Food security threat factors, policies and challenges

FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

FOOD SECURITY
THREAT FACTORS, POLICIES
AND CHALLENGES

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FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

FOOD SECURITY
THREAT FACTORS, POLICIES
AND CHALLENGES

JONATHAN WEBB

EDITOR


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CONTENTS
Preface
Chapter 1

Chapter 2

Chapter 3

Chapter 4

vii
The Role of Cassava Production in Improving
Food Security in the Delta State of Nigeria
Bonaventure C. Onodu and Richard J. Culas
An Assessment of Rural Women’s Use of

Information and Communication Technologies
for Food Security Information in
the Niger Delta, Nigeria
Ifeoma Q. Anugwa, Agwu E. Agwu, Jane M. Chah
and Cynthia E. Nwobodo
Women Food-Crop Entrepreneurs in
Southwestern Cameroon: Challenges to
Promoting National Food Security
Lotsmart Fonjong
The Contribution of Diaspora Remittances to
Household Food Security in the Tsholotsho
District, Zimbabwe
Thomas Marambanyika and Clara Ndlovu

1

35

49

75


vi
Chapter 5

Contents
Rice Food Security in the Pearl River Delta, China:
A Case Study
Junhui Li, Lin Zhang, Ying Lu, Chongjian Jia and

Hojae Shim

97

Bibliography

115

Index

267


PREFACE
The 20th century saw the most rapid and most dramatic agricultural
transformation in human history. Science-based agriculture brought about many
changes on the farm that transformed agriculture from subsistence to a more
productive and profitable modern industrial based agriculture. Cassava is one of
the main sources of world carbohydrate with Africa recognized as the highest
producing continent and Nigeria as the highest producing country. Chapter One
conducted an investigation in Nigeria to find out the variable inputs that affects
the output of cassava farming households. Chapter Two assesses rural women’s
level of use of information and communication technologies for food security
information in the oil rich Niger Delta. Chapter Three explores the changing
socio-economic environment of food production in Cameroon and its
implications on food security. Chapter Four discusses the contribution of
diaspora remittances to household food security in in Zimbabwe. Chapter Five
focuses on rice food security in the Pearl River Delta of China, and demonstrates
that the joint application of silicon and phosphorus fertilizers is an appropriate
option to minimize arsenic accumulation in rice grain.

Chapter 1 - The 20th century saw the most rapid and most dramatic
agricultural transformation in human history. Science-based agriculture brought
about many changes on the farm that transformed agriculture from subsistence
to a more productive and profitable modern industrial based agriculture.
Cassava is one of the main sources of world carbohydrate with Africa
recognized as the highest producing continent and Nigeria as the highest
producing country. Cassava provides food security as it can be grown on less
fertile soils, it is a source of income for farmers and provides food for many
household. An investigation was conducted in Ndokwa West Local Government
Area of Delta state Nigeria to find out the variable inputs that affects the output


viii

Jonathan Webb

of cassava farming households. Estimation from a linear regression model,
evidence from primary data collected at the study area, reveals that inputs such
as planting materials and labour significantly affect cassava production. These
findings indicate that as the amount of planting materials and labour utilized by
the farmer’s increases, cassava production also increases. The primary data was
also analyzed in relation to the socioeconomic characteristics of cassava
producing households. These empirical analyses can help to highlight the
policies required for improving cassava production in Delta State of Nigeria.
The rate of food insecurity in Nigeria has been increasing due to lack of
economic access to food either directly or indirectly. Evidences show that
inappropriate agricultural policies and programs by governments in Nigeria
have been the contributing factors to the rate of food insecurity. The
improvement in food production resulting in an increase in food security
requires consistent improvement in labour productivity and yield. These will

hence have a positive impact on the socioeconomic wellbeing of smallholder
farmers. Therefore understanding the relationship between cassava production,
farm income and food security is important for designing appropriate
intervention strategies.
Chapter 2 - Information and communications technologies (ICTs) represent
an important strategy that can be used by rural women in attaining food security.
This study therefore assesses rural women’s level of use of information and
communication technologies for food security information in the oil rich Niger
Delta, Nigeria. A total of 120 rural women farmers were selected using the
multi-stage sampling technique. Structured interview schedules were
administered to them. Data collected were analyzed using frequency, mean
scores, percentage and multiple regression. Results of the study revealed that
40% of the respondents had access to food security information through various
ICTs. Findings also showed that radio was the most used source of food security
information (50.0%) by the women relative to television (39.6%) and mobile
phone (10.4%). A regression analysis between the personal and socio-economic
characteristics of the women and use of ICTs revealed that marital status (t = 2.880; p = 0.043), household size (t = 2.902; p = 0.035) and educational status
(t = 2.157; p = 0.053) significantly influenced rural women’s use of ICTs for
food security information. The respondents further indicated that poor income
(M = 1.60) among others were perceived constraints to the use of ICT among
rural women. The study therefore recommends that concerted efforts should be
made by extension agents to ensure that women-specific programmes are
broadcasted on television and radio so as to help them get the needed
information to improve their household food security situation.


Preface

ix

Chapter 3 - Cameroon’s high agricultural potential makes of it the
breadbasket of the Central-African sub-region. However, recent events, and
especially the 2008 food crisis, have all but damaged that image. In the absence
of an active, supportive agricultural policy environment, food production is
threatened, especially as agricultural land and labor, respectively, opt for
opportunities that offer higher rents and wages. The burden of doing much with
little to meet the growing internal and external food demands falls on women
who are also constrained by their reproductive role. This chapter explores the
changing socio-economic environment of food production in Cameroon and its
implications on food security. It examines the emerging phenomenon of women
food-crop entrepreneurs, locally known as buyam-sellam, and underlines the
difficulties caused by inadequate state attention to agriculture and how women
have taken up the challenge. While highlighting some of the success stories of
these food-crop entrepreneurs, the chapter underscores some of their limitations
in achieving food security without a clear macroeconomic policy framework
that is committed to protecting women, fighting poverty and hunger, and
guaranteeing national food security.
Chapter 4 - Zimbabwe has been experiencing economic crisis since the turn
of the 21st century, resulting in most economically active people mainly in the
southern districts, including Tsholotsho, migrating to surrounding countries in
the SADC region, especially South Africa. Despite the prevailing semi-arid
conditions affecting predominantly rain-fed agriculture being worsened by the
apparent effects of climate change, human movements further disrupted food
security strategies which local communities were accustomed to. Therefore, this
paper assessed the contribution of diaspora remittances to household food
security in Ward 19 Chefunye, Tsholotsho district in Zimbabwe. Data were
collected through a questionnaire targeting a total of one hundred and twentyfour households receiving and not receiving remittances and key informant
interviews with development partners, government departments and local
leadership. A comparison of the extent to which remittances receiving and nonreceiving households were stabilizing the key aspects of food security, that is,
availability, access and utilization was done. The results revealed that

households receiving remittances were more food secure as shown by higher
number of meals consumed (p = 0.010) and dietary diversity. These households,
other than using remittances money to purchase food, managed to invest some
of the money in the construction of a dam for irrigation, adoption of drought
tolerant small grains and the purchase of livestock, strategies which further
contributed towards attainment of sustainable household food security.
Households not receiving remittances also benefited from loans, piece jobs and


x

Jonathan Webb

food availed by remittances-dependent households. However, the contributions
of remittances at household level vary depending on inflow frequency and
channel used. Most people are currently using informal channels (such as
omalayitsha, bus drivers and individuals) associated with high risk of loss and
delays. The current modes of remitting are necessitated by high costs and distant
locations of formal channels. Therefore, low-cost, accessible, efficient and
secure channels to remit resources to rural areas should be established if
optimum food security benefits are to be obtained from remittances.
Chapter 5 - China’s Pearl River Delta has become the largest urban area in
the world in both size and population according to the World Bank Group. Rice
(Oryza sativa) serves as the major staple food for people in Pearl River Delta.
Unfortunately, rice is particularly vulnerable to the arsenic (As) uptake and
accumulation compared to other cereal crops, thus posing a potential health
threat to populations with high rice consumption. The development of potential
strategies to reduce As accumulation in rice grains is of great importance. Two
soil pot experiments were conducted by using joint phosphorus (P) and silicon
(Si) fertilization with soil and foliar applications to alleviate As accumulation in

rice grown in As-spiked soil. The results indicated that soil fertilization
generally increased rice biomass, whereas foliar fertilization generally
decreased rice biomass. Regardless of soil and foliar applications, Si and/or P
fertilizers reduced As accumulation in rice grain by an average of 22% and 22%,
respectively, compared to no fertilizer treatment. This study demonstrated that
joint application of Si and P fertilizers, regardless of soil and foliar application,
is appropriate option to minimize As accumulation in rice grain although foliar
application may result in loss of rice yield.


In: Food Security
Editor: Jonathan Webb

ISBN: 978-1-53612-248-0
© 2017 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 1

THE ROLE OF CASSAVA PRODUCTION IN
IMPROVING FOOD SECURITY IN THE
DELTA STATE OF NIGERIA
Bonaventure C. Onodu and Richard J. Culas†
School of Agricultural and Wine Sciences,
Charles Sturt University, Orange NSW, Australia

ABSTRACT
The 20th century saw the most rapid and most dramatic agricultural
transformation in human history. Science-based agriculture brought about
many changes on the farm that transformed agriculture from subsistence to
a more productive and profitable modern industrial based agriculture.

Cassava is one of the main sources of world carbohydrate with Africa
recognized as the highest producing continent and Nigeria as the highest
producing country. Cassava provides food security as it can be grown on
less fertile soils, it is a source of income for farmers and provides food for
many household. An investigation was conducted in Ndokwa West Local
Government Area of Delta state Nigeria to find out the variable inputs that
affects the output of cassava farming households. Estimation from a linear
regression model, evidence from primary data collected at the study area,


Bonaventure C. Onodu: School of Agricultural and Wine Sciences, Charles Sturt University,
PO Box 883, Orange NSW 2800, Australia. E-mail:
†
Richard J. Culas: School of Agricultural and Wine Sciences, Charles Sturt University,
PO Box 883, Orange NSW 2800, Australia. e-mail:


2

Bonaventure C. Onodu and Richard J. Culas
reveals that inputs such as planting materials and labour significantly affect
cassava production. These findings indicate that as the amount of planting
materials and labour utilized by the farmer’s increases, cassava production
also increases. The primary data was also analyzed in relation to the
socioeconomic characteristics of cassava producing households. These
empirical analyses can help to highlight the policies required for improving
cassava production in Delta State of Nigeria. The rate of food insecurity in
Nigeria has been increasing due to lack of economic access to food either
directly or indirectly. Evidences show that inappropriate agricultural
policies and programs by governments in Nigeria have been the

contributing factors to the rate of food insecurity. The improvement in food
production resulting in an increase in food security requires consistent
improvement in labour productivity and yield. These will hence have a
positive impact on the socioeconomic wellbeing of smallholder farmers.
Therefore understanding the relationship between cassava production,
farm income and food security is important for designing appropriate
intervention strategies.

Keywords: cassava production, productivity, food security, farm income,
socioeconomic factors, cassava-value chain, Delta State of Nigeria

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. An Overview of Global Cassava Production
The 20th century saw the most rapid and most dramatic agricultural
transformation in human history. Science-based agriculture brought about rapid
changes that transformed agriculture from a subsistence nature with the use of
crude implements to a more productive and profitable industrial based
agriculture. As production in agriculture continues to improve and farmers’
succeeds in their various agricultural activities in terms of income generated
from their various activities, many were motivated to specialize in particular
crops or livestock products (Ajijola et al., 2012).
Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) one of the plants of interest to many
tropical farmers is a perennial woody shrub of the Euphorbiaceae (spurge)
family which produces edible roots and leaves (Gaffney et al., 2012). The genus
Manihot comprises 98 species of which M. esculenta is the mostly widely
cultivated (Chandrasekara and Kumar, 2016). The origin of cassava has been
traced to Latin America where its cultivation by the indigenous Indian
population has been recorded for over 4000 years, it is widely cultivated as an

The Role of Cassava Production in Improving Food Security …

3

annual crop in the tropical and subtropical regions for its edible starchy tuberous
root and sometimes its leaves (Akinpelu et al., 2011). Cassava is mainly suited
under the range of climatic conditions between 300N and 300S latitude, growing
in regions from sea level to 2300 mm altitude, usually in areas where other crops
may not thrive well (Oluwole, 2015). In Africa cassava is a good source of
carbohydrate in daily diet (Akinpelu et al., 2011). The global utilization of
cassava as food and as industrial raw material varies according to region. In
Africa cassava is mainly grown for food, in Asia it is produced mainly as a raw
material for industries such as for the production of ethanol; while in Latin
America and the Caribbean it is mainly grown and used for animal feed
(Gaffney et al., 2012). Globally, cassava is regarded as a multipurpose crop with
numerous uses and by products (Ogunniyi, 2011). In some part of the world
cassava leaves are used as vegetable in human diet or dried and fed to livestock
as a protein supplement. The stem is used for vegetative propagation while the
roots are processed for human, animal and industrial consumption.
Cassava cultivation is dominated by smallholder farmers in more than 100
tropical and subtropical countries who use less than 2 hectares of land for
production (Oluwole, 2015). The ability of cassava to utilize water and soil
nutrients efficiently, being able to withstand drought and pests/diseases, use low
or no inputs such as fertilizer and still produce reasonable yields make it one of
the main staple food crops recognized for food security (FAO, 2000). The main
nutritional value of cassava is carbohydrates but it contains some vitamins such
as calcium, vitamins B and C, and essential minerals (Sanni, et al., 2009).
Despite the enormous nutritional value of cassava, it contains harmful substance
called cyanogenic glucoside. All cassava organs except the seeds contain
cynogenic glucoside (CG), the most abundant (CG) is linamarin (85%) with less

amount of lotaustralin (Alves, 2002), cultivars with less than 100 mg kg-1 fresh
weight (FW) are called “sweet” cassava while cultivars with 100-150 mg kg-1
are “bitter” cassava. The harmful substance in cassava is very poisonous but can
be reduced to harmless level during processing using different processing
methods. However, nutrient composition in cassava differs according to variety
and age of the harvested crop, soil conditions, climate, and other environmental
factors during cultivation (Montagnac et al., 2009).
Although there was continuous growth recorded in global food production
yet sub-Saharan Africa is the only region that is still ravaged by the menace of
hunger for the past three decades (Eme, et al., 2014). The focus of many
researchers in agriculture has been to make food available, accessible and
affordable to ensure adequate daily supply of calories for people all over the
world (Safwan and Mohammed, 2016). In sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), root and


4

Bonaventure C. Onodu and Richard J. Culas

tuber crops are the main contributor of the nutritional value in people daily diet,
accounting for about 50% of the total staple food consumed (Safwan and
Mohammed, 2016). Cassava is regarded as a staple crop that is essential for food
security, not only because it can be grown on less productive land, but because
it is a source of income for producers and generally a low cost source of food
for consumers (Plucknett et al., 2000). The global harvest recorded in cassava
in 2012 was more than 280 million tonnes, a 60 percent increase since 2000
(FAO, 2013). For many decades the average percentage increase in production
has been 2.2 percent per annum, this increase in growth has been attributed to
the increase in area of planting rather than an increase in productivity (yield)
(Hillock, Thresh and Bellotti, 2002). Apart from food, cassava is very versatile

and its derivatives and starch are applicable in many types of products such as
foods, confectionery, sweeteners, glues, plywood, textiles, paper, biodegradable
products, and drugs (Sanni et al., 2009). A recent report by FAO in 2015 shows
that cassava has the potential to meet the needs of over 500 million farmers who
grow it, is also capable of providing the base for rural industrial development
and a higher income for producers, processors and traders through its numerous
value chains.
Almost 60 percent of the entire world cassava production is concentrated in
five countries; Nigeria, Thailand, Indonesia, Brazil and the Congo Democratic
Republic as represented in Figure 1 (FAO, 2013). Global production is
estimated at over 270 million tonnes, grown in over 20 million hectares.

Source: FAO, 2004.
Figure 1. Cassava production among the ten world leading countries.


The Role of Cassava Production in Improving Food Security …

5

Table 1. Major importers of cassava products in the world

World
China
Rep of Korea
Netherlands
Spain
United states
EU-27
World

China
Chinese Taipei
Japan
Indonesia
Malaysia
EU-27
Source: FAO, 2008

Value
Share in world import
(USD(M))
(%)
Fresh and dried cassava
1060
100.0
391
36.9
201
19.0
148
13.9
69
6.5
64
6.0
343
32.4
Cassava starch
658
100.0

172
26.2
113
17.2
62
9.4
58
8.8
42
6.8
30
4.6

Unit value
(USD/ton)
228
198
224
212
246
1073
236
391
373
360
411
366
347
_

Reported by Nweke (2004) Cassava is the third most important source of
calories in the tropical Africa, after rice and maize. Majority of world trade in
cassava is in the form of pellets and chips for feed (70 percent) and the
remainder mostly in starch and flour for food processing and industrial use
(Gaffney et al., 2012). Very little is traded in the form of fresh tuber as a result
of product’s bulky and perishable nature. Thailand is the dominant supplier to
world markets, accounting for almost 80 percent of global entire trade; Vietnam
and Indonesia both have a supply share of about 8 percent; and a few Countries
in Asia, Africa and Latin America provide for the remainder. The major cassava
importing countries can be shown in Table 1; it can be inferred Table 1 that
world market for fresh and dried cassava is more than the market for starch with
a share difference of more than USD 1 billion. Only a relatively small part of
world production of cassava is traded internationally. In Nigeria more than twothird of the total cassava output is consumed as food by humans while lesser
amount is used in animal feed and for industrial purposes (Tonukari, 2004).
To boost cassava production in Nigeria and make it readily available as food
for human consumption, production of animal feed and industrial purposes, the


6

Bonaventure C. Onodu and Richard J. Culas

federal government in conjunction with International Fund for Agricultural
Development (IFAD) initiated cassava multiplication program with the purpose
of promoting cassava utilization as a commodity based approach against food
security (Iyagba and Anyanwu, 2012). This strategy has made cassava
production a major employer of rural labour and has improved the economic
wellbeing of rural communities through the generation of a stable farm income
and employment opportunities along the value chain during processing and
marketing of produced products in urban centers (Onyebinama and Onyejelem,

2010). The major debate emanating from the producers of cassava products is
that majority of the profit from cassava production and marketing are mainly
enjoyed by wholesalers, processors and retailers while farmers who perform the
main work in production make the least profit, this is not acceptable considering
the time and cost involved in cassava production.

1.2. Problem Statement
Recently, production of cassava is on the increase but not at a rate to
effectively meet the food requirements of Nigerians. Nigerian population is
increasing at the rate of 3.2 percent while food production is increasing at a rate
less than one percent, showing that food demand is greater than food supply, an
indication that Nigerian food equation is not balanced because demand is greater
than supply (Metu et al., 2016). In the 1960’s and early 1970’s Nigeria was food
self-sufficient but has recently become a net food importing nation, spending
on average of 2 billion dollars importing about six tonnes of wheat, $750
million on rice, $700 million on sugar and $500 million on milk and other dairy
products per annum (Ojo and Adebayo, 2012). In 2006, Global Index of Hunger
ranked Nigeria as the 20th among the nations being ravaged by poverty.
Notwithstanding that production is low, there is still increasing loss recorded in
agricultural post-harvest products which was attributed to inadequate processing
and storage facilities (FAO, 2011). Continuous decline in production recorded
in agricultural sector reported by Onyemauwa (2010) has resulted in tremendous
rise in food prices and an increase in import bills. The high cost of nutritious
food in Nigeria makes food inaccessible for low income households hence,
widening the gap of food insecurity. Food intake and nutritional wellbeing of
many households in Nigeria is of relative low quantity and is affected by their
low economic status. A Report by World Development Indicator in 2015 shows
that 60 percent of Nigerians live with less than USD 1.25 per day, also reported
by FAO (2011), maintaining that household food insecurity, under-nutrition and

The Role of Cassava Production in Improving Food Security …

7

micro nutrient deficiencies are found throughout Nigeria. The above statement
was affirmed by the past minister of Agriculture and Water Resources when he
said that 65 percent of Nigerians entire population is not food secured, that 40
percent of children below 5 years experienced stunted growth while 25 percent
of them are under weight (Ojo and Adebayo, 2012).
The food insecurity situation experienced throughout Nigeria has been
attributed to the inappropriate role by government in food and agriculture, which
manifests as policies that are poorly executed (Nwose, 2013). The challenges
faced in making food available and accessible to all Nigerians has been
attributed to improper funding of the agricultural sector by the government (Eme
et al., 2014). Carbohydrate food sources form the greatest percentage of daily
diet for many people around the world. In Nigeria, starchy staples (cereals,
roots/tubers) and legumes constitutes the majority of the diet consumed
traditionally (Udenta et al., 2014). For an improvement in food production in
Nigeria which will ensure food security, proper funding of agricultural projects
for consistent improvement in yield and labour productivity is required which
in turn will improve the socioeconomic infrastructures in agriculture and
upgrades the quality of human resources. The existing knowledge on food and
nutrition security in Nigeria does not offer detailed information at the household
level, which is critical for improving food and nutritional status of the citizens.
Understanding the interconnectedness between household food and nutrition
security is important to better target and design intervention strategies. The need
to critically examine the characteristics of cassava farming households to
determine the policy measures required to enhance their productivity, generate
higher income and employment as a way of making them food secured triggered

this investigation.

1.3. Objective of the Study
The main objective of this study is to examine cassava production in
Ndokwa West Local Government Area of Delta State Nigeria: implications for
farm income and food security. The specific objectives are; (i) to examine the
socio-economic characteristics of the cassava producing farmers in the study
area; (ii) to determine the factors influencing cassava production in the study
area and discuss policies and measures to improve the productivity; (iii) to
explore the opportunities to improve household income of cassava farmers from
a value chain perspective.


8

Bonaventure C. Onodu and Richard J. Culas

Section 2 of the chapter reviews contribution of cassava production in
Nigeria. The status of food security in the country is discussed in section 3.
Section 4 details the study area in Delta state of Nigeria, data and methods.
Results and discussion are presented in section 5. Section 6 presents a cassava
value chain framework and new opportunities to explore for the cassava famers,
followed by a conclusion in section 7.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Cassava Production in Nigeria
Nigeria is the largest producer of cassava in the world. Its production is
currently put at about 33.8 million metric tonnes a year. Total area harvested of
the crop in 2001 was 3.1 million hectares with an average yield of about 11
tonnes per hectare. Cassava is being regarded as the most widely cultivated crop

in the country (Omoregbee and Banmeke, 2014). It is the most important root
crop in Nigeria in terms of food security, employment creation, and income
generation for crop producing households because of its large production by
many farmers (Ugwu and Ukpabi, 2002). The demand for cassava products have
been increasing and the cultivation of cassava is expanding to areas where
cassava was not previously cultivated.
According to the report by Omodamiro et al. (2007, more than a hundred
people on daily bases utilize 500 Kcal from cassava in Nigeria. The major
portion of cassava is its starchy root, which matures to harvest within 8 to 18
months of planting, depending on cultivar and climate (Ugwu and Ukpabi,
2002). Mature cassava tuber has the capacity to remain in the soil for months
when mature but when harvested it has a shelf life of only a few days if not
treated or processed. The production of cassava as a food crop fits well into the
smallholder farming system in Nigeria because it is available all year round,
thus ensuring household food security and stable income. Production of cassava
is predominantly located in the southern and north central regions of Nigeria
(James and Faleye, 2015), however, cassava is grown in 24 out of Nigeria’s
entire 36 states (Coulibaly et al., 2014). In 1999, Nigeria produced 33 million
tonnes of cassava, while a decade later, it produced approximately 45 million
tonnes, which is almost 19% of the entire global production, with an average
yield per hectare of approximately 11 tonnes. The trends in cassava production
in Nigeria from 1990-2003 is shown in Figure 2.


The Role of Cassava Production in Improving Food Security …

9

Source: FAO, 2004.
Figure 2. Level of cassava production in Nigeria from 1990-2003.

Source: CEDP 2005 (Cassava Enterprise Development Program).
Figure 3. Production of cassava by geopolitical zones.

The data released by Cassava Enterprise Development Program (CEDP,
2005) showed that on per capita basis, North Central is the highest producing
zone at 0.72 tonnes per person in 2002, followed by south-east (0.56), southsouth (0.47), south-west (0.34), north-west (0.10) and north-east (0.01).
National per capita production of cassava is 0.32 tonnes per person. The major
cassava producing states are Imo, Ondo, Anambra, Kogi, Taraba, Cross River,
Enugu, Ogun, Benue, Delta, and Edo. The contribution to cassava production
by geo-political zones in Nigeria is presented in Figure 3. In total, the southern
states account for 64% of the entire quantity of cassava produced in Nigeria.


10

Bonaventure C. Onodu and Richard J. Culas

Investigations have confirmed that over four-fifths of the cultivable land
area in Nigeria is suitable for cassava growing (Ope-Ewu et al., 2011).
Muhammad-Lawal et al. (2013) reported that 80% of Nigerians reside in the
rural areas and they eat cassava meal at least once a day, when compared with
rice and maize, cassava has the carbohydrate content which is about 40% greater
than rice and 25% more than maize, also cassava provides a cheap source of
calories for both human and animal. The main value of cassava is the starchy
roots, but the leaves are also eaten in some places in Africa. Cassava leaves
contain about 7% protein on a fresh weight basis and 20-30% on a dry weight
bases, it can compete with soybeans in terms of protein quality and it is high in
lysine (Cock, 1985). Globally, the traditional use of cassava is changing from
primary human consumption to being processed into industrial products such as

starch, flour and pharmaceutical product. The common processed cassava
products in Nigeria includes; gari, akpu, tapioca, starch, chips, and flour.
Discoveries have shown that cassava has the potential to industrialize
Nigeria more than any other crop. According to Awoyinka (2009), Nigeria can
earn about US$5 billion per annum from cassava and its by-products making it
a key foreign exchange earner and instrument for job creation and catalyst for
development. Consumption of cassava products in Nigeria varies according to
ecological zones. Gari, a roasted granule is the main processed product from
cassava and is widely consumed in both rural and urban areas. It can be
consumed without any additional or it may be consumed with some additives
such as sugar, groundnut, fish, meat and stew. The daily consumption of cassava
per capita per day in Nigeria can be shown in the Table 2; from the consumption
pattern shown in Table 2 surprisingly urban and rural consumption are almost
equal, confirming that cassava is truly a national crop accepted and eaten
irrespective of class or status.
Table 2. Cassava consumption per capita per day in Nigeria
Grams per person per Day
National
226.93
Dry Savannah
131.16
Moist Savannah
192.37
Humid Forest Zone
284.42
Rural
239.74
Semi-urban
220.53
Urban

213.76
Source: Ministry of health and nutrition 2004 (Cited in McNulty and Oparinde, 2015)


The Role of Cassava Production in Improving Food Security …

11

Source: (DSDP, 2014).
Figure 4. Cassava production in Delta state.

2.2. Cassava Production in Delta State of Nigeria
The importance of agriculture in the overall economic development in Delta
state cannot be overemphasized. 70 percent of the entire Delta state population
depends directly or indirectly on agriculture for their livelihood and in 2012
agriculture contributed 13 percent to the state Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
(DSDP, 2014). The main agricultural products grown in Delta state of Nigeria
ranges from arable crops such as (cassava, yam and maize), tree crops and
perennial (oil palm, rubber, raffia palm and plantain and fruits and vegetables
(pineapple, citrus and tomato) (DSDP, 2014). Crop production in Delta state as
shown in Figure 4 is mainly on the upland (rain-fed) systems which accounts
for (80.4%), while the swampy (lowland) and irrigated land are 17.8% and 1.8%
respectively. Over the period from 1999-2012 there was a great increase in the
area under crop production especially in cassava where the area cultivated
increased from 72000 hectares in 1999 to 132000 hectares in 2010-2012 (DSDP,
2014). Oyiaide (1999) reported that 92% and 80% of farm families in Delta state
and Shell Petroleum Development Company operating in Delta State grew
cassava as major crop.

12

Bonaventure C. Onodu and Richard J. Culas

The reason while Shell an oil company is getting involved in cassava
production was as a part of their community development programs. An
initiative which aims at using the major staple food crops to enhance the lives
of their host communities.

2.3. Contribution of Agriculture to Nigerian Economy
In spite of the importance of oil to the economic development of Nigeria, it
has remained an agrarian economy, with agriculture still a major contributor to
GDP and total exports as well as provision of employment. Before becoming
one of the oil producing countries in the 1960’s agriculture was among the major
factors holding the economy firm, accounting for about two-thirds of the Gross
Domestic Product. With the oil boom which resulted in the neglect of the
agricultural sector by the government, the overall agriculture’s contribution to
GDP declined to 25 percent by 1980’s and Nigeria moved from being a large
exporter to a major importer of agricultural products (Awoyinka, 2009).
Currently as a result of a decline in oil revenue and policy measures
implemented by the government geared towards improving and revitalizing
agriculture, agriculture’s contribution to GDP has risen to about 40 percent.
Despite the neglect of agriculture in preference to oil by the government yet
agriculture still remain the highest sector that employ the great percentage of
Nigeria population, employing two-third of the Nigerian labour force,
contributing 40 percent to the Gross Domestic Product in 2007 and provided
88% on non-oil earnings (Ogunbameru and Okeowo, 2013).
A wide range of agro-ecological conditions in Nigeria allows for very
diverse crop production. The northern part of the country is suitable for
sorghum, millet, maize, cowpea, groundnut and cotton while the main food

crops in the middle belt and the south are mainly cassava, yam, plantain and
maize.
Broadly speaking, the cassava-growing belt falls within three agroecological zones of the southeast, southwest and the central areas. The first two
zones fall within the humid tropics. Soil type in the south is very low in fertility
and mineral reserves but can be improved by addition of soil nutrients in form
of fertilizer or organic matter (Ogunbameru and Okeowo, 2013). The survey
conducted by the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) in 2011 shows that
cassava, yam and maize contributed 36.49%, 27.22% and 6.95% respectively to
crop production value of the GDP. The growth rate in the major crops grown in
Nigeria is shown in Table 3.