Sustainability principles and practice 2nd edition

p.i

Sustainability Principles and Practice

This new and expanded edition builds upon the first edition’s accessible and comprehensive
overview of the interdisciplinary field of sustainability. The focus is on furnishing solutions and
equipping the student with both conceptual understanding and technical skills for the workplace.
Each chapter explores one aspect of the field, first introducing concepts and presenting issues, then
supplying tools for working toward solutions. Techniques for management and measurement as well
as case studies from around the world are provided. The second edition includes a complete update
of the text, with increased coverage of major topics including the Anthropocene; complexity;
resilience; environmental ethics; governance; the IPCC’s latest findings on climate change;
Sustainable Development Goals; and new thinking on native species and novel ecosystems.
Chapters include further reading and discussion questions. The book is supported by a companion
website with links, detailed reading lists, glossary, and additional case studies, together with
projects, research problems, and group activities, all of which focus on real-world problem solving
of sustainability issues.
The textbook is designed to be used by undergraduate college and university students in
sustainability degree programs and other programs in which sustainability is taught.
Margaret Robertson is a member of the American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA) and
teaches at Lane Community College in Eugene, Oregon, USA, where she coordinates the
Sustainability degree program.


p.iii

Sustainability Principles
and Practice
Second Edition

Margaret Robertson


p.iv
Second edition published 2017
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2017 Margaret Robertson
The right of Margaret Robertson to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by her in accordance with sections 77 and 78
of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other
means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publishers.
First edition published by Routledge 2014
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Robertson, Margaret, author.
Title: Sustainability principles and practice / Margaret Robertson.
Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2017. | Earlier edition: 2014. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016036622| ISBN 9781138650213 (hbk) | ISBN 9781138650244 (pbk) | ISBN 9781315625478 (ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Sustainability. | Sustainable development. | Environmental economics.
Classification: LCC HC79.E5 R6243 2017 | DDC 338.9/27—dc23
LC record available at />ISBN: 978-1-138-65021-3 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-138-65024-4 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-62547-8 (ebk)
Typeset in Times New Roman

by Swales & Willis Ltd, Exeter, Devon
Visit the companion website: />

p.v
“The great strength of Robertson’s book is its breadth of coverage. From marketing to life cycle costing to the latest science on
climate change, Sustainability Principles and Practice serves as a welcoming guide into the often jargon-laden field of
sustainability.”
—Jay Antle, Johnson County Community College, USA
“This book is a solid and well-crafted introduction to the field, conveying both the substance and the heart of sustainability work with
style and grace. It will help students and other new entrants to the field get oriented to the special interdisciplinary challenges of
sustainability, and to its core mission: helping us learn to be better caretakers of our planetary future.”
—Alan AtKisson, President & CEO AtKisson Inc., USA & AtKisson Europe AB, Sweden. President, ISIS Academy GmbH,
Germany. Member, President’s Science and Technology Advisory Council (PSTAC), European Commission
“This is an important book. Robertson has a keen sense of the situation and an even keener sense of alternatives and means to
achieve them. The author gives it to you the way it is and then provides some important pointers to resilient futures. This book contains
both a diagnosis and a treatment. Read it.”
—Simon Bell, Open University, UK
“An organized, engaging, and even inspiring collection of ideas that—if internalized and used to inform policies—would enable
societies to thrive within a healthy environment. I wish this book had been available when I was first learning about social and
environmental systems.”
—Robert Dietz, Editor, The Daly News, Center for the Advancement of the Steady State Economy
“A comprehensive and practical map of the evolving field of sustainability. This well-organized and thoroughly researched textbook
provides both students and educators with a useful guide to the essential sustainability topics. Robertson delivers an important work
that will help to define the knowledge base in the sustainability field.”
—Andrés R. Edwards, Founder, EduTracks, USA. Author of The Sustainability Revolution and Thriving Beyond Sustainability
“Robertson places sustainability in the connectedness between human culture and the living world. She links technical knowledge with
tools for developing positive solutions and putting them into effect, including working collaboratively in organizations with other people.”
—Bruce K. Ferguson, University of Georgia, USA
“Robertson has distilled the essential background information that students, our rising decision-makers, need so that they can follow her
clearly defined roadmap to a sustainable future for the planet.”

—Lee Kump, Pennsylvania State University, USA
“Sustainability Principles and Practice covers a broad range of topics, principles and concepts—at several scales from energy,
water, pollution, ecosystems, food, and cities—to a charge to future ‘agents for change’ at policy, institutional, and personal,
experiential levels. A must-have book to refresh your knowledge and to make a better world.”
—Alison Kwok, University of Oregon, USA
p.vi
“From now on when someone asks me what is sustainability, I will tell them to read Margaret Robertson’s book, Sustainability
Principles and Practice, which presents clearly and thoroughly the multi-faceted concept of sustainability in a very readable form.”
—Norbert Lechner, Auburn University, USA
“Everyone thinks they know what sustainability is, but few people truly understand it—and fewer still can explain it well. Robertson
cuts through the greenwash and the clichés with a top-notch exploration of the topic in all its complexities. It’s an enjoyable read that’s
both thoroughly grounded in science and steeped in wonder at our fascinating, fragile planet.”


—Daniel Lerch, Post Carbon Institute, USA
“Robertson’s incisive analysis is both global and specific, comprehensive and inclusive. There is careful blending of facts and values,
what is and what ought to be. You will find yourself engaged. I guarantee it.”
—Holmes Rolston, III, Colorado State University, USA
“This book grabbed my attention and kept me engaged. The focus on creating solutions is refreshing. This publication will enhance and
deepen the work of any general reader, student or faculty member working to bring sustainability into the curricula.”
—Debra Rowe, Oakland Community College, USA
“This book masterfully integrates human and natural systems and the relationships between them into a grand and detailed picture of
the world we live in. It provides a highly accessible introduction to sustainability suitable for anyone who cares about where we are
going as a species, translating this knowledge into practical action.”
—Arran Stibbe, University of Gloucestershire, UK
“This is a comprehensive, useful account of what sustainability is all about and what is needed for building it. It describes the many
facets that collectively determine the degree to which a system, at any scale, is sustainable, and explains how they interact. It is a
valuable guide and reference for anyone wishing to get involved in the practice of sustainability.”
—Brian Walker, CSIRO Ecosystem Sciences, Australia. Author of Resilience Thinking
“Sustainability champions practice systems thinking, connecting the dots between green buildings, sustainable cities, corporate CSR,

and all the global sustainability megaforces besieging us. This book is their indispensable primer and wonderfully practical handbook to
ensure they are effective change agents. It is a coherent encyclopedia of sustainability issues, with answers.”
—Bob Willard, Sustainability Advantage, Canada


p.vii

Contents

List of Illustrations
Supplementary Material
List of Abbreviations
PART I
Context
1 What Is Sustainability?
What Is Sustainability?
Sustainability and Resilience
Systems Thinking
Living in the Anthropocene
2 A Brief History of Sustainability
Recent History: The Last 200 Years
Early Conservation
Transformation from Conservation to Ecology
The Beginnings of the Environmental Movement
US Legislation in the 1970s
Environmental Justice
Environmental Ethics
Expanding to a Global Scale
Modern Trends
Into the Anthropocene

3 The Biosphere
Why Study Living Systems?
Energy and Matter


The Four Spheres
The Biosphere
What Is Life?
Earth System Science
p.viii

4 The Human Sphere
Human Impact
Economics
Failing States
Governance
The Commons
PART II
Issues and Solutions
5 Climate
Is Earth Warming?
How Temperature Records Are Compiled
The Long View: Climates through Time
Modern Climate Change and Greenhouse Gases
The Human Factor
Projecting into the Future
United Nations Convention on Climate Change
Climate Stabilization
Climate Action Plans
Strategies for Reducing Emissions

Offsets
Emissions Trading
Adaptation
Final Thoughts
6 Water
Uneven Distribution


Depletion of Nonrenewable Aquifers
Threats to Human and Ecosystem Health
Consumption
Effects of Climate Change
Water Conservation
Wastewater Treatment
Stormwater
7 Ecosystems and Habitat
Populations and Extinction
Drivers of Ecosystem Change
Conservation and Restoration
Conservation
Restoration Ecology
Living Together: Reconciliation Ecology
Ecology in the Anthropocene
p.ix

8 Pollution
Types of Toxins
Pollution Transport and Fate
Air Pollution
Soil and Land Pollution

Water Pollution
Organic Pollutants
Inorganic Pollutants
Endocrine Disruptors
Persistent Organic Pollutants
Point Source and Nonpoint Source Pollution
Radioactive Pollutants
Pollution Remediation
Pollution Prevention
9 Energy


Fossil Fuels
Renewable Energy
Energy Efficiency
Making the Transition
10 Green Buildings and Sites
What Is a Green Building?
The Process of Green Building Design
Lighting with Daylight
Basics of Heating and Cooling
Heating
Passive Cooling
Other Strategies for Cooling
Ventilation
Building Envelope
Construction
Rating Systems
Aesthetics
Sustainable Sites

Biophilic Design
11 Livable Cities
Sprawl
Land-Use Planning
Urban Planning
Building Community
Transportation
Cities and Climate Change
p.x

12 Food
Farming Methods
Human Health Issues
Planetary Health Issues


Feeding Ourselves
Finding Space for Food in the City
Food on Public Land
Healthy Soil: The Vital Foundation
13 Products
Toward a Circular Economy
Process Design
Product Alternatives
Product Design
Shipping and Packaging
ISO 14000 Standards
Certifications and Labels: Making Sense of Materials
14 Waste and Recycling
Waste Management

Landfills
Incineration
Recycling
Construction & Demolition Waste
Industrial Waste
Zero Waste
PART III
Becoming an Agent for Change
15 Working in an Organization
Governance
Sustainability Professionals at Work
Sustainability Initiatives
The Planning Process
Making the Business Case for Sustainability
Implementation
Frameworks
Measurement and Reporting


Measurement and Reporting Systems
16 Education
Biophilia
Bioregionalism and Place-Based Learning
Learning by Doing: Experiential Learning
The Learning Environment
Stages of Development: Humans as Lifelong Learners
p.xi

17 Working as Agents for Change
Fostering Sustainable Behavior

Efforts Big and Small
Working Together
Social Equity
Building Community
Transition
Bibliography
Index


p.xii

Illustrations

Figures
2.1
4.1
4.2
5.1
5.2
5.3
14.1

Socio-economic and Earth system trends of the Great Acceleration from 1750 to 2010
Arithmetic versus exponential growth
World population since 10,000 BCE
Global average temperature anomalies, 1880–2010
Record of carbon dioxide concentrations measured at the Mauna Loa station, 1958–2010
The global conveyor belt or thermohaline circulation
Municipal solid waste compared with total US solid waste

Boxes
6.1
6.2
7.1
8.1
8.2
9.1
10.1
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4

The Aral Sea Disaster
Bottled Water
Reconsidering Invasive Species
Cancer Clusters
Our Stolen Future
Jevons’ Paradox
Natural Cooling Inspired by Termites
The Oberlin Project
Freiburg’s Vauban District
Mole Hill: A Garden in the City
Curitiba, Brazil: Sustainability for All of Us
Bees and Other Pollinators
Polyface Farm

Cuba’s Carbon-Neutral Food System
Food From the ’Hood and the Watts Garden Club
p.xiii


13.1
13.2
13.3
14.1
14.2
14.3
15.1
16.1
16.2
16.3
17.1
17.2
17.3

The Twelve Principles of Green Chemistry
Providing Shelter from the Elements by Reusing Scrap
The ISO 14000 Family of Standards for Environmental Management
The Great Pacific Garbage Patch
Urban Mining
Keep America Beautiful
Scenario Planning
Where You At? A Bioregional Quiz
The STRAW Project
Risky Play and Adventure Playgrounds
Collective Learning: The Deeper Roots of Working in Groups

Consensus in the Applegate Watershed
Sustainable South Bronx


p.xiv

Supplementary Material

Additional resources are available on the Companion Website
/>
for

this

book:

• Throughout the book, defined words are printed in bold the first time they appear. The bold font
signals that a definition of this term can be found in the online glossary on the website.
• A limited number of suggested books for Further Reading are listed at the end of each chapter in
the printed book. A more extensive Further Reading list is available on the Companion Website as
an annotated bibliography with additional books, articles, and links to websites, listed by chapter.
• The printed book provides questions for review and discussion at the end of each chapter.
Additional exercises with end-of-chapter questions, activities, and projects are available on the
Companion Website.
• Case studies and white papers on the Companion Website examine additional topics and specific
skills.
• Educators can find presentation slides to accompany lectures for each chapter on the Companion
Website.

p.xv

Abbreviations

A

ampere (amp)

AASHE

Association for the Advancement of Sustainability in Higher Education

AC

alternating current

APC

American Plastics Council

ASHRAE

American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers

B-2

2 percent biodiesel

B-100

100 percent biodiesel

BAN

Basel Action Network

BART

Bay Area Rapid Transit

BAT

best available technique

bbl

blue barrel

BCE

before common era

Bcf

billion cubic feet

BEV

battery electric vehicle

BHAG

big, hairy, audacious goal

BMP

best management practice

BOD

biochemical oxygen demand

BP

before present

BPA

bisphenol A

BREEAM

Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method

BRT

bus rapid transit

Bt

Bacillus thuringiensis

Btu

British thermal units

C2C

Cradle to Cradle (certification)CM

C&D

construction and demolition

CAFO

concentrated animal feeding operation


CCOF

California Certified Organic Farmers

CCS

carbon capture and sequestration

CE

common era

CERCLA

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act

CFC

chlorofluorocarbon

CFL

compact fluorescent light

cfm

cubic feet per minute

CH4

methane

CHP

combined heat and power

CII

commercial, institutional, industrial
p.xvi

CO

carbon monoxide

CO2

carbon dioxide

CO2e

carbon dioxide equivalent

COP

Conference of the Parties

COPR

Canada Organic Product Regulation

CPTED

crime prevention through environmental design

CRZ

critical root zone

CSA

community-supported agriculture; Canadian Standards Association

CSD

Commission on Sustainable Development

CVP

Central Valley Project

DC

direct current

DDT

dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane

DFD

design for disassembly

DFE

Design for the Environment

DMS

dimethyl sulphide

DNA

deoxyribonucleic acid

DO

dissolved oxygen

DoD

Department of Defense

E10

10 percent ethanol

E85

85 percent ethanol

EC

European Commission


EIA
EMAS

Energy Information Administration
Eco-Management and Audit Scheme

EMS

environmental management system

ENSO

El Niño-Southern Oscillation

EPA

Environmental Protection Agency

EPAct

Energy Policy Act of 1992

EROEI

energy returned on energy invested

ESA

Endangered Species Act

ESCO

energy services company

ESY

Edible Schoolyard

EU

European Union

EUI

energy utilization index

FAO

Food and Agriculture Organization

FDA

Food and Drug Administration

FERC

Federal Energy Regulatory Commission

FFTH

Food From the ’Hood

FLO

Fairtrade International

FSC

Forest Stewardship Council

FWS

Fish and Wildlife Service

GATT

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

GBI

Green Building Initiative

GDP

gross domestic product

GM

genetically modified

GMO

genetically modified organism

gpf

gallons per flush

GPI

Genuine Progress Indicator

gpl

gallons per load

gpm

gallons per minute
p.xvii

GPRC

Great Plains Restoration Council

GRAS

Generally Recognized As Safe

GRI

Global Reporting Initiative

GW

gigawatt


GWP

global warming potential

H2O

water

HAP

hazardous air pollutant

HBN

Healthy Building Network

HCP

habitat conservation plan

HDPE

high-density polyethylene

HFC

hydrofluorocarbon

HID

high-intensity discharge

HRS

Hazard Ranking System

HVAC

heating, ventilating and air conditioning

ICI

institutional, commercial, industrial

ICPD

International Conference on Population and Development

IEA

International Energy Agency

IMF

International Monetary Fund

IPBES

Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services

IPCC

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

IPM

integrated pest management

IPMVP

International Performance Measurement and Verification Protocol

IPPC

Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control

IPPUC

Urban Planning Institute of Curitiba

ISEW

Index of Sustainable Economic Welfare

ISO

International Organization for Standardization

IUCN

International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources

KAB

Keep America Beautiful

kW

kilowatt

kWh

kilowatt-hour

LCA

life cycle assessment (or analysis)

LED

light-emitting diode

LEED

Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design

LEED AP LEED

Accredited Professional

LEED GA LEED

Green Associate

LEED-ND LEED

for Neighborhood Development

LID

low-impact development


LTL
M&V

less than a load
measurement and verification

Mcf

thousand cubic feet

MDG

Millennium Development Goal

MHCHS

Mole Hill Community Housing Society

MRF

material recovery facility

MRL

maximum residue limit

MSC

Marine Stewardship Council

MSW

municipal solid waste

MW

megawatt
p.xviii

N2

nitrogen

N2O

nitrous oxide

NAPL

nonaqueous phase liquid

NASA

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NEPA

National Environmental Policy Act

NGO

nongovernmental organization

NMFS

National Marine Fisheries Service

NO

nitric oxide

NO2

nitrogen dioxide

NOX

nitrogen oxides

NOAA

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NPL

National Priorities List

NPO

non-product output

NRC

National Recycling Coalition

NREL

National Renewable Energy Laboratory

NSF

National Sanitation Foundation

O2

oxygen

O3

ozone

O&M

operations and maintenance

OECD

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development

OTEC

ocean thermal energy conversion


OWC
P2

oscillating water column
Pollution prevention

PBT

persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic

PCB

polychlorinated biphenyl

PBDE

polybrominated diphenyl ether

PEFC

Programme for the Endorsement of Forestry Certification

PHEV

plug-in hybrid electric vehicle

PM2.5

particulate matter less than or equal to 2.5 micrometers in diameter

PM10

particulate matter less than or equal to 10 micrometers in diameter

POP

persistent organic pollutant

ppb

parts per billion

ppm

parts per million

psi

pounds per square inch

PURPA

Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act of 1978

PV

photovoltaic

PVC

polyvinyl chloride

RCRA

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

REC

renewable energy certificate (or credit)

RNA

ribonucleic acid

ROI

return on investment

R-value

resistance to heat flow

SCS

Scientific Certification Systems; Soil Conservation Service

SER

Society for Ecological Restoration

SES

Soil Erosion Service

SETAC

Society for Environmental Chemistry and Toxicology

SFI

Sustainable Forestry Initiative

SHGC

solar heat gain coefficient
p.xix

SO2

sulfur dioxide

SOx

sulfur oxides

SPI

Society of Plastics Industries

STARS

Sustainability Tracking, Assessment & Rating System


STRAW
SUV

Students and Teachers Restoring a Watershed
sport-utility vehicle

TBL

triple bottom line

Tcf

trillion cubic feet

TDM

transportation demand management

TDML

total daily maximum load

TDS

total dissolved solids

TFR

total fertility rate

TOD

transit-oriented development

TSCA

Toxic Substances Control Act

TSDF

treatment, storage, and disposal facility

TSE

Truck Stop Electrification

TSS

total suspended solids

UGB

urban growth boundary

UN

United Nations

UNEP

United Nations Environment Programme

UNFCCC

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

US

United States

USDA

US Department of Agriculture

USGBC

US Green Building Council

USGS

US Geological Society

U-value

heat transfer coefficient

V

volt

V2G

vehicle-to-grid

VICS

Voluntary Interindustry Commerce Solutions Association

VMT

vehicle miles traveled

VOC

volatile organic compound

VT

visible transmittance

WASCO

water service company

WBCSD

World Business Council for Sustainable Development

WCED

World Commission on Environment and Development

WHO

World Health Organization

WRI

World Resources Institute

WTE

waste-to-energy


WTO
WWF

World Trade Organization
World Wildlife Fund


p.1

Part I

Context


p.3

1 What Is Sustainability?

We live in a vast, three-dimensional, interconnected web of energy flows and life forms. Years ago
our world appeared to be the size of whatever culture we lived within and felt as if it were stable and
unchangeable. Our world is now understood to be planetary in scale, to be changing very fast, and to

be situated either at the threshold of a planetary disaster of unprecedented magnitude or at the
beginning of a sustainable new era. Whatever the outcome, the new state of the world will not be like
it is today.
In this world of planet-scale crises and opportunities, sustainability is a topic of increasing focus.
Many people are familiar with some of the strategies employed in sustainability efforts: solar panels,
recycling, or harvesting rainwater, for example. These are important positive steps. They and many
others are discussed in more detail later in the book, but by themselves they cannot make the current
conditions sustainable. So, what does it mean to be sustainable?

What Is Sustainability?
Sustainability means enduring into the long-term future; it refers to systems and processes that are
able to operate and persist on their own over long periods of time. The adjective “sustainable” means
“able to continue without interruption” or “able to endure without failing.”1 The word “sustainability”
comes from the Latin verb sustinēre, “to maintain, sustain, support, endure,” made from the roots sub,
“up from below,” and tenēre, “to hold.” The German equivalent, Nachhaltigkeit, first appeared in the
1713 forestry book Sylvicultura Oeconomica written by Hans Carl von Carlowitz, a mining
administrator in a region whose mining and metallurgy industry depended upon timber and who
realized that deforestation could cause the local economy to collapse. Carlowitz described how
through sustainable management of this renewable resource, forests could supply timber indefinitely.
We are part of linked systems of humans and nature, so the study of sustainability goes beyond
environmentalism. A key attribute of the field is a recognition of three interrelated dimensions:
ecological, economic, and social. The planet faces many problems that are connected, including
poverty, impaired health, overpopulation, resource depletion, food and water scarcity, political
instability, and the destruction of the life support systems we all depend on. Scholars debate about
whether environmental destruction causes poverty, or whether poverty causes environmental
destruction out of sheer desperation, but it is agreed that they go together (Caradonna 2014, 224). We
cannot fix one problem in isolation because they are all connected.
The three dimensions of ecological sustainability, economic opportunity, and social inclusion are