Ebook Introduction to occupation the art and science of living (2/E): Part 1

SECOND EDITION

INTRODUCTION
TO OCCUPATION
The Art and Science of Living
New multidisciplinary perspectives for understanding human
occupation as a central feature of individual experience and
social organization

Edited by

Charles H. Christiansen, EdD
American Occupational Therapy Foundation, Bethesda, Maryland

Elizabeth A. Townsend, PhD
Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458


Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Introduction to occupation : the art and science of living : new multidisciplinary perspectives
for understanding human occupation as a central feature of individual experience and social
organization / edited by Charles H. Christiansen and Elizabeth A. Townsend. — 2nd ed.
p. cm.
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-199942-8
ISBN-10: 0-13-199942-7
1. Occupations—Psychological aspects. 2. Human behavior. I. Christiansen, Charles.
II. Townsend, Elizabeth A.
BF481.I58 2010
158.6—dc22

2008045778

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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
ISBN 10: 0-13-199942-7
ISBN 13: 978-0-13-199942-8


To Caren, Jim, Janet and Kim, who have always been there for me.
~Charles Christiansen
To my colleagues and family for persistent support, and to my good fortune in being a
woman with many occupational possibilities.

~Elizabeth Townsend


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Contents
Figures, Tables and Boxes
Foreword
Preface

xv
xvii

Contributing Authors
Reviewers

CHAPTER

xi

xix

xxi

1 An Introduction to Occupation

1

Charles H. Christiansen and Elizabeth A. Townsend

Chapter Profile 2
Introduction 2
Understanding the Complexity of Occupation 2
How Do People Occupy Their Time? 6
What Influences What People Do? 12
What Is Your Occupation? 14
How Does Context Determine What People Do (and When They Do It)? 20
How Does Occupation Influence Health, Well-Being, and Just Participation
in Society? 25
Chapter Summary 27
Study Guide 28
References 30

CHAPTER

2 Cultural Perspectives on Occupation

35

Michael K. Iwama

Chapter Profile 35
Introduction 36
Relativism and the Consequences of Culture 38
Situated Views of Occupation: A Cultural Example

42
v

vi

Contents

Particular Worldviews: East Asian Views of the Cosmos
Cultural Perspectives of Occupation 49
Chapter Summary 51
Study Guide 52
References 54

CHAPTER

43

3 The Study of Occupation

57

Helene J. Polatajko

Chapter Profile 58
Introduction 58
Ways of Knowing 59
Methods of Inquiry for the Study of Occupation
Understanding Who 67
Understanding What 67
Understanding When 70
Understanding Where 71
Understanding How 72

Understanding Why 73
Chapter Summary 74
Study Guide 74
References 76

CHAPTER

62

4 What Is Occupation? Interdisciplinary Perspectives
on Defining and Classifying Human Activity

81

Jennifer Jarman

Chapter Profile 82
Introduction 82
Occupation in Occupational Therapy and Occupational Science
Occupation in the Social Sciences 88
Occupation in Government Statistics 90
Chapter Summary 95
Study Guide 95
References 98

CHAPTER

5 What Do People Do?
Andrew S. Harvey and Wendy Pentland

Chapter Profile 102
Introduction 102
The Structure of Daily Occupations 102

83

101


vii

Contents

Conceptualizing What People Do 104
Factors Influencing What People Do 109
Why Study What People Do? 113
How Is Human Time Use Studied? 115
What Do People Do? 117
Chapter Summary 127
Study Guide 128
References 130

CHAPTER

6 Occupational Development

135

Jane A. Davis and Helene J. Polatajko

Chapter Profile 136
Introduction 136
An Occupational Perspective on Development 137
Interactionism as a Framework for Occupational Development
Chapter Summary 167
Study Guide 168
References 170

CHAPTER

140

7 The Occupational Nature of Social Groups

175

Charles H. Christiansen and Elizabeth A. Townsend

Chapter Profile 176
Introduction 176
What Makes Social Groups Inherently Occupational? 176
How and Why Did Occupations that Promote Group Living Develop?
How and Why Do Occupations Determine a Social Group’s Potential
to Flounder or Flourish? 191
Chapter Summary 203
Study Guide 204
References 206

CHAPTER

8 Occupational Transitions: Work to Retirement
Hans Jonsson

Chapter Profile 211
Introduction 212
Retirement as an Occupational Transition 213
Engaging Occupation for a Good Life as a Retiree
Cultural Images of Retirement 224

221

184

211


viii

Contents

Chapter Summary 227
Study Guide 227
References 229

CHAPTER

9 Occupational Balance and Well-being

231

Catherine L. Backman

Chapter Profile 231
Introduction 232
Occupational Balance 232
Work-Life Balance 236
Lifestyle Balance 240
Is Occupational Balance Achievable? 241
Occupational Balance, Health, and Well-Being
Chapter Summary 244
Study Guide 245
References 247

CHAPTER

242

10 Occupations and Places

251

Toby Ballou Hamilton

Chapter Profile 251
Introduction 252
Understanding Place 253
Occupations as Experiences in Places 260
How Places Influence Occupation 261
How Occupations Influence Places 267
Place, Occupations, and Well-Being 272

Chapter Summary 274
Study Guide 275
References 277

CHAPTER

11 Work, Occupation, and Leisure
Jiri Zuzanek

Chapter Profile 281
Introduction 282
Work-Leisure Relationship: “Spillover,” Compensation, or
Compartmentalization? 283

281


ix

Contents

Empirical Support for the Work-Leisure Relationship Scenarios
Leisure and Occupation 288
Long Hours of Work, Time Crunch, and Leisure 290
What Can We Conclude About the Relationship Between Work
and Leisure? 294
Chapter Summary 295
Study Guide 296
References 298

286

CHAPTER 12 Occupational Deprivation: Understanding Limited
Participation

303

Gail Whiteford

Chapter Profile 304
Introduction 304
Defining Occupational Deprivation 305
Identifying Barriers To Participation: Five Illustrations of Occupational
Deprivation 306
Disability and Occupational Deprivation 319
Using an Occupational Justice Framework to Address Occupational
Deprivation 322
Chapter Summary 323
Study Guide 324
References 326

CHAPTER 13 Occupational Justice
Robin L. Stadnyk, Elizabeth A. Townsend, and Ann A. Wilcock

Chapter Profile 329
Introduction 330
Defining Occupational Justice 330
Ideas About Justice 331
An Evolving Theory of Occupational Justice 334
Distinctions Between Occupational and Social Justice 347

Using Stories to Consider an Evolving Theory of Occupational
Justice 348
Chapter Summary 352
Study Guide 352
References 354

329


x

Contents

CHAPTER 14 Occupational Science and Occupational Therapy:
Occupation at Center Stage

359

Matthew Molineux

Chapter Profile 359
Introduction 360
Occupational Therapy 360
Occupational Science 368
The Relationship Between the Science and Therapy
Chapter Summary 375
Study Guide 376
References 378

373

CHAPTER 15 Globalization and Occupation: Perspectives from Japan,
South Africa, and Hong Kong
Eric Asaba, Alfred T. Ramukumba, Annah R. Lesunyane,
and Simon Kam Man Wong

Chapter Profile 386
Introduction 386
An Occupational Perspective from Japan 387
An Occupational Perspective from South Africa 393
An Occupational Perspective from Hong Kong, China 401
Chapter Summary 408
Study Guide 409
References 412
Glossary

417

Study Guide Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions
Index

428

424

385


Figures, Tables, and Boxes
FIGURES

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6-4
6-5
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7-1

7-2
7-3

Occupations surround us. 7
Nested or embedded occupations occur when people do more than
one thing simultaneously. 9
Much of daily life involves habits and routines. 11
Fishing is a popular form of casual leisure for young and old alike. 19
Play is a principal occupation of children. 25
Occupations can have significant implications for personal health
and happiness. 26
Circadian Rhythms are expressed in daily occupational patterns. 71

Cultural stereotypes concerning the roles of men and women in the
workforce are slowly changing in Japan. 94
Prototype Time-Use Diary 117
Time Allocation by Occupation, Canada, 2005 121
Interactional Model of Occupational Development (IMOD) 142
New occupations can occur at any age. 145
Lev Semenovich Vygotsky 152
Occupations are shaped by history and culture. 153
Multiple variation: occupational similarities at different ages
and for different reasons. 157
Grandmother and granddaughter reading: an example
of an intergenerational occupation. 160
The concepts of community cooperation and interdependence
are clearly exemplified in collective efforts to build a physical
structure—either for the community-at-large or for individuals. 181
The broken window hypothesis suggests that when structural
disorder occurs in a neighborhood, a rise in crime results. 183
The ability to hold a pencil or writing tool is an example
of an exaptation. 189

xi


xii

Figures, Tables, and Boxes

7-4
7-5
8-1

8-2
9-1
9-2
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10-2
10-3
10-4
10-5
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12-2
12-3
12-4
13-1
13-2
14-1
15-1
15-2

Prehistoric cave paintings provide clues to early humans’ thinking
about magic and mythology. 194
Weddings as community rituals. 199
Meanings of work expressed by 32 working Swedish persons
at the age of 63. 215
Two types of narrative with two different plots when describing
occupation. 221
Travel to scenic locations is often a strategy used to remedy perceived
occupational imbalance. 235
Selected Factors Influencing Occupational Balance, Health,
and Well-Being 243
This campus architectural design has created an affordance

for sitting and study. 256
Occupational rituals are often linked to time and place. Many
people have a set time and route for walking their dogs. 259
Movement from place to place is often a key element of participation
in necessary and chosen daily endeavors. 260
In the United States, one prevalent symbol of homelessness is a
grocery cart filled with personal belongings. 270
Virtual environments can vary from entire buildings
to specific rooms. 272
Occupational deprivation can be caused by restricted access to
people, events, and places. 307
Social sanctions, such as imprisonment, create occupational
deprivation as a type of punishment. 313
Some cultures have defined expectations for the occupations
of women. 315
War and internal political strife within nations can deprive people
of the safety and support of community. 318
A Framework Exploring the Creation and Outcomes of
Occupational Justices and Injustices 335
A Framework of Occupational Justice 336
Two Approaches to Occupational Therapy 365
Hashi-ire group packaging chopsticks as an independent
occupation. 389
Playing Mahjong in Hong Kong. 404

TABLES
1-1
3-1
3-2

Selected Occupational Classification Systems 20
Female versus Male Ways of Knowing 60
Six Questions of Basic Inquiry and Possible Subquestions Applied
to Human Occupation 64


Figures, Tables, and Boxes

3-3
4-1
5-1
5-2
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5-4
5-5
5-6
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13-2

13-3
14-1
14-2

Common Research Methods in the Quantitative and Qualitative
Paradigms 65
Major Group 1: Legislators, Senior Officials, and Managers 91
Factors Influencing What People Do 110
Allocation of Primary Activity Time and Participation Rates
by Sex, Canada, 2005 119
Daily Time Allocation, Selected Countries, and Years 120
Allocation to Occupations for Different Populations,
Canada, 1998 122
Secondary Activities, Australia, 1997 124
Average Hours per Day Spent at Various Locations,
Canada, 2005 125
Average Hours per Day Spent with Various Other Persons,
Canada, 2005 125
Social Environment in Selected Countries 126
Communications Technology, Australia, 1997 127
Principles of Human Development 144
Ages and Stages of Occupational Development 162
The Evolution of Human Occupations 166
Rubin’s Structural Characteristics of Communities 180
Demographic Characteristics of Participants 212
Occupational Balance and Related Concepts Defined 233
Theoretical Conceptualizations of the Work-Leisure
Relationship 286
Time Use and Leisure Participation of Employed Men Aged 24 to 65
by Sociooccupational Status: 1992 GSS, Canada 289

Time Pressure, Stress, Leisure Participation, Emotional Well-Being,
and Health by the Length of Paid Work: 1998 GSS, Canada 293
An Exploratory Theory of Occupational Justice: Beliefs
and Principles 340
An Exploratory Theory of Occupational Justice: Distinctions
Between Occupational and Social Justice 348
Occupational Justice: A Dialogue for Raising Awareness 351
Intervention Strategies 367
Extract From a Sample Intervention Plan 368

BOXES
1-1
1-2
1-3

xiii

A History of Occupation 3
Classifying Paid Work 16
Is Sleep an Occupation? 17


xiv

Figures, Tables, and Boxes

1-4
1-5
4-1
5-1

Classifying Leisure 18
Play: The Occupations of Children 24
Gender Issues in Culture and Classification 94
A Sampling of Some Questions to Answer About Daily
Occupations 114
6-1 Lev Semenovich Vygotsky 152
6-2 A Word About Gender and Occupational Development 156
6-3 Robert J. Havighurst 159
7-1 Clans as Places of Refuge and Barriers to Connectedness 178
7-2 The Broken Window Hypothesis 183
7-3 Memes: The Genes of Language 185
7-4 Game Theory: The Prisoner’s Dilemma 190
7-5 The Antigonish Movement as an Example of Participation
and Partnership 192
7-6 Evidence of Artistic Expression by Prehistoric Humans 194
7-7 Model Principles for Sustainable Communities 195
7-8 Group Advocacy for Community Improvement: The Healthy
Communities Movement 197
7-9 The Concept of Mass Society 202
9-1 Restoring Occupational Balance 235
9-2 Factors Influencing Initiatives to Address Work-Life Balance
and Work-Life Conflict 238
12-1 What Is Refugeeism?
318


Foreword
Carolyn Baum, PhD, OTR/L, FAOTA
Washington University, St. Louis, MO

Sometimes you find just the book you are looking for; this is it. I hold a firm belief
in the power and value of occupation: In fact, I teach the theory and foundation
course in our curriculum. I often find myself in faculty discussions about the science
underpinning our occupational therapy curriculum model. There is a consensus
that our curriculum model, which serves to prepare occupational therapy practitioners, is supported by neuroscience, environmental science, and occupational
science. To date, we have not found a book for an entire course on the theories and
science that support occupations’ use in practice—this is it.
Occupational therapists are being asked to respond to and act on the needs of
society through the healthcare system and the community systems that serve those
with chronic health conditions and disability. Society expects occupational therapists and occupational therapy assistants to help people develop the skills and strategies to achieve personal goals and improve the quality of their everyday lives. Our
method of helping is through enhancing capacity for occupational engagement and
removing barriers that limit the ability of people to engage in the occupations that
are meaningful and necessary to their everyday lives. All the developing areas of
occupational therapy practice are centered on the needs of people to engage in
occupations. I will review just a few. Because we recognize the importance of personal places and the memories of meaningful experiences imbued there, we can use
our expertise in activity (occupation), performance, and environment to help people remain independent in their own homes and communities. Knowing who can
safely drive (an occupation) to remain on the highways is important to individuals,
to families, and to society. Helping children and youth achieve the capacity to be successful in school (learning and developmental occupations), be engaged with families and communities, and transition into adult roles, including employment, also is
of vital importance. Helping workers prevent unnecessary disabilities, return to
work after accidents, and have work and work stations that enable success in the
world of work (what the public usually thinks about when we talk about occupations)
is of unquestionable value. Therapy personnel can help older workers retain their
ability to engage in productive work or civic engagement. They can help those with
persistent mental health issues gain the skills to live in the least-restrictive environment,
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Foreword

engage in meaningful occupations, and avoid social isolation. All these opportunities require the practitioner to have a rich understanding of the theories and science
that support the individual’s need, responsibility, and right to engage in occupation.
Many people come to the field of occupational therapy because they want to
help people. By fully understanding occupation on an individual, community, and
population level, practitioners in occupational therapy and other fields will be
armed with the tools to make contributions to the health and well-being of the
people they will serve.


Last H1 Head

xvii

Preface
The Latin phase carpe diem is a call for humans to be active and meditative about the
possibilities that confront us as we literally harvest the day. Our occupations—how we
harvest our days—present possibilities to perform, contemplate, make choices, exert
control, develop habits, make meaning, connect with others, create communities,
build societies, and otherwise seize our potential as humans, individually and collectively. The second edition of Introduction to Occupation: The Art and Science of Living
presents the latest knowledge about occupation so that each of us around the world
may understand how to seize and harvest our days for health, well-being, happiness,
and the development of more just and peaceful societies.
Introduction to Occupation will appeal to any student, practitioner, researcher, or
educator with an interest in everyday life. We anticipate that Introduction to Occupation will be read by archeologists and anthropologists who study everyday life in the
past and present; by sociologists and other social scientists who study employment,
leisure, household work, family life, and other occupational concepts; by musicians
and other artists who specialize in creative occupations; and by occupational scientists and occupational therapists, whose core domain of concern is occupation.
Nowadays, it is often said that the speed of change makes it difficult, if not impossible, to keep abreast of all the information needed to stay current in the world.
Developments in information technology, reflected in the growth of the Internet,

are helping people to cope, but paradoxically, new technologies are also making it
easier for change to occur. Smart phones, lightweight notebook computers, and
iPods with wireless capability and Internet connectivity are enabling people to stay
connected nearly everywhere, to share their ideas and creativity, and to stay informed. These technologies also change what people do, how they use time, and
how their use of time is influenced by others.
For millennia, philosophers have grappled with the conditions that define a
good life. Socrates was convinced that there were no more important questions than
those concerning how to live well and happily. Today’s intense and widespread public interest in positive psychology (which, at its core, emphasizes finding ways to live
happily) suggests that Socrates’ questions continue to be as relevant now as they
were in his time. Perhaps the profound changes of our time impel us to reflect on
these questions as a way of seeking guidance.
Moreover, Socrates’ assertion that values and meaning are more important to
happiness than materialistic matters have tended to be confirmed by the modern research of psychologists who are studying the factors that contribute to “happiness”
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Preface

in everyday life. Time and again, these studies point to satisfying certain universal
human needs as essential to positive feelings. Interestingly, those needs typically
have components involving meaning and relationships. All of them are in some way
embodied in human doing.
It seems a small step from identifying important needs essential for happiness and
well-being to examining the means by which humans can create these conditions. The
central question remains, How should people live their lives if they are to be happy? Yet,
only recently have significant efforts been made in the context of science to examine
what people do, where and how they do it, and how they feel about what they do as a
means for providing informed advice to community planners, policy experts, and human service workers who seek guidance in helping people find better ways to live.

To put this second edition in context, knowledge of human occupation is elementary yet growing rapidly. There are articles, books, stories, and films and other materials
on work-related occupations. The repertoire of knowledge of work-related occupations
is enriched by wide-ranging research on subjects such as time use, leisure, occupational
hazards and safety, occupational medicine, and occupational therapy. Still there is
much to learn about occupation. Everyday occupations collectively define, organize,
and influence all aspects of peoples’ lives. This book takes the view that occupations
include all meaningful acts that collectively define and give meaning to daily living.
For these reasons, understanding human occupations, with all the complexity
that surrounds such understanding, has become a central concern to occupational
scientists. As this book reveals, occupational scientists come from myriad disciplines,
ranging from sociology and psychology to geography, public policy and the health
sciences. Within this volume, one finds a collection of introductory chapters that discuss human occupation, from the standpoint of place, culture, time use, human development, social justice, deprivation, work and leisure, and health (to name a few).
The intent is to provide a backdrop that introduces the reader to the breadth of the
topic and to provide a context for those in the health and social sciences, including
public health, health psychology, social work, and occupational therapy, to begin to
understand the central importance of everyday activity to human existence, meaning, and yes, happiness and well-being.
This second edition includes updated chapters from the first volume and adds
new topics and study materials to help the reader become exposed to the broad
range of ideas and concerns of occupational science. Given the complexity and
breadth of occupation, the book cannot be exhaustive, either in individual chapters
or across the span of the book. We hope, however, that exposure to the ideas here
will invite a further examination of one or more specific topic areas.
We are indebted to the contributors to this volume and its precursor, to our consultants, who provided expert review of the material to enhance study and learning,
and to those editorial assistants who provided dependable and helpful assistance. In
particular, we thank the publishers, especially Mark Cohen and Melissa Kerian for
their continued support, Charles Hayden and Judy Wolf for their work in early parts
of manuscript preparation, Sarah Gibson for reference support, and Linda Buxell,
Katie Barrett, Kristine Haertl, and Julie Bass Haugen, who provided helpful and
timely advice with study guide materials.
Charles Christiansen

Bethesda, Maryland

Elizabeth Townsend
Halifax, Nova Scotia


Last H1 Head

xix

Contributing Authors
Eric Asaba, PhD, OTR
Assistant Professor and Postdoctoral Fellow,
Karolinska Institutet
Stockholm, Sweden
Research Associate and Chief Occupational
Therapist, Asaba Medical Research
Foundation and affiliated Kohnan Hospital
Tamang City, Japan
Catherine L. Backman, PhD, OT(C), FCAOT
Associate Professor, Department of Occupational
Science and Occupational Therapy
The University of British Columbia
Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
Robert K. Bing, EdD, OTR, FAOTA (Deceased)
Professor Emeritus
The University of Texas Medical Branch
Galveston, Texas, USA
Charles H. Christiansen, EdD, OTR, OT(C), FAOTA
Executive Director

The American Occupational Therapy
Foundation
Bethesda, Maryland, USA
Jane A. Davis, PhD (candidate), MSc, OT(C), OT
Reg (ONT), OTR,
Lecturer, Department of Occupational Science
and Occupational Therapy
Faculty of Medicine,
University of Toronto
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Toby Ballou Hamilton, PhD, MPH, OTR/L
Assistant Professor, Department of
Rehabilitation Science
College of Allied Health
University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA

Andrew S. Harvey, PhD
Professor Emeritus of Economics
Director, Time Use Research Program
Saint Mary’s University
Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
Michael K. Iwama, PhD, OT(C), OT Reg (ONT)
Associate Professor, Department of Occupational
Science and Occupational Therapy
University of Toronto
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Jennifer Jarman, PhD
Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology
National University of Singapore

Singapore
Hans Jonsson, PhD, OT (reg)
Associate Professor
Director of Master Courses in Occupational
Therapy
Division of Occupational Therapy
Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences,
and Society
Karolinska Institutet
Stockholm, Sweden
Annah R. Lesunyane, M Occ Ther
Lecturer, Department of Occupational Therapy
Faculty of Health Sciences
University of Limpopo
Medunsa, Pretoria, South Africa
Matthew Molineux, BOccThy, MSc, PhD, AccOT
Head of Occupational Science and
Occupational Therapy
School of Allied Health Professions
Leeds Metropolitan University
Leeds, United Kingdom

xix


xx

Contributing Authors

Wendy Pentland, PhD, OT(C), OT Reg (ONT)

Associate Professor, Division of Occupational
Therapy
School of Rehabilitation Therapy
Queen’s University
Kingston, Ontario, Canada
Helene J. Polatajko, PhD, OT Reg (ONT), OT(C),
OT Reg (ONT) FCAOT
Professor, Department of Occupational Science
and Occupational Therapy and Graduate
Department of Rehabilitation Science
University of Toronto
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Alfred T. Ramukumba, B Occ Ther (Hons),
M Phil Adult Education and Training
Senior Lecturer and Head of Department,
Occupational Therapy Program
Faculty of Health Sciences
University of Limpopo
Medunsa, Pretoria, South Africa
Robin L. Stadnyk, PhD, OT(C) OT Reg. (NS)
Assistant Professor
School of Occupational Therapy
Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada

Simon Kam Man Wong, MAIS, MBA, PDOT
Manager, Occupational Therapy Department
Tai Po Hospital
Hong Kong
Jiri Zuzanek, PhD
Professor, Department of Recreation and

Leisure Studies
Faculty of Applied Health Sciences
University of Waterloo
Waterloo, Ontario, Canada

CONSULTANTS
Kate Barrett, OTD, OTR/L
Assistant Professor, Department of Occupational
Therapy and Occupational Science
The College of St. Catherine
St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
Linda Buxell, MA, OTR/L
Professor, Department of Occupational Therapy
and Occupational Science
The College of St. Catherine
St. Paul, Minnesota, USA

Elizabeth A. Townsend, PhD, OT(C), OT, FCAOT
Professor and Director, School of Occupational
Therapy
Dalhousie University
Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada

Kristine L. Haertl, PhD, OTR/L
Associate Professor, Department of Occupational
Therapy and Occupational Science
The College of St. Catherine
St. Paul, Minnesota, USA

Gail Whiteford, PhD

Professor and Head of Albury Wodonga Campus
Charles Sturt University
Albury, New South Wales, Australia

Julie Bass Haugen, PhD, OTR/L, FAOTA
Professor, Department of Occupational Therapy
and Occupational Science
The College of St. Catherine
St. Paul, Minnesota, USA

Ann A. Wilcock, PhD
Adjunct Professor
School of Occupational Therapy
Dalhousie University (Canada)
Normanville, South Australia, Australia


Reviewers
Second Edition Reviewers
Debbie Amini, MEd, OTR/L, CHT
Director, Occupational Therapy Assisting
Cape Fear Community College
Wilmington, North Carolina, USA
Melba Arnold, MS, OTR/L
Assistant Professor, Occupational Science/
Occupational Therapy
Saint Louis University
St. Louis, Missouri, USA
Linda Duncombe, EdD, OTR/L, FAOTA
Clinical Associate Professor

Academic Fieldwork Coordinator
Occupational Therapy and Rehabilitation
Counseling
Boston University
Boston, Massachusetts, USA
John Fleming, MOT, OTR/L
Assistant Professor, Occupational Therapy
College of St. Catherine
St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
Sue Gallagher, MA, OTR/L
Assistant Professor, Occupational Therapy
Quinnipiac University
Hamden, Connecticut, USA
Anita Hotchkiss, MS, OTR/L
Instructor, Occupational Therapy
Gannon University
Erie, Pennsylvania, USA
Lisa Hubbs, MS, OTR/L
Program Coordinator, Occupational Therapy
Assisting
Suffolk County Community College
Brentwood, New York, USA

Janet Nagayda, OTD, MS, OTR
Associate Professor and Chair, Occupational
Therapy
Saginaw Valley State University
University Center, Michigan, USA
Claudia Peyton, PhD, OTR/L, FAOTA
Coordinator, Occupational Therapy

California State University
Redondo Beach, California, USA
Janeene Sibla, MS, OTR/L
Associate Professor, Occupational Therapy
University of Mary
Bismarck, North Dakota, USA
Beth P. Velde, PhD, OTR/L
Professor, Occupational Therapy
East Carolina University
Greenville, North Carolina, USA

First Edition Reviewers
Kathy P. Bradley, EdD
Chair, Occupational Therapy Department
Medical College of Georgia
Augusta, Georgia, USA
Barbara Rom, OTR/L
Program Director, Occupational Therapy
Assistant Program
Green River Community College
Auburn, Washington, USA
Amy Solomon, OTR
Denver Technical College
Denver, Colorado, USA

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CHAPTER

1

An Introduction to Occupation
Charles H. Christiansen and Elizabeth A. Townsend
OBJECTIVES
1. Define key concepts related to occupations, including occupation, activity, task,
habits, routines, automaticity, and embedded occupations.
2. Discuss the different ways in which occupations create meaning.
3. Describe several examples of occupational classifications/taxonomies discussed in
this chapter.
4. Identify specific biological, psychological, and contextual factors that influence
occupational choice and patterns.
5. Discuss current evidence of the relationships between occupations and health,
well-being, and participation.
6. Summarize how understanding of occupation is enhanced after reading about
the history of occupations, sleep, leisure, play, and paid work.

KEY WORDS
Automaticity
Embedded occupations
Everyday life
Folk taxonomy
Habit
Human occupations
Narrative
Occupation

Occupational classification/taxonomy
Occupational habits
Occupational routines
Occupational science
Occupations
Routine
Taxonomy

www.prenhall.com/christiansen
The Internet provides an exciting means for interacting with this textbook and for enhancing your
understanding of humans’ experiences with occupations and the organization of occupations in
society. Use the address above to access the interactive Companion Website created specifically
to accompany this book. Here you will find an array of self-study material designed to help you
gain a richer understanding of the concepts presented in this chapter.

1
1


2

Chapter 1

An Introduction to Occupation

CHAPTER PROFILE
In this chapter, the term occupation is defined and examined broadly to provide a
context for viewing the daily pursuits of humans. The chapter seeks to establish a
beginning point for understanding the scope of ideas in the book and to introduce an occupational perspective of human life and society. Several key questions
regarding occupation are posed. These questions enable the exploration of concepts regarding how occupations have been defined and classified in the past.

Human time use reveals broad types of human endeavor, each having implications
for behavior, development, social interaction, well-being, and participation in society. Factors influencing occupational engagement are explored, and a brief history of occupations through the ages is summarized from the work of Robert Bing.
The chapter closes with a review of ideas related to the perceived beneficial effects
of human occupation on individuals and our participation in societies. It is acknowledged that the chapter and the book overall are written largely from the perspective of Western cultures.

INTRODUCTION
The word occupation in English is derived from the Latin occupatio, meaning “to occupy
or to seize.” To be occupied is to use and even seize control of time and space (or
place) as a person engages in a recognizable life endeavor. Daily human occupations
are invested with form and a sense of purpose, meaning, cultural style, and
social/economic significance or power (1, 2). Those who take an occupational perspective of life and society raise questions and seek answers about occupations. One
looks at life and society using an occupational lens to understand what people are
doing, or want and need to do to survive, be healthy, and live well as valued citizens.
Conversely with such a lens, one can look at systems and society to understand how
occupations are named, classified, and organized in different economies and sociocultural practices. Our reference to human occupation in this book includes more
than engagement in work. Everyday lives reflect participation in a broad range of
pursuits. Occupational engagement—the occupying of place and time in a rich tapestry of experience, purpose, and attached meaning—is how we broadly define
human occupation (2).

UNDERSTANDING THE COMPLEXITY
OF OCCUPATION
Humans have occupied their lives with the goal-directed pursuits necessary for existence and well-being since the dawning of time. As group-living animals, early humans
used primitive or proto-occupations to ensure their survival. They cooperated in
their pursuit of food, water, and shelter and in protecting and nurturing their offspring. Undoubtedly, these early group behaviors were genetically influenced as part
of nature’s adaptations for survival of the human species. The evolution of language


Understanding the Complexity of Occupation

3

enabled meanings to be attached to occupations and events, and as the human brain
increased in size, greater intelligence led to new ways to adapt, survive, and contend
with the challenges of nature. The division of labor within groups is an example of
this. As humans evolved, so did occupations. Yet, even now within different cultural
groups, we can still identify distinct types of occupational pursuits necessary for survival and maintenance. In considering these ideas, it is useful to think about the
socioculturally diverse roles individuals play in serving the needs of groups. Social
roles, such as mother, father, and leader are, at their core, defined by the occupations
that are used to maintain families, groups, communities, and organizations. These
differ in context, depending, for instance, on cultural rituals and social conditions.
Box 1-1 provides a brief glimpse of how occupations have changed since early history.

BOX 1-1

A History of Occupation

An understanding of occupations today is better achieved if a person has an appreciation for what people did during previous eras. Archeologists and anthropologists
agree that from the dawn of time, humans’ primary purpose was to survive. As early
humans developed language and intellect, adaptation to the forces of nature
required a division of labor. In very early times men were the foragers and gatherers, and women, being child-bearers, were the preservers and fashioners of materials for eating and bartering. The basic occupations at this time included agriculture,
the making of essential tools, and the creation of pottery, textiles, and basketry (59).
Although an in-depth exploration of the history of work and leisure could easily fill volumes, a review of everyday occupations through the ages and how these
influenced (and were influenced by) the cultures and attitudes of the time provides
a useful context in which to view the present. History illustrates how work and play
coexisted and were jointly influenced by the cultures and environments of the times.
In later centuries, the Greeks were among the first advanced culture to appreciate the importance of work and leisure (60). Work was seen as the gods’ curse
on humankind. The Greek word for work was ponos, meaning a sense of a heavy
burdensome task, downright drudgery. Within this culture, however, the division
of labor was based on status within the culture. There was little dignity or value in
work, other than as a means for avoiding hunger and death, or for reaching prosperity and the opportunity for leisure. Slaves, peasants, and craftsmen did the

work of gathering and preserving raw materials and fashioning goods. A middle
class was made up of merchants, who did the bartering. The nobility and priests
became the upper class, whose work was to indulge in the pleasurable occupations of life, such as teaching, discovering, thinking, or composing music. At this
time, leisure became one of the foundations of Western culture. The English word
school is derived from the Greek word skole, for the place where education and
teaching occurred (60).
(continued)