH-4

YH-1

Yeşilhisar Section

Mud
S ilt

A1-8

Gra ve l

Kızılkaya
ignimbrite

S a nd

Kavak
ignimbrite

Cemilköy

ignimbrite

Kızılkaya
ignimbrite

Akköy Section

Mud
S ilt

Kızılkaya
ignimbrite

Gra ve l

Araplı II Section

AK-1

AK-4
AK-3
AK-2

AK-5

AK-6

AK-7

AK-8

S a nd

Cemilköy
ignimbrite

Tahar
ignimbrite

Kızılkaya
ignimbrite

Mud
S ilt

Araplı I Section

2m

E-2
E-1

E-3

E-4

E-5

ignimbrite
E-6

ophiolitic complex

Erdemisin agglomerate

conglomerate

clay

palaeosol / pumice
and rock fragments

vertisol

lahar

sandstone

basalt

covered

limestone

EXPLANATION

E-7

E-8

N
Erdemli Section

Gra ve l

S

KADİR et al. / Turkish J Earth Sci

Figure 3. Distribution of the principal lithologies of the Araplı-Erdemli areas (see Figure 1 for section
locations, and Table 1 for mineralogical compositions of the samples).

431

2m

2m

2m

2m


KADİR et al. / Turkish J Earth Sci

ignimbrite

altered ignimbrite

a

b
ignimbrite

mudstone

vertisol

c

d

sandstone

palaeosol

e

f

ophiolite

conglomerate

g

h

fluvial sediments

basalt
palaeosol

agglomerate

i

j

Figure 4. Field view of: (a) Cemilköy ignimbrite, (b) altered Cemilköy ignimbrite, (c) contact relationship between
the Mustafapaşa member and Cemilköy ignimbrite, (d) vertisol levels, (e) mature-type developed palaeosols, (f)
sandstone levels of the Mustafapaşa member, (g) conglomerate level of the Mustafapaşa member, (h) ophiolitic
rocks, (i) Erdemisin agglomerate, (j) fluvial-channel deposits and mature developed palaeosol level.

432


KADİR et al. / Turkish J Earth Sci

serpentinised olivine
serpentinised olivine

a

0.1 mm

b

0.2 mm

chloritised pyroxene

volcanic glass
plagioclase

pyroxene

c

0.1 mm

d

0.2 mm

organic
organic
clay

clay

e

0.1 mm

f

0.2 mm

oxypyroxene

organic

sesquioxides
clay + calcite

organic

g

plagioclase

clay

0.2 mm

h

oxyhornblende

0.2 mm

Figure 5. Photomicrographs of (a) serpentinized olivine crystal (AK-1, plane polarised light), (b)
serpentinized olivine crystal (AK-1, plane polarised light), (c) alteration and chloritization of pyroxene
crystal (AK-1, YH-1 and YH-2, in-plane polarised light), (d) plagioclase (andesine) and amphibole
phenocrysts in volcanic-glass matrix (AK-1, YT-1 and YT-2, crossed nicols), (e-g) palaeosol samples,
sesquioxide and organic material bearing and resembling highly altered volcanic units with irregular
clay materials, plane polarised light, (h) ultramafic and volcanic rock fragments, feldspar, pyroxene,
amphibole, cemented by clay, sesquioxides and microsparitic calcite in sandstone (AK-8, crossed nicols).

433


KADİR et al. / Turkish J Earth Sci
(1988), these palaeosols can be roughly classified as poorly
to moderately developed, mature-type palaeosols. The
palaeosol layers also enclose scattered pumice pebbles,
in contrast to the root zones in near-surface mature
palaeosols, and subsurface clayey, sesquioxide-rich areas
have developed. The most mature soils are associated with
fluvial overbank deposits at some distance from the main
channels, which were the source of incremental additions
of fine-grained sediments. Overbank deposits proximal
to palaeochannels have better-preserved bedding and less
mature palaeosols, and pedogenic disruption of bedding
and palaeosol maturity increase away from the channels
toward more distal floodplain settings.
5. Methods
In the field, typical stratigraphic sections were measured
in order to study lateral and vertical variations within the
Late Cretaceous ophiolitic complex, the Oligo-Miocene
Yeşilhisar conglomerate and the Late Miocene fluvial and
lacustrine deposits interbedded with ignimbrites and lava
flows. Forty-six characteristic samples of Oligo-Miocene
Yeşilhisar conglomerate, Late Miocene fluvio-lacustrine
sediments and associated palaeosols were collected from
the study area (Figure 3). Lithofacies definitions are based
on those of Miall (1996). Thin sections were prepared from
them to describe their petrographic properties.
The mineralogical characteristics of the samples were

determined by X-ray powder diffractometry (XRD)
(Rigaku Geigerflex) and scanning electron microscopy
(SEM-EDX) (JEOL JSM 84A-EDX). Representative
palaeosol samples were prepared for clay-mineral analysis
(size fraction <2 µm) by separation of the clay fraction
by sedimentation, followed by centrifugation of the
suspension after dispersion overnight in distilled water.
The clay particles were dispersed by ultrasonic vibration
for about 15 min. Three oriented specimens of the <2
µm fraction of each sample were prepared by air drying,
ethylene-glycol solvation at 60 °C for 2 h, and thermal
treatment at 550°C for 2 h. Semi-quantitative estimates
of the rock-forming minerals were obtained by using the
external standard method of Brindley (1980), whereas
the relative abundances of clay-mineral fractions were
determined using their basal reflections and the mineral
intensity factors of Moore and Reynolds (1989).
Representative clay-dominated bulk samples were
prepared for SEM analysis by sticking the fresh, broken
surface of each sample onto an aluminum sample holder
with double-sided tape and thinly coating (350 Å) with
gold using a Giko ion coater.
Chemical analyses of 19 altered and fresh whole-rock
samples were performed at Acme Analytical Laboratories
Ltd. (Canada) using ICP-AES for major and trace elements
and ICP-MS for rare-earth elements (REE). The detection

434

limits for the analyses were between 0.01 and 0.1 wt% for

major elements, 0.1 and 5 ppm for trace elements, and 0.01
to 0.5 ppm for REE.
6. Results
6.1. Petrography
The ophiolitic unit in the Araplı area comprises olivine
and pyroxene. Olivine crystals are mostly serpentinised
(Figure 5a, b), and pyroxene crystals exhibit alteration and
chloritization (Figure 5c). The Yeşilhisar conglomerate
pebble samples from the Kaleköy and Akköy areas (AK-1,
YT-1 and YT-2) generally consist of volcanic and ophiolitic
rock fragments; in which amphiboles and pyroxenes are
iron oxidised and chloritized. Volcanic fragments consist
of plagioclase (andesine) and amphibole phenocrysts in a
volcanic-glass matrix (Figure 5d).
Glass shards are generally devitrified whereas pyroxene
crystals are highly altered and chloritized, and plagioclase
and K-feldspar are partially to completely altered. The
matrix between these particles and minerals comprises
volcanic materials and alteration products.
In thin section, palaeosol samples were found to
consist of devitrified volcanic glass and altered-feldsparbearing, iron-oxidised amphibole and pyroxene and
organic materials, thus resembling highly altered volcanic
units (Figure 5e-g).
Sandstone contains pyroxene, amphibole, feldspar,
clay and sesquioxides (Figure 5h). Conglomerates consist
of rounded and subrounded rock fragments cemented by
sparry calcite crystals, similar to those reported by Siesser
(1973), and Kadir et al. (2002).
6.2. XRD determinations
The results of X-ray diffraction analyses of samples

collected from the Araplı, Yeşilhisar, Akköy, and Erdemli
sections are presented in Table 1. The Araplı area rocks are
characterised by abundant feldspar, quartz and opal-CT
accompanied by accessory amphibole and serpentine in
some levels of this section. Smectite and chlorite occur in
all levels, and coexist with kaolinite in some layers (Table
1). Correlation of these values with Table 2 indicate that
the palaeosol in Araplı - Section I can be classified as
oxisol (kaolinite, goethite, hematite), vertisol (smectite)
and entisol (clay minerals related to the host rock).
The Mustafapaşa member is characterised by smectite
+ feldspar, and the weathered Cemilköy ignimbrite by a
kaolinite + smectite + feldspar paragenesis.
The Erdemli area is represented by a section between
the Cemilköy and Kızılkaya ignimbrites. The lithological
and mineralogical character of the Erdemli area rocks is
similar to that of the Araplı section rocks. Feldspar, quartz,
opal-CT and, locally, amphibole predominate. Smectite
and illite occur in all levels, and locally are accompanied
by kaolinite.


KADİR et al. / Turkish J Earth Sci
Table 1. Mineralogical variation within the CVP area.
Rock Type

smc

chl

palaeosol

++

acc

A1-2

palaeosol

+++

acc

A1-3

ignimbrite

acc

A1-1

sep

kao

ill

+++

fds

qtz

op

++

++

acc

amph

++

+

acc

acc

acc

+

acc

A1-4

palaeosol

acc

acc

+

++

++

+

acc

A1-5

palaeosol

acc

acc

+

++

+

+

acc

A1-6

palaeosol

+

acc

+

++

+

+

A1-7

palaeosol

acc

acc

acc

++

++

+

A1-8

palaeosol

acc

acc

+

+

++

+

acc

A2-1

clay

+++

acc

+

+

acc

acc

A2-2

clay

+++

acc

+

+

acc

acc

A2-3

palaeosol

acc

acc

++

+

+

+

acc

palaeosol

+

acc

acc

++

+

+

acc

A2-5

palaeosol

+++

acc

+

+

acc

acc

A2-6

palaeosol

+

acc

acc

++

+

acc

E-1

palaeosol

acc

+

E-2

palaeosol

+

acc

E-3

palaeosol

acc

acc

+

E-4

palaeosol

+

+

+

E-5

palaeosol

acc

acc

+

E-6

palaeosol

acc

acc

+

E-7

palaeosol

+

acc

+

E-8

palaeosol

acc

AK-1

agglomerate

+

acc

acc

acc

acc

+

+

+

+

++

acc

++

++

acc

+

+

+

acc

+

++

++

acc

++

++

++

+

+

+

+++

acc

dol

tlc

+
acc

acc

+

acc

acc

acc

+

acc

acc

acc

acc

+

acc

+

++

AK-2

clay

+

acc

+

++

acc

AK-3

sandstone

acc

acc

+

++

++

acc

+

AK-4

clay

acc

acc

acc

++

++

acc

+

AK-5

conglomerate

acc

acc

++

++

+

AK-6

conglomerate

acc

acc

++

++

+

AK-7

sandstone

+

acc

+

++

+

acc

AK-8

sandstone

+

+

acc

+

+

+

acc

cal

acc

A2-4

acc

serp

acc

acc

+

smc: smectite, chl: chlorite, sep: sepiolite, kao: kaolinite, ill: illite, fds: feldspar, qtz: quartz, op: opal-CT, amph: amphibole, serp:
serpentine, cal: calcite, dol: dolomite, tlc: talc, acc: accessory, +: relative abundance of mineral.

The Akköy area rocks are characterised by abundant
feldspar, quartz and opal-CT in all levels of the profile.
Amphibole is concentrated in some levels. Smectite, illite
and chlorite are unevenly distributed.
Smectite was determined by a peak at 14.9 Å, and
which expanded to 17.1 Å following ethylene glycolation;
the intensity of this peak collapsed to 10.04 Å following
heating to 550 °C (2 h) (Figure 6). The d060 reflection of
smectite is 1.49 Å, revealing its dioctahedral character.

Illite is indicated by reflections at 10 and 5 Å, and accessory
chlorite by peaks at 14.1, 7.12 and 3.54 Å. Quartz was
determined by sharp peaks at 3.34 and 4.26 Å, and feldspar
by sharp peaks at 3.18 and 3.21 Å. Accessory amphibole
was distinguished by its weak peak at 8.4 Å and opal-CT
by peaks at 4.05 and 4.09 Å. A slight increase in the XRD
background of some of the smectite-bearing palaeosol
samples may indicate the presence of organic material
and poorly crystalline phases, as determined by textural

435


KADİR et al. / Turkish J Earth Sci
Table 2. Major- (wt.%) and trace-element (ppm) compositions of various lithologies of the study area (see Table 1 for the
mineralogical compositions of the samples).

Major Oxides/ A2-1 Cemilköy A2-3
A2-4
A2-5
A2-6
Trace Elements clay
ign.
palaeo. palaeo. palaeo. palaeo.
SiO2
Al2O3
∑Fe2O3
MgO
CaO
Na2O
K2O
TiO2
P2O5
MnO
Cr2O3
Ba
Cu
Zn
Ni
Co
Sr
Zr
Ce
Y
Nb
Sc
Ta

LOI
TOT/C
TOT/S
SUM

54.32
13.56
8.70
2.16
1.44
0.67
1.08
0.57
0.02
0.07
0.105
31011
29
58
497
40
101
77
36
19
<10
12
<20
17.0
0.07

0.02
99.69

71.89
12.90
1.74
0.39
0.80
1.72
4.11
0.17
<0.01
0.06
<0.001
710
<20
73
38
<20
80
73
35
13
<10
3
<20
6.1
0.01
0.01
99.89

55.71
16.81
8.67
1.21
1.31
0.69
1.55
0.70
0.05
0.04
0.007
442
37
107
74
<20
124
123
86
36
<10
17
<20
13.0
0.04
0.03
99.74

55.69

16.72
6.57
1.80
1.40
0.34
1.85
0.82
0.04
0.04
0.014
314
38
92
104
<20
141
138
52
23
<10
19
<20
14.6
0.03
0.03
99.83

54.07
15.74
7.90

1.72
1.23
1.17
1.96
0.71
0.04
0.04
0.046
507
59
89
82
<20
192
192
96
19
<10
15
<20
15.2
0.04
0.04
99.82

Araplı
Gördeles
ign.

55.30

18.01
6.50
1.44
1.79
0.75
1.48
0.64
0.02
0.03
0.011
348
28
95
65
<20
187
200
61
31
<10
14
<20
13.9
0.01
0.02
99.87

69.03
15.02
1.77

0.55
1.53
2.70
4.24
0.33
0.06
0.03
<0.001
595
<20
40
25
<20
160
204
74
23
<10
5
<20
4.6
0.09
0.02
99.86

A1-8
E-1
E-2
E-3
E-4

palaeo. palaeo. palaeo. palaeo. palaeo.
57.66
16.56
8.01
2.58
0.99
1.19
2.21
0.87
0.04
0.07
0.058
278
43
155
175
<20
137
130
66
21
12
21
<20
9.6
0.04
0.02
99.83

59.79

16.70
5.26
1.80
4.10
1.81
1.85
0.54
0.05
0.06
0.03
330
16
50
21
8
240
110
30
10
12
12
<5
8.1
0.2
0.01
100.09

60.30
16.20
5.35

1.60
4.08
1.90
2.55
0.55
0.05
0.08
0.001
480
19
50
34
10
250
118
40
10
7
6
<5
7.1
0.03
0.03
99.76

61.07
15.26
4.56
1.67
2.81

1.5
2.26
0.51
0.05
0.12
0.03
550
19
50
34
13
190
140
47
18
<5
12
10
10.0
0.03
0.02
99.84

42.01
10.31
2.35
1.30
20.1
1.6
1.97

0.28
0.04
0.1
0.04
340
12
26
21
15
175
92
38
13
10
5
<5
19.5
4.20
0.01
99.6

ign. : ignimbrite, palaeo. : palaeosol, sandst. : sandstone, cong. : conglomerate

features and micromorphological images using polarizedlight microscopy and scanning electron microscopy.
6.3. SEM determinations
SEM observations reveal that rod-like and nodular
volcanic glass can be generally characterised as devitrified,
and feldspar is highly altered (Figure 7a,b). Flaky smectite
has concentric morphology around casts that developed
by dissolution of rounded to sub-rounded volcanic glass

particles (Figure 7b,c). Authigenic smectite flakes occur as
microfracture-fillings (Figure 7d) and as cement among
relict volcanic glass shards and feldspar grains (Figure
7e). The sizes of smectite flakes generally increase from
the fracture margins toward their centres. Flaky smectite
plates are mostly edged by fan-like forms which resemble
illite (Figure 7b-f). Locally, vermiform kaolinite rims
volcanic materials, and rosette-shaped chlorite occurs as

436

coatings on volcanic glass particles and altered feldspar
grains (Figure 7g,h).
6.4. Geochemistry
The results of representative chemical analyses of samples
collected from the Araplı I, Araplı II, Akköy and Erdemli
sections are given in Table 2. These units contain major
oxides in the following ranges: Al2O3 (10.31%–18.01%);
Fe2O3 (1.74%–8.70%); SiO2 (37.42%–71.89%); and loss on
ignition (LOI) (4.60%–21.09%). Increases in LOI and claymineral content are important indicators of alteration.
The totals for Al2O3+Fe2O3 are low, and for SiO2 high in
the lacustrine-sediment samples relative to the Cemilköy,
Gördeles and Tahar ignimbrite samples. These values reflect
abundant smectite associated with quartz in the lacustrine
deposits, and with kaolinite in these ignimbrites. Sample
A2.1, collected from clay levels of lacustrine deposits in


KADİR et al. / Turkish J Earth Sci
Table 2. (continued).

Major Oxides/
Trace Elements

Tahar
ign.

Gördeles
Ign.

AK-3
sandst.

AK-4
clay

AK-6
cong.

AK-7
sandst.

AK-8
sandst.

SiO2
Al2O3
∑Fe2O3
MgO
CaO

Na2O
K2O
TiO2
P2O5
MnO
Cr2O3
Ba
Cu
Zn
Ni
Co
Sr
Zr
Ce
Y
Nb
Sc
Ta
LOI
TOT/C
TOT/S
SUM

67.4
16.7
4.6
1.79
4.19
2.86
1.85

0.47
0.11
0.07

69.3
15.02
1.77
0.55
1.53
2.70
4.24
0.33
0.06
0.03
<0.001
595
<20
40
25
<20
160
204
74
23
<10
5
<20
4.6
0.04
0.02

100.1

57.70
16.56
5.88
2.06
4.00
1.51
1.65
0.62
0.04
0.1
0.005
345
22
60
10
6
229
130
39
8
10
14
10
9.9
0.01
0.03
100.02

58.50
16.51
5.89
1.98
4.78
1.78
2.11
0.61
0.04
0.1
0.005
390
23
75
8
13
271
110
36
8
10
14
9
7.5
0.05
0.03
99.8

57.30
16.15

5.50
2.38
3.77
2.78
1.74
0.65
0.06
0.15
0.008
272
25
60
21
<5
150
165
40
<5
17
12
<5
9.6
0.02
0.03
100.08

37.42
11.10
3.85
1.40

21.60
1.64
1.09
0.43
0.22
0.06
0.004
260
15
42
5
<5
180
90
27
<5
8
9
8
21.9
4.30
0.02
100.7

56.72
17.13
6.04
2.29
3.52
1.58

1.62
0.63
0.05
0.12
0.04
400
38
70
20
15
240
138
30
<5
16
<5
10
10.2
0.02
0.01
99.94

389

30
363
169
16
6

100.04

claystone (w)

Continental
crust (h)

58.90
16.70
6.15
2.60
2.20
1.60
3.60
0.75
0.16
0.09
0.009
460
45
95
68
19

61.90
15.60
6.50
3.10
5.70
3.10

2.90
0.80
0.1
0.011
425
50
75
80
20

160

165

6.3

99.43

100.00

Data sources: (w) Wedepohl (1984), (h) Harris (1972)

the Araplı area, has high Ba (31011 ppm), Ni (497 ppm),
Co (40 ppm) and Cr2O3 (0.105%) values. High values of
Ba are possibly related to alteration of K-bearing phases
such as K-feldspar, mica and amphibole in the volcanic
units. Also, the presence of Ni, Co and Cr2O3 is due to
contributions from ophiolitic basement rocks.
Molecular alteration ratios and the standard
classification of palaeosols are given in Tables 3 and 4.

Correlation of the values in Table 4 suggests salting,
calcification and formation of clay minerals, alteration via
hydrolysis, and heterogeneous podzolization (leaching)
in the palaeosols. The calculation mentioned above
exhibits normal standard indicator values; this suggests
that the region has undergone continuous erosion,
resulting in normal salting, calcification and formation of
clay minerals. In contrast, these values are higher in the

central part of the CVP. Thus, erosion at the margins of
the CVP (for example, in the Araplı area) may result in
accumulation in the central part of the region (Gürel &
Kadir 2006).
7. Discussion
The Late Miocene (11–3 Ma ago) was characterized by
catastrophic explosive volcanic eruptions in Cappadocia,
central Anatolia. These eruptions resulted in local
deposition of voluminous pyroclastic flows, such as
ignimbrites, forming the Nevşehir Plateau, which is
famous for its scenic erosional landscape. Palaeosols
are most abundant in the Araplı, Akköy and Erdemli
sections. Furthermore, prevalence of clay minerals in
the Mustafapaşa member and palaeosols of the CVP also
suggest a cyclical system of sedimentation. On the basis

437


KADİR et al. / Turkish J Earth Sci

2.95

3.77
3.65
3.21
3.34

10

15

20

25

2.52
35

30

3.18 fds

2.28 qtz
2.12 qtz
1.98 qtz

30
40
º2 CuK

1.54
1.48

20

powder

1.81 qtz

10

3 . 0 3 c al
2.83
2.56 smc

10 ill
8.4 amph
7.12 chl
6.42 fds
5 ill

4.48 smc + ill
4.26 qtz
4.04

14.9 smc

3.34 qtz

5

5.01 ill
4.53
4.26 qtz 4.09 op
4.05 op
3.76 fds
3.64 fds
3.34 qtz
3.22 fds
3.18 fds
2.95
2.84

6.45 fds

7.26 chl

oriented
air-dried

10 ill

14.9 smc

8.4
7.20
6.45

4.84

2.94

3.76

ethylene-glycol
solvated

4.09
4.05

17.1 smc

6.50

4.51

10.04

heated to 550 °C

50

60

Figure 6. X-ray diffraction patterns of smectite-rich palaeosol
sample (A2-6). smc: smectite, ill: illite, chl: chlorite, fds: feldspar,
qtz: quartz, op: opal-CT, amph: amphibole, cal: calcite.

of mineralogical and chemical determinations, alteration
of feldspar and glass shards in the Cemilköy and Gördeles

ignimbrites resulted in the depletion of soluble alkaline
elements (such as Ca, Na and K) from these ignimbrites
down to the Mustafapaşa member, and palaeosol levels
in the Araplı area favoured precipitation of smectite in an
alkaline environment (Grim & Güven 1978; Weaver 1989;
Chamley 1989; Christidis et al. 1995; Curtis 1983; Berner

438

& Berner 1996; Kadir & Karakaş 2002; Ziegler 2006).
Extensive erosion of basic units (such as ophiolitic rocks,
marbles and vitric ignimbrites) resulted in leaching of basic
ions and enhancement of Al+Fe/Si-favouring precipitation
of smectite±illite±chlorite and, locally, kaolinite.
However, leaching of Ca, Na and K in ignimbrites
and enhancement of Al+Fe/Si-favoured precipitation of
kaolinite under acidic conditions developed in a welldrained system (for example, see Curtis 1983; Berner &
Berner 1996; Kadir & Karakaş 2002; Ziegler 2006; Ece &
Schroeder 2007; Ece et al. 2008; Kadir & Akbulut 2009).
Conversely, palaeosol of the Erdemli area consists of
smectite±illite±chlorite. Thus, caliche and carbonate levels
are absent in the Araplı and Erdemli areas, and crop out
in only one level in the northern part of the CVP (Gürel
& Kadir 2006). The coexistence of smectite with accessory
illite in both the Araplı and Erdemli areas can be explained
by the release of K and Al during desorption of feldspar
and amphibole (Erhenberg 1991; Meunier & Velde 2004;
Kadir et al. 2008). Micromorphologically, development of
smectite flakes rimmed by fibrous illite in microfractures
and as cement between relicts of volcanic materials, and

rosette-like chlorite and vermiform kaolinite edging
volcanic components, suggest an authigenic mode of
formation for these clay minerals, which developed via a
dissolution-precipitation mechanism.
Additionally, higher Ni, Co and Cr2O3 values in the
mudstone samples of the Mustafapaşa member and
palaeosol levels, the presence of iron oxide and partially
chloritized pyroxene and hornblende, along with ophiolitic
and metamorphic grains, indicate that the basin was also
affected by the ophiolite and metamorphic basement
rocks with respect to sediment supply. This interpretation
suggests that the Araplı area in the southern part of the
CVP was eroded, and that the present-day Erdemli area
in the northern part of the CVP was more proximal to a
shallow-lake depositional environment.
The predominance of smectite and, locally, kaolinite
associated with accessory chlorite, feldspar, quartz and
opal-CT may indicate that smectitization + kaolinization
± illitization developed by release of Al + Fe ± K during
excess desorption of feldspar, hornblende and pyroxene.
Mineralogical zonation, such as increase in smectite in
the Araplı area in the southern part of the CVP, in contrast
to an increase in illite coexisting with smectite to the north
in the Akköy and Erdemli areas, was controlled by physicochemical environmental conditions. Release northward
of soluble elements, such as K, Ca, and Na, resulted in
conversion of smectite to illite via dissolution-precipitation
under alkaline conditions. A similar hydrological open
system has also been reported for sediments and soils
of Lake Kinneret and its watershed, and distribution
of sediments in Lake Chad (central Africa), revealing

KADİR et al. / Turkish J Earth Sci

smectite + illite

smectite + illite
volcanic glass

a

volcanic glass

b

10 um

5 um

illite
illite
smectite

smectite

c

d

5 um

5 um

illite
illite
smectite

smectite

e

volcanic glass
5 um

f

2 um

chlorite
kaolinite
volcanic glass
volcanic glass

g

10 um

h

30 um

Figure 7. SEM images of: a,b. devitrified volcanic glass rimmed alteration product (E-8, E-6);
c. concentric development of smectite+illite around casts left by removal of nodular volcanic
glass (E-8); d-f. development of smectite+illite along microfractures and as cement between
relict precursors (?) in palaeosol (E-6, E-8); g. vermiform kaolinite rimming devitrified
volcanic glass (A2-6); h. in situ formation of chlorite coatings on volcanic materials (A1-8).

439


KADİR et al. / Turkish J Earth Sci
Table 3. Standard indicator of palaeosol based on classification and geochemistry
Molar Ratio

Indicator

Normal Value

Strong Effect

Na2O/K2O

salting

<1

>1

CaO+MgO/Al2O3

calcification

<2

>10

Al2O3/SiO2

formation of clays

0.1-0.3

>0.3

Al2O3/CaO+MgO+Na2O+K2O

hydrolization

<2

>100

Ba/Sr

podzolization (leaching)

~2

>10

(Soil Survey Staff 1992).

leaching of alkaline elements basin-ward in both lakes
(Chamley 1989).
Our results suggest that rocks in the Araplı, Yeşilhisar,
Akköy and Erdemli sections developed as a result of
particular palaeoclimatic effects on non-marine sediments
during the Late Miocene. These sediments preserve
records of the climatic history of the Late Miocene to Early
Pliocene in central Anatolia, including the time interval
of the Messinian crisis that led to the evaporation of the
Mediterranean Sea. During these climatic conditions,
palaeosols developed. The gradational contacts between

palaeosols and ignimbrite beds and the presence of root
imprints and gastropod fossils in the palaeosols reveal
that these materials developed in situ, except for the
conglomerates and sandstones, which are reworked and
have been transported great distances. The palaeosols
exhibit a mature character that developed during a
hiatus in sedimentation, controlled both climatically
and topographically-geomorphologically, and by sourcerock type and time of soil processing. In contrast, poorly
to moderately developed palaeosol (in the study area,
entisol, inceptisol and andisol) formed during periods

Table 4. Molecular alteration ratios of samples.
Na2O/K2O

CaO+MgO/Al2O3

Al2O3/SiO2

Al2O3/CaO+MgO
+Na2O+K2O

Ba/Sr

A2-1

0.62

0.26

0.24

2.53

307

Cemilköy

0.41

0.09

0.17

1.83

8.87

A2-3

0.44

0.14

0.30

3.53

3.56

A2-5

0.18

0.19

0.30

3.10

2.22

A2-5

0.59

0.18

0.29

2.58

2.64

A2-6

0.5

0.17

0.32

3.29

1.86

Gördeles

0.63

0.13

0.21

1.66

3.71

A1-8

0.53

0.21

0.28

2.37

2.02

E-1

0.97

0.35

0.27

1.74

1.37

E-2

0.74

0.35

0.26

1.59

1.92

E-3

0.66

0.29

0.24

1.85

2.89

E-4

0.81

2.07

0.24

0.41

1.94

Tahar

1.54

0.35

0.24

1.56

1.07

Gördeles

0.63

0.13

0.21

1.66

3.71

AK-3

0.91

0.36

0.28

1.79

1.50

AK-4

0.84

0.40

0.28

1.55

1.43

AK-6

1.59

0.38

0.28

1.51

1.81

AK-7

1.50

2.07

0.29

0.43

1.44

AK-8

0.97

0.33

0.30

1.90

1.66

Sample #

440

KADİR et al. / Turkish J Earth Sci
of sedimentation because sedimentation prevents the
development of mature soils (vertisol and aridisols; Soil
Taxonomy Soil Survey Staff 1975, 1998; after Retallack
1991, 1993; Wright 1992; Kraus 1999); thus, these
palaeosols indicate lengthy episodes of landscape stability
and mark stratigraphic unconformities. Palaeosols record
a complex interplay between non-deposition, erosion and
sedimentation in this region.
8. Conclusion
1.
Eight lithofacies, namely the Erdemisin agglomerate,
Yeşilhisar conglomerate, conglomerate, sandstone,
mudstone, ignimbrite, fallout and palaeosol,
have been distinguished within the Late Miocene
sediments of the Araplı and Erdemli areas.
2.
Palaeosols are prevalent in the study area and are
classified as poorly to moderately mature, and
mature-type developed palaeosols. Palaeosols also
contain scattered pumice pebbles; conversely, in
near surface areas, mature palaeosols with root
zones, and subsurface clayey, sesquioxide-rich
zones developed. Overbank deposits proximal to
palaeochannels have more preserved bedding and
less mature palaeosols, and pedogenic disruption
of bedding and palaeosol maturity increase away
from channels toward more distal floodplain
settings.
3.

Sedimentological, mineralogical and geochemical
results reveal that chemical alteration of feldspar
and volcanic glass shards during and following
sediment deposition of the Mustafapaşa member,
and formation of altered levels of the Cemilköy
ignimbrite, resulted in the formation of smectite
(related to ultramafic units) in the lower basic level,

4.

5.

6.

and kaolinite in an acidic environment in the upper
level; this situation is an important indicator of
alternating dry and wet periods.
The upper level of the stratigraphic section,
between the Gördeles and Kızılkaya ignimbrites,
is represented by authigenic smectite+illite
coexisting
with
feldspar+quartz+opalCT+amphibole±serpentine.
High values of Ba, Ni, Co and Cr2O3 in the samples
record contributions from the ophiolitic basement
units, and the presence of high Ba values is possibly
related to alteration of K-bearing phases, such as
K-feldspar, mica and amphibole in the volcanic
material.
The erosion of ophiolitic and metamorphic

basement units and vitric ignimbrite in the Araplı
area (southern part of the CVP) resulted in 1) the
leaching of ions controlled by northward palaeoflow
and 2) the enrichment in Al+Fe/Si, thus favouring
precipitation of prevalent smectite proximal to
the shallow-lake depositional environment of the
Erdemli area (northern part of the CVP). Leaching
of Ca northward resulted in the absence of caliche
and carbonate levels in the Araplı and Erdemli
areas.

Acknowledgements
This study was supported financially by the Scientific
and Technical Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK)
in the framework of Project No. 104Y070. The authors
are indebted to the anonymous reviewers and the editors
for their extremely careful and constructive reviews,
comments and suggestions which significantly improved
the quality of the paper.

References
Bellanca, A., Calvo, J.P., Censi, P., Neri, R. & Pozo, M. 1992.
Recognition of lake-level changes in Miocene lacustrine units,
Madrid Basin, Spain. Evidence from facies analysis, isotope
geochemistry and clay mineralogy. Sedimentary Geology 76,
135-153.
Berner, E.K. & Berner, R.A. 1996. Global Environment: Water, Air,
and Geochemical Cycles, 376 pp.
Berrocoso, A.J., Zuluaga, M.C. & Elorza, J. 2008. Diagenesis,
paleoclimate and tectono-sedimentary influences on clay

mineralogy and stable isotopes from Upper Cretaceous
marine successions of the Basque-Cantabrian Basin (N Spain).
Cretaceous Research 29, 386-404.
Brindley, G.W. 1980. Quantitative X-ray analysis of clays. In: Brindley,
G.W. & Brown, G. (eds), Crystal Structures of Clay Minerals and
their X-ray Identification. Mineralogical Society Monograph 5,
London. Pp. 411-438.

Chamley, H. 1989. Clay Sedimentology, Springer Verlag, New York,
623 pp.
Christidis, G., Scott, P.W. & Marcopoulast, T. 1995. Origin of the
bentonite deposits of Eastern Milos and Kimalos, Greece:
geology, geological, mineralogical and geochemical evidence.
Clays and Clay Minerals 43, 63-77.
Curtis, C.D. 1983. Link between aluminium mobility and destruction
of secondary porosity. Bulletin of the American Association of
Petroleum Geologists 67, 380-384.
Ece, O.I. & Schroeder, P.A. 2007. Clay mineralogy and chemistry of
halloysite and alunite deposits in the Turplu area, Balikesir,
Turkey. Clays and Clay Minerals 55, 18-35.
Ece, Ö.I., Schroeder, P.A., Smilley, M. & Wampler, M. 2008. Acidsulfate alteration of volcanic rocks and genesis of halloysite
and alunite deposits in the Biga Peninsula, NW Turkey. Clay
Minerals 43, 281-315.

441


KADİR et al. / Turkish J Earth Sci
Ehrmann, W., Setti, M. & Marioni, L. 2005. Clay minerals in Cenozoic
sediments of Cape Roberts (McMurdo Sound, Antarctica)

reveal paleoclimatic history. Paleogeography, Paleoclimatology,
Paleoecology 229, 187-211.
Erhenberg, S.N. 1991. Kaolinized, potassium-leached zones at
the contacts of the Garn Formation, Haltenbanken, midNorwegian continental shelf. Marine and Petroleum Geology
8, 250-269.
Ertek, N. & Öner, F. 2008. Mineralogy, geochemistry of altered tuff
from Cappadocia (Central Anatolia) and its use as potential
raw material for manufacturing of white cement. Applied Clay
Science 42, 300-309.
Göncüoğlu, M.C. & Toprak, V. 1992. Neogene and Quaternary
volcanism of Central Anatolia: a volcano structural evolution.
Bulletin de la Section de Volcanologie, Société Géologique de
France 26, 1-6.
Grim, R.E. & Güven, N. 1978. Bentonites, Geology, Mineralogy,
Properties and Uses. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 13-137.
Gürel, A. & Kadir, S. 2006. Geology, mineralogy and origin of clay
minerals of the Pliocene fluvial-lacustrine deposits in the
Cappadocian Volcanic Province, Central Anatolia, Turkey.
Clays and Clay Minerals 54, 555-570.
Gürel, A. & Kadir, S. 2008. Geology and mineralogy of Late Miocene
clayey sediments in the southeastern part of the Central
Anatolian Volcanic Province, Turkey. Clays and Clay Minerals
56, 307-321.
Harris, P., 1972. The composition of the Earth. In: Smith, P.J. &
Wilson, R.C.L. (eds) Understanding the Earth, de Gass. Artemis
Press, United Kingdom, pp. 53-68.
Innocenti, F., Mazzuoli, R., Pasquare, G., Radicati Di Brozolo, F. &
Villari, L. 1975. The Neogene Calc-Alkaline Volcanism of
central Anatolia: Geochronological data on Kayseri-Niğde
area. Geological Magazine 112, 349-360.

Kadir, S. & Karakaş, Z. 2002. Mineralogy, chemistry and origin of
halloysite, kaolinite and smectite from Miocene ignimbrites,
Konya, Turkey. Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie, Abhandlungen
177, 113-132.
Kadir, S., Baş, H. & Karakaş, Z. 2002. Origin of sepiolite and
loughlinite in a Neogene volcano-sedimentary lacustrine
environment, Mihalỗỗk-Eskiehir, Turkey. The Canadian
Mineralogist 40, 1091-1102.

Le Pennec, J.-L., Temel, A., Froger, J.-L., Sen, S., Gourgaud, A. &
Bourdier, J.-L. 2005. Stratigraphy and age of Cappadocia
ignimbrites, Turkey: reconciling field constraints with
paleontologic,
radiochronologic,
geochemical
and
paleomagnetic data. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal
Research 141, 45-64.
Lepetit, P. & Viereck-Goette, L. 2007. Paleosols in Cappadocia
– Archives of ecosystem changes in the Late Neogene
Goldschmidt Conference Abstracts, A561.
Meunier, A. & Velde, B. 2004. Illite, origin, evolution and
metamorphism. Springer- Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York,
286 pp.
Miall, A.D. 1996. The geology of fluvial deposits. Sedimentary facies,
basin analysis, and petroleum geology, Springer, 582 pp.
Moore, D.M. & Reynolds, R.C. 1989. X-ray Diffraction and the
Identification and Analysis of Clay Minerals. Oxford University
Press, Oxford, 332 pp.
Pasquaré, G. 1968. Geology of the Cenozoic volcanic area of Central

Anatolia. Atti Della Reale Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei
VIII., IX, 55-204, Roma.
Pasquaré, G., Poli, S., Vezzoli, L. & Zanchi, A. 1988. Continental arc
volcanism and tectonic setting in Central Anatolia, Turkey.
Tectonophysics 146, 127-230.
Prudêncio, M.I., Sequeira Braga, M.A., Paquet, H., Waerenborg,
J.C., Pereira, L.C.J. & Gouveia, M.A. 2002. Clay mineral
assemblages in weathered basalt profiles from central and
southern Portugal: climatic significance. Catena 49, 77-89.
Retallack, G.J. 1988. Field recognition of paleosols. In: Reinhardt
J., and Sigleo W.R. (eds), Paleosols and weathering through
geologic time techniques and applications. Geological Society of
America, Special Paper 216, 1-20.
Retallack, G.J. 1991. Untangling the effects of burial alteration and
ancient soil formation. Annual Review of Earth and Planetry
Sciences. 19, 183–206.
Retallack, G.J. 1993. Classification of paleosols: discussion and reply.
Geological Society of America Bulletin 105, 1635–1636.
Schumacher, R. & Mues-Schumacher, U. 1997. The pre-ignimbrite
(phreato) plinian and phreatomagmatic phases of the AkdagZelve ignimbrite eruption in Central Anatolia, Turkey.
Volcanology and Geothermal Research 78, 139-153.
Siesser, W.G. 1973. Diagenetically formed ooids and intraclasts in
South African calcretes. Sedimentology 20, 539-551.

Kadir, S., Önen-Hall, P., Aydın, S.N., Yakicier, C., Akarsu, N. &
Tuncer, M. 2008. Environmental effect and genetic influence: a
regional cancer predisposition survey in the Zonguldak region
of Northwest Turkey. Environmental Geology 54, 391-409.

Singer, A. 1984. The paleoclimatic interpretation of clay minerals in

sediments – a review. Earth-Science Reviews 21, 251-293.

Kadir, S. & Akbulut, A. 2009. Mineralogy, geochemistry and genesis
of the Taşoluk kaolinite deposits in pre-Early Cambrian
metamorphites and Neogene volcanites of Afyonkarahisar,
Turkey. Clay Minerals 44, 89-112.

Soil Survey Staff 1992. Keys to soil taxonomy. SMSS Technical
Monograph No. 19, 5th edition, Pocahontas Press Inc.,
Blacksburg, 556 pp.

Kraus, M.J. 1999. Paleosols in clastic sedimentary rocks: their
geologic applications. Earth Science Reviews 47, 41-70.

442

Soil Survey Staff 1975. Soil taxonomy. U.S. Department of Agriculture
Handbook 436, 754 pp.

Soil Survey Staff 1998. Keys to Soil Taxonomy, 8th edition, U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation
Service, 327 p.


KADİR et al. / Turkish J Earth Sci
Temel, A. 1992. Kapadokya eksplozif volkanizmasının petrolojik ve
jeokimyasal Özellikleri. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Ph.D thesis, 208
pp. (in Turkish with English abstract).
Temel, A., Gündoğdu, M.N., Gourgaud, A. & Le Pennec, J.–L.
1998. Ignimbrites of Cappadocia (central Anatolia, Turkey):

petrology and geochemistry. Journal of Volcanology and
Geothermal Research 85, 447-471.
Thiry, M. 2000. Paleoclimatic interpretation of clay minerals in
marine deposits: an outlook from the continental origin.
Earth-Science Reviews 49, 201-221.
Toprak, V. 1998. Vent distribution and its relation to regional
tectonics, Cappadocian Volcanics, Turkey. Journal of
Volcanology and Geothermal Research 85, 55-67.

Weaver, C.E. 1989. Clays, muds, and shales. Developments in
Sedimentology 44, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 819 pp.
Wedepohl, K.H. 1984. Die Zusammenzetzung der oberen Erdkruste
und natürlicher Kreislauf ausgewaelter Metalle. Metalle in der
Unwelt (E. Merian, ed). Verlag Chemie, Weinheim, Germany,
856 pp.
Wright, V.P. 1992. Paleosol recognition; a guide to early diagenesis in
terrestrial settings. In: Wolf, K.H. & Chilingarian, G.V. (eds),
Diagenesis III. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 591–619.
Ziegler, K. 2006. Clay minerals of the Permian Rotliegend Group in
the North Sea and adjacent areas. Clay Minerals 41, 355-393.

Viereck-Goette, L., Lepetit, P., Gürel, A., Ganskow, G., Çopuroğlu,
İ, & Abratis, M. 2010, Revised volcanostratigraphy of the
Upper Miocene to Lower Pliocene Ürgüp Formation, Central
Anatolian volcanic province, Turkey. Geological Society of
America, Special Papers 464, 85–112.

443