Brand hate navigating consumer negativity in the digital world

S.UmitKucuk

BrandHate
NavigatingConsumerNegativityintheDigitalWorld
2nded.2019


S.UmitKucuk
UniversityofWashington,Tacoma,WA,USA

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Contents
PartIUnderstandingBrandHate
1WhatIsHate?​
2WhatIsBrandHate?​
3AntecedentsofBrandHate
4ConsequencesofBrandHate
PartIIImplicationsofBrandHate
5SemioticsofBrandHate
6LegalityofBrandHate:​Dilutionv.​Collusion
7ManagingBrandHate
Index


ListofFigures
Fig.1.1Theemotionofhate


Fig.1.2Dimensionsofhate


Fig.1.3Severityofhate


Fig.2.1Brandjustice/injusticeandhate

Fig.2.2Brandhatehierarchy


Fig.2.3Brandhateandanti-branding


Fig.2.4Brandhatethroughbrandbullying.aDirectconsumerbrandhate.bIndirect
consumerbrandhatethroughbullying


Fig.3.1Brandhateaveragescores(ResultsinFig.3.1.IndicatesaveragescoresofCold,Cool,
HotBrandhatesrankings.Thebrandhatescalecanbeshareduponrequest.GBHisdefinedas
“GeneralBrandHate”)


Fig.3.2Pictorialpresentationofthecompany-relatedbrandhateantecedents(Dottedlines
indicatePSFbyCSRinteractioneffects)


Fig.3.3Emotionalintensityofbrandhateantecedents


Fig.5.1Digitalanti-brandingdiscourse


Fig.7.1Metamorphosisofbrandhater


Fig.7.2Brandhatemanagementprocess

Fig.7.3Algorithmofbrandhatemanagement


Fig.7.4Brandhatenegotiation




ListofTables
Table1.1Perceivedinjusticeandhate


Table2.1Typologyofanti-brandsiteswithregardtotheNDJmatrix


Table3.1Rootcausesofconsumerbrandhate


Table3.2Company-relatedbrandhateantecedent


Table4.1Brandhatebehaviors


Table6.1Evolutionofbrandownership

PartI
UnderstandingBrandHate


©TheAuthor(s)2019
S.UmitKucuk,BrandHate
/>
1.WhatIsHate?
S.UmitKucuk1
(1) UniversityofWashington,Tacoma,WA,USA


S.UmitKucuk
Abstract
Inthischapter,Itriedtoexplainthehateinlightoftheavailablepsychologyliterature.Itried
todefinegeneralhumanfeelingofhatewithexamplesintwoimportantcomponents:
“threatenedegotism”and“perceivedinjustice”.Ifocusedonthreatenedegotismandperceive
injusticeasthemajorroot-causesoffeelingofhateandanger.IusedSternberg’shate
classificationinordertodefinethevariousdimensionsofhate.Ihavediscussedvarious
formsofhatefromlowleveltohighlevel(oralternativelyseverehate)intermsofSternberg’s
Triangularhatemodel.Afterreadingthischapter,readersshouldhaveabasicunderstanding
oftheconceptofhateanditsdimensions.
Keywords Hate–Threatenedegotism–Perceivedinjustice–Dimensionsofhate–
Hierarchyofhate–Severityofhate
Withoutsomethingtohate,weshouldlosetheveryspringofthoughtandaction.Life
wouldturntoastagnantpool.
OnthePleasureofHating,Hazlitt(1826/1995,p.190)
Hateisoneofthestrongesthumanfeelings.Someofusstrugglewiththisfeelingonan

almostdailybasis.However,itisnotawidelystudiedsubjectinthefieldsofsocialand
behavioralsciences.Partofthereasonisbecausehateissonegativeanddisturbingafeeling
thatgenerallypeopledonotwanttotalkaboutit,preferringtoignoreit.Yet,itsimpactand
influenceisalwayspresentatbothconsciousandunconsciouscognitivelevels.Neurochemistsdiscoveredthatwhenwearedealingwithnegativeevents,ourbodyproduces
higherlevelcortisol,ahormonethatshutsdownthinkingcenterofourbrainandactivates
conflictaversionandprotectionbehaviors,whicheventuallymakesustoperceivenegative
eventswithgreateremphasizethanactuallyexists.1Similarly,somescholarsclaimthat
negativeemotionsandnegativityingeneralhaveadeeperimpactonhumanfeelingsthan
positivefeelings,cognition,andbehaviors.Researchhasrevealedthatpeopletendtorecall
negativeeventsmoreeasilythanpositiveonesandthatnegativeexperienceshaveadeeper
impactonpeople’sattitudesandbehaviorsthanpositiveones.2This,inturn,canbe
conceptualizedas“negativitybias”,3meaningthatpeopletendtoweighnegative


experiencesintheirdecisionsmoreheavilythanpositiveones.4Thus,wemaybeledbyour
negativeandhatefulemotions(suchasanger,disgust,dislike,andsoon)ratherthanpositive
emotions(suchaslove,happiness,compassion,andsoon)whenweevaluateotherpeople
andobjects.Orweareatleastinfluencedbynegativeemotionsasmuchaspositiveones,yet
weprefertoignorethisveryimportantemotion.
Ontheoneendofthenegativity,wehavehate,andontheotherendofthepositivity,we
havelove.Loveandhatearebuildingblocksofouremotionallives.However,non-existence
oflovedoesn’tnecessarilyindicatehateorviceversa(Sternberg2003).Neitherhatecan
necessarilybedefinedastotaloppositeofloveasthesetwostrongesthumanemotionscan
alsoexisttogetherasSprott(2004,p.304)discusses“onecanlovesomethingsaboutone’s
partnerandhateothersatthesametime”.Interestinglyenough,insomeromantic
relationships,thedeeperthelovebetweenpartners,thedeeperthehategetswhenthings
didn’tworkout.5Itisironictosaythatbutperhapstheloveisthesourceofthehatredwefeel
insomecases.Eitherway,havingfeelingsofbothhateandlovearehowpeoplegivemeaning
andreasonstotheirlives,sometimesinapeacefulwaywithloveandothertimesinapainful
waywithhate.However,ashumanbeings,weliketoseethepositivesideandtendtoignore

negativesmostofthetime.Welovetoloveandwehatetohate,andwewanttobehappyall
thetime.Wedonotwanttothinkaboutnegativeresultsandfeelhatred,eventhoughitis
perhapssometimesareasonableandlogicaloutcomeofourbehaviors.Thisisinournature.
Wewanttoseehappyendingsineveryevent.Inotherwords,weareallprogramedtothink
positively—whichis,Ibelieve,ourmainlifesource.Positivethinkingmakesushappyand
everybodywantstobehappy.Atcertainpoints,itcanbesaidthatwearepassivelyaddicted
toourhappiness.ItislikewatchingDisneymovies,whichalwaysfeaturehappyendings.
Everythingshouldbeperfect,andthegoodguysarealwaysthewinners,notthebadguys.We
justcannotstandasituationinwhichabadguybeatsagoodguy.Thatmakesusunhappy,and
wefeelpainandperhapshatredtowardtheself-definedbadguy.ThisiswhatIcall“happyendingsyndrome”.Thissyndromeissometimessoblindingthatwedonotlistentooreven
likepeoplewhoalwaysthinknegativelyabouteventsorsituations.Weareallinsearchofour
ownDisney-likehappyendingsinourlives,andwewanttomakesurewearenothuntedby
anynegativity.Thus,thequestionis:Arewedruggedwithourneedforhappiness,anddowe
blindourselvesbythinkingpositivelyanddenyingthenegativityandhurtfultruth
surroundingus,eventhoughweincludetheminourdecision-makingprocesses?Atsome
points,suchnegativitywilldraginhateandwesimplydonotwanttogointothatdarkness
andthosehatefulfeelings.Buttheyaretherenonetheless.Perhapswewanttorepresssome
ofthosenegativeandhatefulfeelingsanddenythereality.
Showinghateisnotacceptableinmanysocietiesandcultures,althoughpeoplemightfeel
hateandallsortsofothernegativeemotionsonadailybasis.Althoughhatecanbeseentobe
asnaturalafeelingaslove,showingangerandhatredissociallyunacceptableandcaneven
beseenasacriminalactinmanycultures.Inotherwords,hateisahiddenandmostly
repressedfeelingandcangenerallybeseeninapassiveforminpublicratherthaninactive
form.Thus,thoseemotionsexistbutareburieddeepinoursubconscious.Sometimeswhen
peopleseeanangryperson,theysaythingslike“itwasshockingtoseeacrazyanimalcome
outfromthatniceguy”.Thetruthisthatnegativeemotionorhateiswithuswhereverwego,
andwejustneedanincidenttotriggerourhatefulfeelings.Butitissounacceptabletosee
thosenegativeemotionscomeoutthatsomeresearchersdefinehatefulfeelingsandhatred

as“mentalabnormality”andinfact“mentalillness”.Somebelievethatwe,ashumanbeings,
create“neuroticattachmenttoaself-createdenemy”.6So,thequestioniswhydoweneedto
createenemies?Arewepoisoningourselveswithourmisperceptionsofothers,events,and
objects?Or,alternatively,doweneedtocreateenemies,sowecandefinewhowearenot,
insteadofwhoweare?Freudindicatesthatmostoftheseimpulsesgoallthewaybacktoour
pastandourrecollectionsit.7Hesaysthatsuchimpulsesperhapsplayedanimportantrolein
constructingourconsciousnesslevelandhenceinourmentallife.Eventually,these
recollectionsdefinewhoweare,orperhapswhowearenotandthereforedevelopourego
andidentity.Alongtheway,throughlearningwhowearenot,wediscovertheversionof
ourselvesthatwehate.
Whenweloveandacceptsomebodyelse,wegiveupouregoorourself-identityand
simplyacceptthelovedperson’sidentityinacontrolledmanner;infact,wetrytobelike
them.Thatishowwebuildourpersonalityfromchildhood.Ontheotherhand,whenwehate
someone,wekeepatightgriponourveryessenceofselfinordertodifferentiateourselves
fromthathatedside.Thisisneeded,asitdefinesusasaperson.Inotherwords,wehateand
generateself-createdenemiestosatisfyourownego.Thismightmakesensefroman
unconscious,psychologicalpointofview.Naturally,wefeelthreatenedbytheexistenceofthe
unwantedselforidentity,asFreudexplains;we,ashumanbeings,startdreamingthatperson
wasdead,eveniftheywerelovedbyusinthepast.
Inthiscontext,ifouregoisthreatenedorifourvulnerabilityofself-imageisrevealed,in
turn,wewanttoregainasenseofpowerandtrytogetevenwiththeothersideinorderto
protectourdefectiveimageofourselves.8Sometimes,wecreatethesepowergamesinour
mindsandfashionself-madeenemiestoprotectourself-image,eventhoughtheydonot
knowthatweseethemasourenemies.Unfortunately,wefeelentitledtoattacksuchselfmadeenemies.Inotherwords,whoevermakesusfeellessworthy,vulnerable,andweakwill
eventuallymakeusfeelthreatenedandcometodeserveourhate.Thatiswherehatestarts
andwhereordinarypeopleturnintomonstersandviolentandhatefulindividuals.Theylose
theveryessenceoftheirself.Westarttoframethosepeoplenegativelytoourfriendsand
societytoprotectourself-imageand,infact,topromoteourselves.9Sharingandspreading
ourhateturnsintoaholymissionforsomeaswederivecomfortifmorepeoplehatethe
sameperson,group,orobject.Inotherwords,hatecanbecontagiousifothersalsosharethe

similaridentitiesandsocialvalueswiththehater.Theneedforrightfulnessandsocial
supportthatsuitsthehater’segoeventuallytransformtheindividualhateintous-versusthemmentality.
Overall,hateandnegativitycaneasilybetriggeredwhenwearevulnerableandthreatened
asweareallinfluencedbyvarioustypesofprejudicethroughoutourlives.Inthiscontext,
“threatenedself”or“threatenedegotism”asconceptualizedinpsychologyliteraturecanbe
seenassomeofthemainelementsofhate,asfollows.

ThreatenedEgotismandHate
Inpsychology,hateisalsodiscussedbroadlywithinthethreatenedegotismconcept.10This
streamofliteraturelooksatthreatenedegoismintermsoftheconflictbetweenaperson’s
positiveandnegativeself.Peoplecangetthisfeelingeasily,evenifsomeonehasthreatened


theirpositiveself.Thus,theinnerwarbetweenourpositiveandnegativeselves,infact,
shapesourpersonalityandmakesuswhoweare.Butifwefeelthatsomebodyisattacking
theverycoreofourselves(positiveself),this,inturn,cantriggerahatefulresponse.People
revealnegativeemotionstowardrepresentationsofnegativeselvestosafeguardtheirown
selves.However,ifapersonhasstrongfundamentalswithinhis/herpositivebaseor—in
otherwords,iftheyhavegoodself-esteem—thatpersonperhapsshowslesshateful
behaviors,aggression,andviolence.Itisconsideredthatlowself-esteempeoplemayhave
moretendencytoaggressionandhate,assuchpeoplearelesssecureabouttheirown
positiveselfandreadytoattacktheirnegativeselves.11Althoughsomeresearchshowsthat
lowself-esteempeoplecanbelessviolent(specificallywomencanhavelowerself-esteem
thanmen),12thisdoesnotmeanthattheyfeellesshatetowardnegatives.Yet,thereisnot
enoughempiricalevidencetosupportthispotentialrelationship.Alternatively,narcissistic,
andegoisticalpeopleshowaggressionwhentheyarecriticized,and/ortheiregocomes
underattack.13Peoplewhoseegoandprideisthreatenedcaninfactsacrificetheirpersonal
gainsandholddeepdesiresforrevengeagainstthepeoplewhothreatenedthem.Thisis
especiallytruewhenthepersonwhoseegoisinsultedperceivestheinsultasafalselyjustified
act.Interestingly,ifapersonperceivestheinsulttohis/heregoastrue,he/shemightprefera

passiveresponseandperhapsaccepttheinsultandsilentlymoveon.14Ontheotherhand,if
thepersonseesthereasoningbehindthisinsultasjustifiedortrue,thatmightactually
generatemorehate.Inotherwords,thepersondoesnotfeelthreatenedaslongastheperson
seesthecriticismasreal,justified,andtrue.

PerceivedInjusticeandHate
This,inturn,shiftsthefocusontoanotherimportantfactor:thetruthbehindthejustification
oftheinsult.Thisjustificationcanbewell-roundedforthehaterbutnotforthehatedsideor
perhapsnotforathirdparty.Ahater’sprejudiceandperceptionoftruthcaneventually
determinethelevelofhatefeltbythem.Thus,theimportantquestionis:“Howdohaters
justifytheirhate?”Ifthereisnosoundjustificationforaperson’shatredtowardanother,that
person,inturn,canbelabeledasapsychopath.Dehumanizinganddemonizingtheotherside
justbecausetheyaredifferentfeedsthebasiclevelofhate.Infact,thiscanbedefinedas
“prejudicedhate”or“psychopathichate”(e.g.,“allMuslimsareterroristorbad”).Inthis
case,attackingothers’negativeselvescanalsogiveprejudicedhatersawayofempathizing
withtheirpositiveselves.Inotherwords,thiskindofhatehasnothingtodowiththehated
butratherthehatersthemselves.Ontheotherhand,itispossiblethatsomehatefulfeelings
canbelogicallywelljustifiedandmightevenmakesense(e.g.,“everybodyhatesliars”).
Theproblem,atthispoint,ishowyoudefinefair,true,and/oracceptablejudgmenton
whicheverybodyfeelsliketheycanagree.Thisisalmostimpossibleaseverybodymighthave
differentperceptionsoftheevents,people,andobjects.Whenpeoplefeelthattheyareseeing
unfairtreatmentoriftheyperceiveaninjustice,theywillgetupsetandfeelmorecross.This,
inturn,fuelshatefulfeelingstowardtheaccusedparty.Thus,perceivedinjusticeisanother
significantfactorindefiningtheconceptofhate.Intheory,hateisalsodiscussedbasedona
party’snegativeprejudice,asitcangenerateirrationalemotionsandaggressiveimpulses.15
Althoughhateisseenasperceivingothersnegatively,thesenseofrightnessinthefeelingis


relatedtothatperson’sself,whichisshapedbytheirpasthistory,personality,and
threatenedidentity.16

Fairorunfairandjusticeorinjusticearegenerallydefinedwithinasocialvaluesystemin
whichrightandwrongorlegalandillegalarealldelineatedbysociety.Whenthereisno
strongsocialvaluesystemorlegalsysteminasociety,itcanbedifficulttoforpeopleto
justifytheirhateifitdoesnotfitintosocialnormsorthelegalsystem.Eventually,thiscreates
socialchaosanddepression.Insuchcases,eventhoughthereisnosystemofreference,
peopletendtodeveloptheirownsystemofjudgmentandjustificationsfortheirbehaviors.
Butthispersonaljudgmentislimitedbyaperson’sperceptionandcapabilitytosenseand
understandalltheinfluentialfactors.Thisprocessindicateshowpeopleperceiveinjustice,
notthetruth,anditcanbemisleadingmostofthetimeandlimitedtothesocietiesmoral
principles.Nietzsche(2003)callsthiskindofsociety“nationofpriests”,aseverybodyis
expectedtoactlikeapriestandkeeptellingeachotherwhatisrightandwhatiswrong,which
eventuallyrequiresconstantcorrectionofyourownandother’sbehaviors.Thiskindofrigid
anddichotomousthinkingmakepeopleuncomfortablewiththemselvesandothersifthey
don’tfitsuchvaluesasthisputstheminsmallclosedboxesand,infact,createsasocialunrest
andhatethrougheachother.Insuchsocieties(nationofpriests),individualswhofollowthe
perceivedrightblindlyarerewardedwhiletheoneswhoquestionsuchvaluesaresocially
punishedorrejectedbythesociety(evenbylaw).Thus,thiseventuallyempowerstheones
whofollowedtheso-calledandperceivedmorallyrightpath,andtheywerepraisedand
promotedinsociety’ssocialhierarchy.Nietzschecallstheindividualswhoblindlyfollowthe
exposedmoralityvaluesas“herd-man”(Nietzsche1990,p.115).Theherd-mancantruly
hateifsomeoneactsoutsidethescopeofsociety’smoralcircles.Thetruthisallofus,orat
leastmajorityofus,wantedtobeloved,nurtured,andsecuredbyagrouporasocietyand
triestoworkhardtodeservethegroup’sloveandacceptance.Insomeways,Ifeellikeweall
wanttobeaherd-manasweneedtobeloved,cared,andprotected,yetwedon’twanttobe
brainwashedandexploitedbythevaluesystemswearenotconsciouslyandfully
comprehendandawareof.AsNietzsche(1990)indicated,weholdsuchsocialvaluesystems
sodeeplythat,weare,mostofthetime,notevenabletoawareofthemasvalueatall.Infact,
thosevaluesareimbeddedsodeeplyintousthatweevenlegalizethemthatwedon’taccept
theexistenceofanotheralternativeorexplanation.Basically,suchvaluesystemsbecomeour
owntrutheventhoughtheymightnotbethetruthitself.Thus,weupholdsomeofthese

valueswithlawtolegitimizeoursocialexistenceinthisworld.
Inthiscontext,lawcouldalsobeseenasrepresentationofallpeople’soratleastthe
majority’sagreementonabeliefandorsocialvalues.Weallagreethatcrossingonaredlight
isillegal,notyellow,blue,orpinklight.Weallcameupwiththeideathateverybodyshould
stopinredlightanddevelopedthisrulesothatwecouldestablishsocialorder.Bydeveloping
theseagreedvaluesystems,welegalizeoursocialcodesandbehaviorsandcreateourown
herd-manlikebehaviors.Thus,ifyoucrossonaredlight,youareactingagainstsociety’swill
andvaluesystem,whichcouldbeperceptionalandchangefromculturetoculture.Similarly,if
youfitintoasocialgroup,youareacceptedandlovedbythegroup.Otherwise,itispossible
thatyouwillbegentlypushedasideandrejectedbythegroup.Or,perhapsyouwillbehated.
Thus,thelegalityandillegalitydimensionsusedinTable1.1canbediscussedwithregardto
whetherabehaviororapersoncanfitsociallywiththegroupornot.Inaway,bylegalizing
socialsystems,weteachpeoplehowtochanneltheirhateinanacceptableandrationalway


thatfitswithsociety’svaluesystem.
Table1.1 Perceivedinjusticeandhate


Legal/sociallyacceptable Illegal/sociallyunacceptable

Fair

Acceptanceandlove

Unfair Moderatehate

Moderatehate
Rejectionandintensehate

Perceivedinjusticeandunfairnessarebasedonwhatasocietydecidesisacceptableand
unacceptable,basedonhowthatsocietyisinfluenced.Weareallinfluencedbyeventswe
havewitnessed,whethertheyaretrueorfalse,fair,orunfair.

RejectionandIntenseHate
Inapersonalorprofessionalrelationshipcontext,ifsomebodycontinuouslytreatsyou
unfairlyandalsodeniesthelegalconsequencesofhis/heractions,youwillmostlikelyhate
thisperson.Thedurationofunfairbehaviorcanalsodeterminethelevelanddegreeofhatea
personmightfeel.Imagineyourbossisloweringyoursalaryandharassingyouwithoutgood
reasonwhileothersaregettingfairtreatmentandraises.Infact,someofyourpeersget
promotionseventhoughtheydonotevendeservethemfromyourpointofview.Inthat
scenario,perhapsyoucanevenhateyourpeerwhoisunfairlypromoted.Eventhoughyou
mightbeprotectedbylaw,youprobablywillnotwanttotakelegalactionandstandagainst
yourboss;perhapsyouhavelowself-esteemornotrusttothesystemandwilljustacceptthis
unfairnessandmoveon.Inthissituation,yournegativefeelingsandhatetowardyourboss
increaseexponentiallyeverytimeyoufindyourselfundergoinganunfair,abusive,andillegal
treatment.Somethinkersdefinehatethroughaperson’shelplessnessinasituationwhere
his/herpersonhoodisreduced.17Othersdefinehateinthiscontextas“powerinequality”or
asymmetricpowerstructureinasystem.18Thissituationisindicatedbythe“IntenseHate”
boxinTable1.1.Inaconsumer–companyrelationshipcontext,ifaconsumercannotgettheir
money’sworthinarelationshipwithaserviceproviderandtheserviceproviderrefusesto
providethepromisedservicestoaconsumer,itisagainexpectedthatwewouldseesome
intenseconsumerhateagainstthecompany.

ModerateHate
Youmightperhapshatethepersonwhofindsloopholesinthesystemandtreatsyouunfairly.
Imagineatobaccocompanywhichistryingtobuildacigarettefactoryinalessdeveloped
partoftheworld.Theyknowthat90%ofpeoplewilldieoflungcancerorsimilarcausesif
theysmoke.Yet,theybuildanewcigarettefactoryandsellthecigarettesatlowerpricesso
thatpeoplecanbuythem.Thisisnotillegal,yetneitherarethesefairandethicaldecisions.

Similarly,imagineacompanydiscoversalifesavingmedicineandputpricetagonthepillof
abouthalfofyourmonthlyincome.Thus,itdoesnotgiveyouthechancetolive.Ifyouhave
money,youhavearighttolive,butifyoudonot,thenyoudeservetodie.Thiscompany’sact
ismostlikelynotillegal,yetitisveryunfair(whilestillactingwithintherulesofthe
economicsystemcreatedwitheverybody’sapproval).Youwouldprobablytrytofindawayto
justifyandlegitimateyourhatredtowardthiscompany.Thiscanbelabeledasmoderatehate
sincetheactionistakenisnotillegal.Somepeoplehatetheirparentsandthinkthattheyare


notfairtothem.Butgenerallyspeakingthatkindofhatedoesnotaffectyourrelationshipthat
much.Youmightblamethemforbeingunfairtoyou,buttheyarestillyourparents,andyou
cannotchangeit!Thatis,whatitismeantby“moderatehate”.
Similarly,moderatehatecanbegeneratedbyactionswhichareillegalbutfair.For
example,attheendofsomeactionmovies,youseethatthemaincharacterorheroeventually
defeatsthebadguys,andforonesecondhehesitatestodestroythemwhenhehasthe
chance.Foramoment,youfeelthatyourherowillforgivebadguysandletthemgo.One
wrongmoveandhekillsthemall.Thecopscanseewhathappened,andeventhoughtheycan
arresthimformurder,theylethimgobecausehedidtherightthing.Whatthecopsdidinthe
movieisillegalactually,butitwasfairtolettheherogetawaywithoutanychargeashe
protectedthesocialorderandsocialnorms.Somepeoplehatethecopsbecausetheydidnot
dotheirjobwell,andsomepeoplehatethecriminalsbecausetheythreatenedthesocial
order.

AcceptanceandLove
Acceptancegenerallyhappenswhenpeoplearetreatedfairlyandlegallyinamatureand
nurturingway.Eventhoughyoumightbepunishedforsomething,youknowthereasonforit
andthatdoesnotnecessarilytakeyourloveandpositivefeelingsaway.Reasonablepeople
generallythinkthatitwasfair,infact,andsomeacceptresponsibilityandsay,“Ideservedit”.
Youstillfeelbrokeninside,butyouknowthatitwasnotyou;itwaswhatyoudidthatisbeing
punished.Ifothersideforgivesyoueventhoughyouknowyouwerenotright,thateventually

generatescompassionandlove.Weapproachthatpersonwithlovebecauseweknowthat
he/shewasright.Inmanysituations,ifourperceptionofjusticeisthreatened,wefeel
violatedandfeelhatetowardwhoeverisbehindthatact.Loveandhatearetwoclosely
relatedconceptsandrepresentthefarlimitsofthecontinuumofhumanemotions.Love
indicatesacceptanceandcompassion,whilehateisanemotionalsurvivalinstinctwhenwe
feelhelplessandthreatenedbyanintruder.Althoughlovecanbefake,hateisalwaysrealand
hasdefinitivepowerinshapingwhoweareandwhatwearecapableofdoing.Thisisechoed
inthewordsofthepoetThomasHardy:“Tounderstandthebestofus,wemustfirstbewilling
totakealookattheworstofus”.

DimensionsofHate
Hate,asanemotion,isatthefarthestedgeofthenegativeemotionsscale.Accordingto
thesaurus,thereareatleastfiftymajoremotionsthatcanbedirectlyassociatedwiththe
wordofhate.Althoughtherearemanywordsthatcanbeassociatedwithhatewithdifferent
levelsofemotionalintensity,socialpsychologistsgenerallydon’tdefinehateasaprimary
emotion,butratherasasecondaryemotionwithanger,disgust,irritation,hostility,andso
for.19
AspicturedinFig.1.1,somenegativeemotionscanbeverycloselyassociatedwithhate
suchasanger,furious,madwhilesomeotherscanbeassociatedwithmoderatelysuchas
repel,disgust,dislike(thedarkerandthebrightertheredcolorsget,itindicatesthatthe
deeperandmoreintensivetheemotionsgetinthefigure).Finally,otherscanbeassociated
lowwiththeemotionofhatesuchasdevaluation,diminishing,oravoidanceaspicturedwith
lightlyshadedcolorsinFig.1.1.


Fig.1.1 Theemotionofhate

Thus,itisclearthathateisnotaunidimensionalconceptandthatithasmanylayers.It
wouldbenaivetodiscusshateonlybasedonangerandviolentbehaviors.Somepeople
internalizetheirhate,butothersopenlyexpressitandthuscommitviolentandcriminalacts.

Thecomplexityandmultifacetednatureofhateiswell-discussedbyAndrewSullivan,20a
journalist,whofocusedonthehorrificeffectsofhatecrimesasfollows:
Thereishatethatfears,andhatethatmerelyfeelscontempt;thereishatethat
expressespower,andhatethatcomesfrompowerless;thereisrevenge,andthereis
hatethatcomesfromenvy.Thereishatethatwaslove,andhatethatisacurious
expressionoflove.Thereishateoftheother,andhateofsomethingthatremindsus
toomuchourselves.Thereistheoppressor’shate,andthevictim’shate.Thereishate
thatburnsslowly,andhatethatfades.And,thereishatethatexplodes,andhatethat
nevercatchesfire.
Sullivan’sdefinitionisoneofthemostcomprehensivedefinitions,anditindicatesthe
complexityoftheconceptofhate.Thus,itisfairtosaythathatecanbediscussedfrommany
differentperspectives.Forexample,somescholarsdefinehateasmixtureofemotionssuch
ascombinationoffearandanger21ordisgustandanger.22But,themostcomprehensive


conceptualizationsofhatecamefromRobertSternberg(2003).Hisconceptualizationhasa
boarderandmultifacetedperspective.Sternbergdefineshate,ingeneralterms,withthree
majorcomponents:devaluation,negationofintimacy,andanger(asalsopicturedin
Fig.1.2).

Fig.1.2 Dimensionsofhate

Sternbergconceptualizescoldhateas“devaluationanddiminution”whilecoolhateis
“negationofintimacyanddisgust”orsimplyseekingdistancefromahatedside;andfinally,
hothateis“angerandfear”.Figure1.2illustratestherelationshipsbetweenbasichate
componentsandhowthesedimensionsofhateeventuallygeneratethefeelingofgeneral
hatredbyeitherfunctioningindividuallyorthroughinteractingwithotherhatecomponents.
Thus,itisnecessarytoinvestigatesuchemotionsseparatelytounderstandthelayersof
emotionofhate,asfollows:

ColdHate(Devaluation–Diminution)
Thiskindofhateisgenerallycharacterizedasseeingthetargetedsideasworthlessbeings.
Althoughsomeauthorsthinkthatdevaluationisnotthesameashate,itisagreedthat
devaluationisanearlyandinitialstagethatsetsthestagefortruehate.23Inotherwords,
smalldifferencescanbeenoughtotriggerhatefulfeelingsiftheyareperceivedasnegative.
Humanbeingsalwayshavethetendencytodifferentiatethemselvesfromothersbydevaluing
thetargetedgroup.24Freud(1957)indicatesthatpeopletendtofindmeaningsin
exaggerateddifferencesbetweenthemselvesandthoseforwhomtheydonotfeelaffection.
Freudcallsthis“narcissismofminordifferences”(p.199;seealsoGabbard1993).So,hate


slowlyrootsinaperson’slifethroughsuchdifferencescreatedbytheirnarcissisticmanner.
This,infact,canbetrueforthosewhohaveneverencounteredormetmembersofthe
targetedgroup.25Sternberg(2003,pp.311–312)usesanexampletodefinesuchphenomena:
“Itisnotuncommontofindanti-Semitismoranti-Islamiccognitionsamongpeoplewhohave
neveractuallymetaJeworaMuslim”.Yet,itispossiblethatananti-Semiticoranti-Islamic
personcanchangehis/herviewifanopportunityarisestomeetthehatedgroup.Because
thiskindofhaterevealsitselfinsituationswherepeoplesharesimilarviews,itiscalled“cold
hate”.Itseemsthatthisisamoresecretandhiddenhateinsidepeople,whichhasnotyet
formedandfounditslifebutwhichisstillthere.Perhapspeoplecannotevennamesuch
feelingsashate,yettheyfeelsomenegativitytowardtargetedgroup.

CoolHate(NegationofIntimacy–Disgust)
Thiskindofhaterepresentsdisgustandfeelingsofrepugnanceagainstthetargetedgroup.
Thehatertriestoavoidthisgroupanddistanceshimselffromthehatedsidewithveryclear
andstrictlinesbecausetheyseetheothersideassubhumanandevil.Indoctrinationwith
feelingsthatthehatedsideisevil,murderous,anddemonicisthemainsatisfactionofthe
hater.Sternberg(2003,p.311)definesthisfeelingofcoolhateas“visceralprejudice”toward
hatedside.Suchhatersdonotnecessarilyfeeladesireforrevenge,whichmarksthemajor
differencebetweenangeranddisgustorhothateandcoolhate.Coolhatehasverydirect,

clear,anddichotomousthinking,whilecoldhatedoesnothavesuchstrictandclear
differentiation.Inthissense,hatefulfeelingsaremoreintenseincoolhatethancoldhate.
Throughthisstronglydichotomousdifferentiation,thehaterclaimsarighttofightagainst
thedevilandthecorruptionbelievedtobemanifestedbytheotherside.Demonization
providesanincentivetoactand/orbringsthehaterclosertoactingagainstthehatedside.26
Incoolhate,personalorexternalfactorspushtheindividualtoturnuptheheatoftheirhate
andmakethemreadytoactagainstthehatedsideaccordingly.

HotHate(Anger–Fear)
Thiskindofhaterepresentsextremehostilityandangertowardathreat.Suchhatecan
generatesuddenangerandcaneasilyleadto“hotactiveviolence”.27However,thereis
differencebetweenmomentaryangerandoneleadstohateandviolence.28Fitnessand
Fletcher(1993)indicatethatangercannotbemisidentified,whilehatecan.Angercannotbe
sustainedforlongerperiods(suchasdaysandweeks),buthatecanbe.Inthiscontext,hate
seemstorepresentlonger-lastingangerandmoreintensefeelingsthandospikes(suchas
anger)inpeople’semotionalworld.Furthermore,hatecanbediscussedintermsofbeing
trappedandboxedin,unlikeangerwhichismoreanexternalrepresentationofinnerhostility
.29Yet,whenyoulookatthesetwoconceptsintermsofemotionalintensity,thereisalmost
nodifference.30Eitherway,itisclearthathateinvolvesangerandcanbeseenasan
indicationofstrong,intense,anddeeperhatefulfeelings.Thus,angerorhothaterepresentsa
high-levelformofhate.

SeverityofHate
Sternberg(2003,2005)providedimportantcluesabouthowthesethreetypesofhate


constructinteractwitheachother.Inhistriangulartheoryofhate,healsodefinesfour
additionalhateconstructsasfollows:simmeringhate(coldandcoolhatetogether),seething
hate(coldandhothatetogether),boilinghate(coolandhothatetogether),andfinally
burninghate(cold,cool,andhothatetogether).Thus,Sternberg’sconceptualizationalso

providesanewclassificationapproachforhatedimensionsbasedontheseverityofhate.For
example,ifthereisonlyasinglecomponent(onlycold,cool,orhothatedimensionsexisting
individuallyandseparately)availableinthehateconstruct,thatrepresents“mild”hate;if
twocomponentsarepresent,thatcanbelabeledas“moderate”hate;andfinally,ifallthree
hateconstructsarepresent,thatindicatesthehighestformofhate—“severe”hate.
Sternberg’shatetaxonomycoversalltypesofpossiblehatecombinationandconstructs,
whicharealsoillustratedinFig.1.2.
Severityofhatecaneventuallydeterminetheintensityofsuchnegativeemotions.
Figure1.3illustratesintensityofhateinahierarchicalformat.Thehierarchydepictedin
Fig.1.3clearlyrepresentsmild,moderate,andseverehateinlightofSternberg’shate
taxonomy.Similarly,someotherresearchersclassifyindividualsbasedontheintensityof
hatetheyfeel.Forexample,peoplecanbeseenaslighthaters,orwhatFrankfurt(1971)calls
a“faint-heartedhater”.Suchhatersaregenerallyashamedwhentheyrealizethattheyhate
somebody.Thiskindofself-awarenessperhapsdoesnotfittheindividual’spersonality,yet
theycannotfeelotherwise.Attheoppositeendofthiscontinuum,therearewhatFrankfurt
(1971)calls“wholeheartedhaters”,whoarededicatedtotheirhatredoftargetedgroups,
objects,orpersons.Thistypeofpeopleinfactfeelscompletedandfulfilledwhentheyare
definedbytheirhate.31Similarly,Gaylin(2003)definesthesekindsofhatersas“trueorraw
haters”.Infact,heclaimsthatsuchhaterslivewithhatedailyandthatforthemitisawayof
being.Thesepeoplearegenerallyobsessedwiththeirenemiesandareattachedtotheirhate
andthehatedsidethroughparanoia.

Fig.1.3 Severityofhate

Overall,itisclearthathateisamultifacetedandcomplexsubject.Itisintriguingthatthere
isnotenoughstudyfocusedonsuchabiased,easilymanipulated,andmisunderstood
concept.Ourignoranceanddenialofsuchemotionsareperhapsduetoourdesiretobuilda


morepositiveandmorelovingworld.Butwithoutunderstandingsuchnegativity,wewon’t

beabletoadvanceinourmindsandinourlives.Thisissueinturnhasgainedtoomuch
attentioninbothconsumerpsychologyandconsumerbehaviorasconsumersstartedtoshow
hatefulemotionsasaresultofthedigitalrevolution.Thus,thenextsectionwillfocuson
consumerhate,specificallyconsumerbrandhate.
Notes
1.
GlaserandGlaser(2014).
2.
Itoetal.(1998)andFossatietal.(2003).
3.
KanouseandHanson(1972).
4.
Kanouse(1984).
5.
Jinetal.(2017).
6.
Gaylin(2003).
7.
Freud(1943).
8.
Beck(1999)andSternberg(2003).
9.
Beck(1999).
10.
BaumeisterandButz(2005).
11.
Toch(1993).
12.
Klingetal.(1999).
13.

BushmanandBaumeister(1998).
14.
Baumeisteretal.(1996).
15.
Sternberg(2005).
16.
Opotow(2005).
17.
McKellar(1950).
18.
Solomon(1977).

19.


20.
Sullivan(1999,p.54).

21.
Kemper(1987).

22.
Plutchick(1991).

23.
Staub(1989).

24.
Staub(1990),Tajfel(1978,1982),andTajfeletal.(1971).
25.
Sternberg(2003).

26.
FitnessandFletcher(1993)andFitness(2000).

27.
Beck(1999).

28.
BeckandPretzer(2005).

29.
Davitz(1969,p.35).

30.
Fitness(2000).

31.
Frankfurt(1971).

Shaveretal.(1987)andStormandStorm(1987).

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©TheAuthor(s)2019
S.UmitKucuk,BrandHate
/>
2.WhatIsBrandHate?
S.UmitKucuk1
(1) UniversityofWashington,Tacoma,WA,USA


S.UmitKucuk
Abstract
Inthischapter,Idefinetheconceptofbrandhateinlightofthegeneralpsychologyofhateas
discussedinthepreviouschapter.Consumerperceptionofbrandinjusticeandunfairnessare
discussedasthestartingpointofbrandhate.Thecomponentsofbrandhateare
conceptualizedas“cold”,“cool”,and“hot”brandhateinlightofconsumerpsychologyand
behaviorliterature.Typesofconsumerbrandhateandpotentialhateinteractionsamong
variousconsumerbehaviorsarediscussed.Theconceptuallinkbetweenbrandhateandantibrandingisdeveloped.Furthermore,Iintroducedvariousformsofbrandhateemotionsfrom
varioussocialcontextsuchas“brandbullying”.Thischapterprovidesabroaderconceptual

contextaboutthenewlyintroducedbrandhateconcept,itscomponents,anddegreeofbrand
hate(ordefinedas“severityofbrandhate”).
Keywords Brandhate–Brandinjustice–Coldbrandhate–Coolbrandhate–Hotbrandhate
–Anti-branding–Severityofbrandhate–Brandbullying
Idon’treallyhateitanymorethanIhateanyoftheotherbrandsIhate,butsure,Ihate
Dellasmuchastherest.
AnonymousConsumer
Thereisasubstantialincreaseinconsumerhatefulbehaviorstargetingwell-known
corporatebrandsbecauseofincreasingpaceofdigitalizationofconsumermarkets.Intoday’s
digitalmarkets,nobrandcanescapefromconsumercriticismandcanbeimmuneto
consumernegativity.PartofthereasonisthattheInternetmakessoeasytopublicly
complain,andsuchconsumercriticism,negativity,andcomplaintscaneasilyreachmillions
ofconsumerssimultaneously.Asconsumerscan“anonymously”communicatewithmarkets,
thatmakesthemtoshowtheirtruefeelingswithoutrevealingtheirtrueidentities.Inphysical
face-to-faceshoppingenvironments,majorityofconsumersprefertopressureorhidetheir
trueemotionsbutletthemlosetotheirclosefriendsandfamilysuchfeelingsoncetheyleave
physicalshoppingenvironments.Thus,itwasalmostimpossibletodetecttheconsumer’s
trueemotionsduringandeveninpost-purchasestagesastheyintendedtosharetheir
experienceswithonlythepeoplewhoareclosetothem.Asaresultofsuchanonymousand


non-face-to-facecommunicationtechnologiesintroducedbytheInternet,consumersnow
channeltheirtruefeelingsespeciallyhatefulcriticismintothemarketswithoutworrying
aboutrevealingtheiridentitiesaswellasnotworryingwhomtheyaredirectingtheirhateto
asthereisnorealfacetotalkto.Itislikewritingyourdiarywithouthidingyourtrue
emotions,withoutworryingaboutwhotohurt.Openyourheartandsoultrulyasitis.Thus,
consumersrevealeventheirmosthideousandhatefulfeelingsthathavebeenpressuredfora
longtime.Suchnegativespeechwewitnessinconsumptionspacesisreachingunpresented
levels,andthebrandhateconceptissittingrightattheheartofthischange.
Hateinpsychologyliteratureisgenerallydiscussedintermsofinterpersonal

relationships.However,peoplecanalsofeelhatetowardobjectsthatrepresentsystemsof
meaningtowhichtheyareopposed.Thus,hatredforapersonor“interpersonalhate”and
hatredforanobjector“objecthate”canbedifferent.Researchhasfoundthataboutathirdof
studentrespondentsassociatetheirhatewith“something”ratherthan“someone”(e.g.,Ihate
McDonald’s).1Thiskindofhate,or“objecthate”,isnotstudiedanddiscussedineither
consumerpsychologyandbehaviortheoriesoringeneralpsychology.Itisnotclearwhether
peopleascribemorevalencetoactionsagainstpersonsorobjectstheyhate.However,
researchshowsthatpeopleinteractwithbrandsliketheirfriends,enemies,and
acquaintances,andtheysharewiththemtheirfeelingsandemotionsindifferentforms—
attributinghumancharacteristicstothebrands.2Ontheotherhand,thereisnoresearchinto
whetherpeople’sinterpersonalhatecangetmoreseverethanobjecthateorviceversa.Also,
everyconsumerattachesdifferentemotionstodifferentbrands,anddifferentemotionscan
betriggeredwhenweseedifferentbrands.Youfeelhappinesswhenyouseeonespecific
brand,whileyoufeelhateandangerwhenyouseeanotherbrand.Brandhate,inthiscontext,
isnotstudiedaswidelyasbrandloveinbothconsumerbehaviorandpsychologyliteratures.
Inotherwords,brandhateisarelativelynewconceptandneedstobediscussedindepthin
thenextsectioninlightofthepreviousexaminationofthepsychologyofhate.

DefinitionofBrandHate
Whenbrandhateispronouncedinanyconversationordiscussion,thefirstthingpeoplethink
isthatbrandhateshouldbeapolarizedversionofbrandlove.Inshort,itisthoughtthatitis
totaloppositeofbrandlove.Thisisnottrueallthetime,asbrandhatedoesnotnecessarily
indicatelackofbrandlovebutcanjustmeanindifference.3Thus,peoplewhodonotfeellove
towardabranddonotnecessarilyfeelhatredtowarditbutjustfeelneutralorshowalackof
interestorsimplyareindifferent.Thisfeelingofnumbnessisnotactuallyanindicationof
somethingbadandtraumatic.Therearelayersofdifferentnegativeemotionsthatareseeded
intobrandhatefeeling.Inotherwords,thereismoreintobrandhatethanjustnotfeelinglove
towardabrand.Yet,brandloveasaconceptisagoodstartingpointtoreallyunderstandwhat
brandhatecanbe.
Therearemanyexamplesinbrandingandconsumerpsychologyliteratureofconsumers

developingstrongpositiveemotionstowardbrands,suchasfeelingloyaltytoorlovefora
brand.Clearly,consumerscanalsodevelopnegativelyintenseemotionsagainstbrands.In
general,whenpeoplefeelpositiveaboutapersonandanobject,theydevelop“approach”
behavior,andtheytrytogetclose,buttheydevelop“avoidance”behaviorwhentheyfeel
negativeaboutapersonorobject.4Fromthebrandingpointofview,consumersdevelop