Ebook Textbook of human histology (with colour atlas and practical guide - 7th edition): Part 1
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Inderbir Singh’s
Textbook of
Human Histology
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Late Professor Inderbir Singh
(1930–2014)
Tribute to a Legend
Professor Inderbir Singh, a legendary anatomist, is renowned for being a pillar in
the education of generations of medical graduates across the globe. He was one of
the greatest teachers of his times. He was a passionate writer who poured his soul
into his work. His eagle’s eye for details and meticulous way of writing made his
books immensely popular amongst students. He managed to become enmeshed in
millions of hearts in his lifetime. He was conferred the title of Professor Emeritus
by Maharishi Dayanand University, Rohtak.
On 12th May 2014, he has been awarded posthomously with Emeritus
Teacher Award by National Board of Examination for making invaluable
contribution in teaching of Anatomy. This award is given to honour legends
who have made tremendous contribution in the field of medical education and
their work had vast impact on the education of medical graduates. He was a
visionary for his times and the legacies he left behind are his various textbooks on
gross anatomy, histology, neuroanatomy, and embryology. Although his mortal
frame is not present amongst us, his genius will live on forever.
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Inderbir Singh’s
Textbook of
Human HisTology
with Colour atlas and Practical guide
Seventh Edition
Revised and Edited by
nEElam VasuDEVa MBBS MD
Director Professor and Head, Department of Anatomy
Maulana Azad Medical College, New Delhi
saBiTa misHRa MBBS DNB PhD (AIIMS)
Professor, Department of Anatomy
Maulana Azad Medical College, New Delhi
The Health Sciences Publishers
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Inderbir Singh’s Textbook of Human Histology
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Preface
Textbook of Human Histology by Professor Inderbir Singh has remained an authoritative
and standard textbook for the past many decades and it is our proud privilege to revise this
book and bring out the 7th edition. The strength and popularity of this textbook has been its
simple language and comprehensiveness that has essentially remained unchanged since its
inception. Professor Singh’s eye for details and his meticulous writing style has always been
popular amongst the generations of medical students. Although all the chapters have been
revisited and thoroughly revised, we have taken special care to retain the basic essence of the
book.
To make this standard textbook fulfill the needs of today's generation of students, some
new features have been introduced in this edition. A new chapter on Light Microscopy and
Tissue Preparation has been added to acquaint the students with the basics of histology. Every
student of histology is expected to identify the slides and differentiate amongst them in a
perfect manner. To make the students familiar with the various slides, Histological Plates have
been added in each chapter that include a photomicrograph, line drawing, and salient features
that are visible while examining under the microscope.
Each chapter has been rearranged to provide sequential learning to the students. All
the diagrams have been redrawn and many new illustrations have been added for easy
comprehension of the basic concepts. Clinical and Pathological Correlations have been added
at relevant places for creating an interest of the students in the understanding of pathologies
associated with various tissues.
For providing an overview of histology to the student and for quick recall, an atlas has been
provided at the beginning of the book. The atlas includes more than 80 slides of histological
importance along with their important features.
As envisioned by Professor Inderbir Singh, this textbook is of utmost utility not only for
the undergraduate students but also for the students pursuing postgraduation in Anatomy.
Keeping this in mind, advanced information on various topics has been included as Added
Information to cater to the needs of postgraduate students.
The revision of this book was a team effort. We are thankful to our colleagues for their
constant encouragement throughout our venture. We extend our heartfelt thanks to our staff in
the Histology laboratory for preparing the slides for photography. We are thankful to Dr Sawti
Tiwari for her important contribution in drawing some of the figures.
We are grateful to Professor Ivan Damjanov, an esteemed teacher and expert in the field
of pathology well known across the globe, for allowing us to use some of the slides from
his collection. We gratefully acknowledge Professor Harsh Mohan, a well known surgical
pathologist of India, for providing pathological correlations in the book. We are thankful to
Dr Sunayna Misra [M.D (Path.), PGI Chandigarh] for her valuable suggestions and inputs
especially in the pathological correlations.
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Textbook of Human Histology
We extend our heartfelt thanks to Shri Jitendar P Vij (Group Chairman) and Mr Ankit Vij
(Group President) for providing us the opportunity to revise Text of Human Histology and for
their persistent support in publication of this book.
Dr Sakshi Arora (Chief Development Editor), the driving force of this endeavour, deserves
a special thanks for her tireless efforts. She has perservered throughout this venture with a
smile on her face. We are thankful to her entire development team comprising Dr Mrinalini
Bakshi, Dr Swati Sinha, and Ms Nitasha Arora (Editors), and Mr Prabhat Ranjan, Mr Neeraj
Choudhary, Mr Ankush Sharma, Mr Phool Kumar, Mr Deep Dogra and Mr Sachin Dhawan
(Designers and Operators) for providing insights and creative ideas that helped in polishing
this book to best meet the needs of students and faculty alike.
We present the 7th edition of this most popular textbook to the medical fraternity as our
tribute to a legendary anatomist, Professor Inderbir Singh for being a pillar in the education of
generations of doctors throughout the world.
Neelam Vasudeva
Sabita Mishra
vi
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Contents
Colour Atlas
A1–A48
Chapter 1: Light Microscopy and Tissue Preparation
Components of a light microscope
Principles of a conventional bright field microscope
Practical tips in using a bright field microscope
Types of microscopes
Tissue processing
Steps involved in tissue preparation
Steps in tissue processing
1
3
5
5
6
6
7
Chapter 2: Cell Structure
The cell membrane
8
Contacts between adjoining cells
13
Cell organelles
18
The cytoskeleton
26
The nucleus
28
Chromosomes31
Chapter 3: Epithelia
Characteristic features of epithelial tissue
38
Functions38
Classification of epithelia
38
Simple epithelium
39
Pseudostratified epithelium
44
Stratified epithelium
45
Basement membrane
51
Projections from the cell surface
51
Chapter 4: Glands
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Classification of glands
Classification of exocrine glands
Structural organisation
Development of glands
55
55
59
60
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Textbook of Human Histology
Chapter 5: General Connective Tissue
Fibres of connective tissue
Cells of connective tissue
Intercellular ground substance of connective tissue
Different forms of connective tissue
Summary of the functions of connective tissue
61
66
71
72
78
Chapter 6: Cartilage
General features of cartilage
Components of cartilage
Types of cartilage
80
81
82
Chapter 7: Bone
General features
The periosteum
Elements comprising bone tissue
Types of bone
Formation of bone
How bones grow
87
88
89
92
98
102
Chapter 8: Muscular Tissue
Types of muscular tissue
Skeletal muscle
Cardiac muscle
Smooth muscle
Myoepithelial cells
107
108
120
122
126
Chapter 9: Lymphatics and Lymphoid Tissue
viii
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Lymphatic vessel
127
Lymphoid tissue
127
Lymph128
Lymphocytes128
Lymphatic vessels
130
Lymph capillaries
130
Larger lymph vessels
130
Lymph nodes
131
The spleen
134
The thymus
138
Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue
142
Tonsils143
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Contents
Chapter 10: The Blood and the Mononuclear Phagocyte System
The plasma
Cellular elements of blood
Erythrocytes (red blood corpuscles)
Leucocytes (white blood corpuscles)
Blood platelets
Formation of blood (haemopoiesis)
Mononuclear phagocyte system
145
145
145
147
154
155
158
Chapter 11: Nervous System
Tissues constituting the nervous system
162
Structure of a neuron
163
Types of neurons
168
Peripheral nerves
169
Neuroglia172
The synapse
175
Ganglia177
Spinal cord; cerebellar cortex; cerebral cortex
180
Chapter 12: Skin and its Appendages
Skin191
Types of skin
191
Structure of skin
191
Blood supply of the skin
199
Nerve supply of the skin
199
Functions of the skin
199
Appendages of the skin
200
Hair200
Sebaceous glands
204
Sweat glands
205
Nails207
Chapter 13: The Cardiovascular System
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Endothelium210
Arteries211
Arterioles216
Capillaries216
Sinusoids218
Veins218
Venules219
Blood vessels, lymphatics and nerves supplying blood vessels
221
Mechanisms controlling blood flow through the capillary bed
221
The heart
223
ix
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Textbook of Human Histology
Chapter 14: The Respiratory System
Common features of air passages
The nasal cavities
The pharynx
The larynx
The trachea and principal bronchi
The lungs
224
224
227
228
230
232
Chapter 15: Digestive System: Oral Cavity and Related Structures
The oral cavity
The lips
The teeth
The tongue
The salivary glands
240
240
242
246
251
Chapter 16: Digestive System: Oesophagus, Stomach and Intestines
General structure of git260
The oesophagus
263
The stomach
265
The gastric glands
267
The small intestine
272
Distinguishing features of duodenum, jejunum, and ileum
277
The large intestine
278
The colon
278
The vermiform appendix
282
The rectum
284
The anal canal
284
Chapter 17: Hepatobiliary System and Pancreas
x
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The liver
288
Bile293
Blood supply of liver
293
Functions of liver
294
Extrahepatic biliary apparatus
295
The gallbladder
295
The extrahepatic ducts
297
The pancreas
298
The exocrine pancreas
298
The endocrine pancreas
301
Blood supply of pancreas
302
Nerve supply of pancreas
302
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Contents
Chapter 18: The Urinary System
The kidneys
The ureters
The urinary bladder
303
317
319
Chapter 19: Male Reproductive System
The testis
322
Spermatogenesis329
Accessory urogenital organs
334
The epididymis
334
The ductus deferens
335
The seminal vesicle
337
The prostate
337
The penis
341
Chapter 20: Female Reproductive System
The ovaries
343
Oogenesis346
The uterine tubes
353
The uterus
355
The vagina
359
Female external genitalia
361
The mammary gland
361
Chapter 21: Endocrine System
Hormones366
Distribution of endocrine cells
366
The hypophysis cerebri
367
Subdivisions of the hypophysis cerebri
367
Adenohypophysis367
Neurohypophysis371
Blood supply of the hypophysis cerebri
372
Control of secretion of hormones of the adenohypophysis
373
The thyroid gland
374
Structure of thyroid gland
374
The parathyroid glands
377
Structure of parathyroid glands
377
Cells of parathyroid glands
378
The suprarenal glands
380
Structure of suprarenal glands
380
xi
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Textbook of Human Histology
The pineal gland
383
Some other organs having endocrine functions
385
Paraganglia385
Para-aortic bodies
385
The carotid bodies
385
Chapter 22: Special Senses: Eye
Structure of eyeball
Outer fibrous coat
Vascular coat or uvea
The retina
The lens
Accessory visual organs
389
390
391
394
402
404
Chapter 23: Special Senses: Ear
The external ear
The middle ear
The internal ear
Specialised end organs in the membranous labyrinth
Some elementary facts about the mechanism of hearing
Index
411
413
413
422
425
427
xii
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Colour Atlas
HiSTology & iTS STudy
The study of histology is very important for the understanding of the normal functioning of the
human body. It also forms the essential basis for the study of the changes in various tissues
and organs in disease. (This is the science of pathology). From these points of view the study
of histology is best done taking one organ system at a time. That is the approach most teachers
prefer to take in practical classes of histology. It is also the basis on which the chapters of this
book have been organised.
However, in practical examinations, the emphasis is on the ability of the student to recognise
a tissue or organ that is being viewed through a microscope. Here it becomes necessary to know
how to distinguish between similar looking tissues or organs belonging to different systems.
This atlas has been organised to serve this objective. Tissues and organs that have a similar
appearance are considered in one lot. For example, if a slide presents something that looks
like a tube, whether it be an artery or the ureter or the ductus deferens, these are considered
together. This makes the grouping unusual, but this is exactly what the student needs at the
time of an examination.
At the same time it is true that an organ can be composed of several tissues, (or layers), and
the ability to recognise them can go a long way is arriving at a correct diagnosis of the organ being
seen. We will, therefore, first try to study and identify the various tissues that make up different
organs. We will then have a good basis for identifying any organ that we are required to recognise.
BASiC TiSSuES THAT CAN BE RECogNiSEd iN HiSTologiCAl SECTioNS
EPiTHEliA
The outer surface of the body, and the luminal surfaces of cavities (big or small) lying within
the body are lined by one or more layers of cells that completely cover them. Such layers of cells
are called epithelia. Epithelial tissue forms the lining of the general body surfaces, passages
and cavities within the body. Basement membrane connects the epithelium to the underline
subepithelial tissues.
Classification of epithelial tissue is based on shape of the cells, number of cell layers and
special modifications seen on the cells. Epithelia may be simple, when they consist of only one
layer of cells, or stratified when there are several layers of cells. Epithelial cells may be flat (or
squamous), cuboidal, columnar etc.
Several types of epithelia can be recognised. Learning to identify an epithelium can be of
considerable help in finding out what organ you are seeing.
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Textbook of Human Histology
Simple Squamous Epithelium
The
Fig. A1.1: An alveolus of the lung showing a lining of simple
squamous epithelium (arrows)
Fig. A1.2: A capillary lined by endothelium
(arrow)
cells of this epithelium are
flattened.
In sections they appear so thin
that bulgings are produced on
the surface by nuclei.
In surface view (Fig. A1.3) the
cells have polygonal outlines
that interlock with those of
adjoining cells.
A simple squamous epithelium
lines the alveoli of the lungs, the
free surfaces of peritoneum,
pleura
and
pericardium.
Here it is given the name
mesothelium. It also lines the
inside of blood vessels,where
it is called endothelium, and
of the heart where it is called
endocardium.
Fig. A1.3: Simple squamous epithelium (surface view)
A2
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Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
The
epithelium is made up of
cells that look like squares (in
which the length and breadth
is equal).
Nuclei are rounded.
A typical cuboidal epithelium
lines follicles of the thyroid
gland, kidney tubules, germinal
layer of ovary and ducts of
various glands.
Fig. A1.4: A thyroid follicle lined by simple cuboidal epithelium
(arrow)
Simple Columnar Epithelium
In
this epithelium the height of
the cells is much greater than
their width.
The nuclei are oval being
elongated in the same direction
as the cells. They lie near the
bases of the cells. Because
of this we see a zone of clear
cytoplasm above the nuclei.
A simple columnar epithelium
lines the mucous membrane
of the stomach and of the large
intestine.
Fig. A1.5: Simple columnar epithelium lining the mucosa of the
stomach (arrow)
A3
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Textbook of Human Histology
Columnar Epithelium showing Striated Border
In
Fig. A1.6: Columnar epithelium with a striated border in the small
intestine (arrow)
some regions the free
surfaces of the cells of
columnar epithelium show
a thickening with vertical
striations in it: this is called a
striated border.
This is seen typically in the
small intestine
Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium
Pseudostratified
Fig. A1.7: Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium in trachea
(arrow)
epithelium
differs from simple columnar
epithelium in that it appears
to be multi-layered. However,
there is actually only one layer
of cells. The multi-layered
appearance is due to the fact
that the nuclei lie at different
levels in different cells. Such
an epithelium is seen in the
ductus deferens.
In some situations, pseudostratified columnar epithelium bears hair-like projections
called cilia.
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium is seen in
trachea and in large bronchi.
A4
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Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium with Stereocilia
In
some situations, the pseudostratified columnar epithelium bears stereocilia as seen
in epididymis.
Stereocilia are actually long
microvilli and not cilia.
Fig. A1.8: Pseudostratified columnar epithelium with stereocilia in
epididymis (arrow)
Transitional Epithelium
In
this type of epithelium we
see several layers of cells with
round nuclei.
The deepest cells are columnar
or cuboidal. The middle layers
are made up of polyhedral or
pear-shaped cells.
The cells of the surface layer
are large and often shaped like
an umbrella
This epithelium lines many
parts of the urinary tract.
Fig. A1.9: Transitional epithelium seen at high magnification in
ureter (arrow)
A5
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Textbook of Human Histology
Stratified Squamous Epithelium (Non-keratinised)
The
Fig. A1.10: Stratified squamous epithelium (non-keratinised) seen
in oesophagus (arrow)
stratified epithelium is
made up of several layers of
cells.
Although this is called stratified
squamous epithelium, only
the most superficial cells are
squamous (flattened).
The cells in the deepest (or
basal) layer are columnar.
In the middle layers they
are polyhedral, while the
more
superficial
layers
show increasing degrees of
flattening.
The nuclei are oval in the basal layer, rounded in the middle layer, and transversely elongated
in the superficial layers.
There is no superficial keratinized zone; flattened nuclei are seen in the topmost layer.
This
kind of epithelium is seen lining some internal organs like the oesophagus and the
vagina.
Stratified Squamous Epithelium (Keratinised)
Here
the deeper layer are
covered by additional layers
that represent stages in the
conversion of cells into nonliving fibres. This process
is called keratinisation (or
cornification).
The surface layer is made up of
keratin which appears as fibres.
No cellular outline or nuclei
can be seen.
It is seen typically in epidermis
of the skin.
Fig. A1.11: Stratified squamous epithelium (keratinised) as seen
in skin
Key
1. Keratin
2. Stratifiedsquamousepithelium
A6
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CoNNECTivE TiSSuE
In most organs there are areas filled in by fibres that are described as connective tissue. The
main constituent of connective tissue is collagen fibres that stain pink. In stretch preparations
they are seen as wavy bundles. Other fibres present (elastic, reticular) can be seen with special
stains. Connective tissue also contains many cells but only their nuclei can be made out.
irregular Connective Tissue
Irregular
connective tissue is
typically seen in dermis of skin.
It consists of compactly packed
bundles of collagen fibres that
are not arranged in orderly
fashion.
Thin elastic fibres are present,
but are not seen with H & E
stain.
Fig. A2.1: Irregular connective tissue as seen in dermis of skin
(arrow)
Regular Connective Tissue
Tendons
are also made up of
collagen fibres, but here the
fibres (or fibre bundles) are
arranged in orderly fashion
parallel to each other.
Nuclei of some cells (mainly
fibroblasts) are seen between
the bundles of collagen. They
are elongated (elliptical).
Key
1. Collagenfibres
2. Nucleioffibroblasts
Fig. A2.2: Regular connective tissue as seen in tendon
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Textbook of Human Histology
Adipose Tissue
Adipose
tissue is made up
mainly of compactly arranged
fat cells.
In routine sections the cells
appear empty as the fat gets
dissolved during preparation
of the section.
The cytoplasm of each cell is
seen as a pink ‘rim’.
The nucleus is flat and lies to
one side.
Key
1. Nucleiofadipocyte
2. Thinrimofcytoplasm
Fig. A2.3: Adipose tissue
SPECiAliSEd CoNNECTivE TiSSuE
CARTilAgE
Unlike connective tissue, that can be deformed easily, cartilage is a special form of connective
tissue that is firm, and retains its shape.
Hyaline Cartilage
It
Fig. A2.4: Hyaline cartilage
is
characterised
by
groups of cartilage cells
(chondrocytes) surrounded by
a homo-geneous matrix which
separates the cells widely.
Near
the surface of the
cartilage the cells are flattened
and merge with the cells of the
overlying connective tissue.
This connective tissue forms
the perichondrium.
Costal cartilage and articular
cartilage of synovial joint are
example of hyaline cartilage.
Key
1. Chondrocytes
2. Homogenousmatrix
3. Perichondrium
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Elastic Cartilage
In
elastic cartilage chondrocytes are surrounded by matrix
containing many elastic fibres
Perichondrium
covering is
present over the cartilage
It is seen typically in auricle
and epiglottis
Key
1. Chondrocytes
2. Elasticfibres
3. Perichondrium
Fig. A2.5: Elastic cartilage
fibrocartilage
Fibrocartilage
is characterized
by presence of collagen fibres
arranged in bundles with rows
of chondrocytes intervening
between the bundles
Perichondrium is absent
Fibrocartilage is seen typically
in pubic symphysis and
manubrio sternal joint
Key
1. Chondrocytes
2. Bundlesofcollagenfibres
Fig. A2.6: Fibrocartilage
Fibrocartilage can be confused with the appearance of a tendon. Note that chondrocytes in fibrocartilage
are rounded, but the cells in a tendon (fibrocytes) are flattened and elongated.
A9
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Textbook of Human Histology
BoNE
Compact Bone
A
transverse section through
the compact bone shows ringlike osteons (or Haversian
systems).
Haversian canal is seen at the
centre of each osteon.
Around the canal there are
concentric lamellae of bone
amongst which there are small
spaces called lacunae in which
osteocytes are present.
Delicate
canaliculi radiate
from the lacunae containing
processes of osteocytes.
Interstitial
lamellae
fill
Fig. A2.7: Compact bone; transverse section
intervals between Haversian
systems.
Volkmanns canal interconnecting the adjacent haversian canal may be seen
Note: The appearance of compact bone is so characteristic that you are not likely to confuse it with any
other tissue.
Key
1. Haversiansystem(osteon)
2. Haversiancanal
3. Concentriclamellae
4. Interstitiallamellae
5. Volkmann'scanal
Spongy (Cancellous) Bone
It
is made up of a network of
bony trabeculae (pink) in which
the nuclei of some osteocytes
can be seen.
The spaces of the network are
filled in by bone marrow in
which numerous fat cells are
present.
The spaces between the fat
cells are occupied by numerous
blood forming cells (only nuclei
of which are seen).
A10
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Fig. A2.8: Spongy (cancellous bone)
Key
1. Trabeculae
2. Osteocytes
3. Fatcells
Bm=Bonemarrow
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Colour Atlas
muSClE
Skeletal muscle
In
a longitudinal section
through skeletal muscle the
fibres are easily distinguished
as they show characteristic
transverse striations.
The fibres are long and parallel
without branching.
Many flat nuclei are placed at
the periphery.
The muscle fibres are separated
by some connective tissue.
Fig. A3.1: Longitudinal section through skeletal muscle
Key
1. Muscle fibres with transverse
striations
2. Peripherallyplacednuclei
Smooth muscle
In
a longitudinal section
through
smooth
muscle
elongated spindle shaped cells
without straitions are seen.
A
single elongated (oval)
centrally placed nucleus can
be identified.
Smooth muscle is present
in the walls of parts of the
alimentary canal, in the
urogenital tract etc.
Key
1. Ovalcentrallyplacednuclei
Fig. A3.2: Longitudinal section through smooth muscle
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Textbook of Human Histology
Cardiac muscle
The
fibres are made up of
‘cells’ each of which has a
centrally placed nucleus and
transverse striations.
Adjacent ‘cells’ are separated
from one another by
transverse
lines
called
intercalated discs.
Fibres show branching.
Key
1. Centrallyplacednuclei
2. Branching and anastomosing
offibres
Fig. A3.3: Longitudinal section through cardiac muscle
Nervous Tissue
Fig. A3.4: Spinal cord. A. Panoramic view B. Grey matter
Grey matter contains cell bodies of neurons and neuroglia
White matter contains axons of neurons and neuroglia
Key
1. Whitematter
2. G
reymatter
MN.Multipolarneurons
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