Ebook Environmental policy and public health (2/E): Part 1

Environmental Policy and Public Health
Second Edition



Environmental Policy and Public Health
Second Edition

Barry L. Johnson and Maureen Y. Lichtveld


CRC Press
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Names: Johnson, Barry L. (Barry Lee), 1938- author. | Lichtveld, Maureen Y., author.
Title: Environmental policy and public health / Barry L. Johnson and Maureen Y. Lichtveld.
Description: Second edition. | Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, 2017. |
“A CRC title, part of the Taylor & Francis imprint, a member of the Taylor &
Francis Group, the academic division of T&F Informa plc.”
Identifiers: LCCN 2017024274 | ISBN 9781498799393 (hardback : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Environmental health--Government policy--United States. |
Environmental policy--United States. | Medical policy--United States.
Classification: LCC RA566.3 .J64 2017 | DDC 362.10973--dc23
LC record available at />Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

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About the Cover
The authors of this book intend the cover to speak about the book’s contents. The centerpiece of the
cover is planet Earth, as presented by a striking image from the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA). Earth’s resources provide the basic essentials to sustain life on the planet: air,
water, land, and energy. Further, human life on our planet depends on healthful air, potable water,
and safe sources of food. Unfortunately, humankind has not always appreciated the essential nature
of Earth’s sustainable resources. Arrayed on the cover are examples from the text of humankind’s
mismanagement of air, water, and food resources, together with other environmental conditions that
can affect human and ecosystem health. The images arrayed around planet Earth pertain to climate
change (polar bears), air pollution in a major Asian city, a point source of water pollution, devices
for inhalation of tobacco products, food waste, plastic waste in the Pacific Ocean, the mosquito that
carries the Zika virus, and an American bald eagle, a species saved from extinction, These images
on the cover presage the book’s description of specific environmental hazards and policies and

practices purposed to prevent or diminish their deleterious effects on the residents of planet Earth.



Dedication
This book is dedicated to those policymakers, scientists, medical investigators, environmental
and public health agencies, nongovernmental organizations, and individuals who have
advocated science-based environmental health policies that have led to human and ecosystem
health protections and improvements in environmental quality. Absent their dedicated efforts,
our planet and its living organisms would be fewer in number and poorer in well-being.



Table of Contents
Preface....................................................................................................................................................................................... xxv
Acknowledgments....................................................................................................................................................................xxvii
Authors......................................................................................................................................................................................xxix

Section I:  Policymaking Basics, Foundations, and Resources
Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Environmental Health Policymaking........................................................................................... 3
Chapter 2 Steps in Environmental Health Policymaking....................................................................................................... 25
Chapter 3 U.S. Federal Government’s Environmental Health Structure................................................................................ 51
Chapter 4 General U.S. Federal Environmental Statutes....................................................................................................... 85
Chapter 5 Global Environmental Health Programs and Policies......................................................................................... 107

Section II:  Known Environmental Hazards to Public Health
Chapter 6 Climate Change.................................................................................................................................................... 129
Chapter 7 Tobacco Products................................................................................................................................................. 159
Chapter 8 Air Quality........................................................................................................................................................... 189
Chapter 9 Water Quality and Security.................................................................................................................................. 225

Chapter 10 Food Safety and Security..................................................................................................................................... 259
Chapter 11 Hazardous Chemical Substances......................................................................................................................... 287
Chapter 12 Waste Generation and Management......................................................................................................................317
Chapter 13 Environment-Related Infectious Diseases............................................................................................................351

Section III:  Emerging Areas Impacting Environmental Health
Chapter 14 Energy Production and Associated Policies......................................................................................................... 367
Chapter 15 Genetically Modified Organisms......................................................................................................................... 383
Chapter 16 Biodiversity and Endangered Species.................................................................................................................. 399
Chapter 17 The Built Environment..........................................................................................................................................417

Section IV:  Influences on Environmental Health Policymaking
Chapter 18 Policy Impacts of Environmental Justice............................................................................................................. 435
Chapter 19 Policy Impacts of Risk Assessment...................................................................................................................... 461
Chapter 20 Lessons Learned and Authors’ Reflection........................................................................................................... 481

ix


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Table of Contents

Section V:  Support Material
Appendix 1: List of Abbreviations.......................................................................................................................................... 487
Appendix 2: List of Key Websites........................................................................................................................................... 489
Appendix 3: Glossary of Key Terms...................................................................................................................................... 491
Index.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 497

Contents
Preface....................................................................................................................................................................................... xxv
Acknowledgments....................................................................................................................................................................xxvii
Authors......................................................................................................................................................................................xxix

Section I:  Policymaking Basics, Foundations, and Resources
Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Environmental Health Policymaking........................................................................................... 3
1.1
1.2
1.3

I ntroduction................................................................................................................................................... 3
Environmental Health Policy Framework..................................................................................................... 3
Key Definitions.............................................................................................................................................. 5
1.3.1
Policy................................................................................................................................................ 5
1.3.2
Health............................................................................................................................................... 5
1.3.3
Public Health.................................................................................................................................... 5
1.3.4
Environment..................................................................................................................................... 6
1.3.5
Ecology and Ecosystem................................................................................................................... 6
1.3.6
Environmental Health...................................................................................................................... 6
1.3.7
Politics.............................................................................................................................................. 6
1.4 Evolution of Environmental Health............................................................................................................... 7
1.4.1

Historical Environmental Hazards................................................................................................... 7
1.4.2
Necessities for Survival.................................................................................................................... 7
1.4.2.1
Sanitary Waste Management............................................................................................ 7
1.4.2.2
Potable Water.................................................................................................................... 8
1.4.2.3
Healthful Air Quality....................................................................................................... 8
1.4.2.4
Food Security.................................................................................................................... 8
1.4.2.5
Sustainable Environment.................................................................................................. 9
1.4.3
European Roots................................................................................................................................ 9
1.4.4
Recent Trends................................................................................................................................. 10
1.5
Nexus between Human and Ecological Health........................................................................................... 11
1.6 Fundamentals of Public Health................................................................................................................... 11
1.6.1
Public Health Practice.................................................................................................................... 13
1.6.1.1 Organizational Capacity................................................................................................. 13
1.6.1.2 Workforce Competency.................................................................................................. 13
1.6.1.3 Information/Communication Capacity........................................................................... 14
1.6.1.4 Surveillance.................................................................................................................... 14
1.6.1.5 Epidemic Investigation................................................................................................... 14
1.6.1.6 Laboratory Science......................................................................................................... 14
1.6.1.7 Behavioral Science......................................................................................................... 15
1.6.1.8 Public Health Programs.................................................................................................. 15

1.6.2
Comparing Public Health Practice and Medical Practice.............................................................. 15
1.6.2.1 Benefits and Risks.......................................................................................................... 16
1.6.2.2 Sociopolitical Factors..................................................................................................... 16
1.7 The Role of Government............................................................................................................................. 16
1.7.1
U.S. Federal Government............................................................................................................... 17
1.7.2
State Government........................................................................................................................... 17
1.7.3
Local Government.......................................................................................................................... 17
1.7.3.1 Environmental Health Responsibilities.......................................................................... 18
1.7.3.2 Case Study: DeKalb County, Georgia............................................................................ 18
1.8 Public’s Policy Expectations........................................................................................................................ 19
1.8.1
Accountability................................................................................................................................ 19
1.8.2
Communication of Risk................................................................................................................. 19
xi


xii

Contents

1.8.3
Cost–Benefit Analysis.................................................................................................................... 19
1.8.4
Environmental Justice.................................................................................................................... 20
1.8.5

Federalism...................................................................................................................................... 20
1.8.6
Polluter Pays for Consequences of Pollution.................................................................................. 20
1.8.7
Prevention Is Preferred to Remediation......................................................................................... 21
1.8.8
Product Safety................................................................................................................................ 21
1.8.9
Public’s Right to Know.................................................................................................................. 21
1.8.10 Risk Assessment............................................................................................................................. 21
1.8.11 Social Support................................................................................................................................ 22
1.9 Critical Thinking......................................................................................................................................... 22
1.10 Summary..................................................................................................................................................... 22
1.11 Policy Questions.......................................................................................................................................... 23
References.............................................................................................................................................................. 24
Chapter 2 Steps in Environmental Health Policymaking....................................................................................................... 25
2.1
2.2
2.3

I ntroduction................................................................................................................................................. 25
Influences on Environmental Health Policymaking................................................................................... 25
The Public’s Influence on Policymaking..................................................................................................... 26
2.3.1 Vested Interest Groups................................................................................................................... 27
2.3.2 Newsmedia, Internet Communications, and Social Media............................................................ 27
2.3.3 Experts’ Input................................................................................................................................. 28
2.3.4 Domestic Economic Policies.......................................................................................................... 28
2.3.5 Free Trade Policies......................................................................................................................... 29
2.3.6 Form of Governance....................................................................................................................... 29
2.4 Establishing Environmental Health Policy................................................................................................. 30

2.5 PACM Model............................................................................................................................................... 31
2.5.1 Pressure.......................................................................................................................................... 31
2.5.2 Action............................................................................................................................................. 31
2.5.3 Change............................................................................................................................................ 32
2.5.4 Monitoring...................................................................................................................................... 32
2.6 Policies to Control Environmental Hazards................................................................................................ 32
2.6.1 Command and Control................................................................................................................... 32
2.6.2 Alternatives to Command and Control.......................................................................................... 34
2.6.2.1 Litigation......................................................................................................................... 35
2.6.2.2 Market Power.................................................................................................................. 36
2.6.2.3 Performance Incentives.................................................................................................. 37
2.6.2.4 Precautionary Approach................................................................................................. 37
2.6.3 Public Education............................................................................................................................ 42
2.6.4 Sustainable Development............................................................................................................... 42
2.6.5 Voluntary Action by Private Sector Entities.................................................................................. 45
2.6.6 Policy Cornucopia.......................................................................................................................... 45
2.7 Policy as a Means to Effect Public Health.................................................................................................. 46
2.8 Environmental Ethics.................................................................................................................................. 46
2.8.1 Ecoethics........................................................................................................................................ 47
2.8.2 Ethics of Organizations.................................................................................................................. 47
2.8.3 Ethics of Individuals...................................................................................................................... 47
2.9 Summary..................................................................................................................................................... 48
2.10 Policy Questions.......................................................................................................................................... 48
References.............................................................................................................................................................. 49
Chapter 3 U.S. Federal Government’s Environmental Health Structure................................................................................ 51
3.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................................. 51
3.2
U.S. Civics 101............................................................................................................................................. 51
3.2.1
Constitutional Basis of the U.S. Federal Government................................................................... 52

3.2.1.1
Legislative Branch.......................................................................................................... 52


xiii

Contents

3.2.1.2
Executive Branch............................................................................................................ 53
3.2.1.3
Judicial Branch............................................................................................................... 54
3.3Origins of U.S. PHS and EPA..................................................................................................................... 55
3.3.1
Emergence of the U.S. Public Health Service................................................................................ 56
3.3.2
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare and DHHS.......................................................... 57
3.3.3
Role of PHS Surgeons General...................................................................................................... 58
3.3.4
Establishment of EPA..................................................................................................................... 60
3.3.4.1
Societal Climate............................................................................................................. 61
3.3.4.2
Legislative Climate......................................................................................................... 61
3.3.4.3
Governance Climate....................................................................................................... 62
3.4
DHHS Agencies with Environmental Programs......................................................................................... 63
3.4.1

Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry...................................................................... 64
3.4.2
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.................................................................................. 65
3.4.2.1
National Center for Environmental Health..................................................................... 65
3.4.2.2
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health................................................... 66
3.4.2.3
Office of Smoking and Health........................................................................................ 67
3.4.3
Food and Drug Administration...................................................................................................... 67
3.4.3.1
National Center for Toxicological Research................................................................... 67
3.4.3.2
Center for Tobacco Products.......................................................................................... 68
3.4.4
Indian Health Service..................................................................................................................... 69
3.4.5
National Institutes of Health.......................................................................................................... 69
3.4.5.1
National Cancer Institute................................................................................................ 70
3.4.5.2
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences.................................................... 70
3.4.6
Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health, DHHS..................................................................... 71
3.5 Other U.S. Federal Environmental Health Programs.................................................................................. 72
3.5.1
Department of Agriculture............................................................................................................. 72
3.5.2
Department of Commerce.............................................................................................................. 72

3.5.3
Department of Defense.................................................................................................................. 73
3.5.4
Department of Energy.................................................................................................................... 73
3.5.5
Department of Homeland Security................................................................................................ 74
3.5.6
Department of Housing and Urban Development.......................................................................... 74
3.5.7
Department of Interior................................................................................................................... 75
3.5.7.1
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service....................................................................................... 75
3.5.7.2
Bureau of Land Management......................................................................................... 75
3.5.7.3
U.S. Geological Survey................................................................................................... 75
3.5.8
Department of Justice..................................................................................................................... 75
3.5.9
Department of Labor...................................................................................................................... 76
3.5.10
Department of State....................................................................................................................... 76
3.5.11
Department of Transportation........................................................................................................ 76
3.5.12
National Aeronautics and Space Administration........................................................................... 76
3.5.13
National Science Foundation.......................................................................................................... 77
3.6 Administrative Procedures Act of 1946...................................................................................................... 77
3.7 U.S. Federal Government’s Regulatory Programs...................................................................................... 78

3.8 Summary..................................................................................................................................................... 80
3.9 Policy Questions.......................................................................................................................................... 80
References.............................................................................................................................................................. 81
Chapter 4 General U.S. Federal Environmental Statutes....................................................................................................... 85
4.1

4.2
4.3
4.4

I ntroduction................................................................................................................................................. 85
4.1.1 Public Health Tradition.................................................................................................................. 85
4.1.2 Fear of Catastrophic Events........................................................................................................... 85
4.1.3 Opportunistic Conditions............................................................................................................... 86
4.1.4 Confluence of Vested Interests....................................................................................................... 86
Regulations and Standards.......................................................................................................................... 87
Enforcement and Penalties.......................................................................................................................... 87
Public Health Service Act, 1912.................................................................................................................. 87


xiv

Contents

4.4.1 History............................................................................................................................................ 88
4.4.2 Key Provisions of the PHSAct Relative to Public Health.............................................................. 88
4.5 National Contingency Plan, 1968................................................................................................................ 89
4.6 National Environmental Policy Act, 1969................................................................................................... 89
4.6.1 History............................................................................................................................................ 89
4.6.2 Key Provisions of the NEPAct Relevant to Public Health............................................................. 90

4.6.3 Public Health Implications of the NEPAct..................................................................................... 91
4.7 Occupational Safety and Health Act, 1970................................................................................................. 91
4.7.1 History............................................................................................................................................ 91
4.7.2 Public Health Implications of the OSHAct.................................................................................... 92
4.7.2.1 Perspective...................................................................................................................... 93
4.8 Consumer Product Safety Act, 1972........................................................................................................... 93
4.8.1 History............................................................................................................................................ 94
4.8.2 Key Provisions of the CPSAct Relevant to Public Health.............................................................. 94
4.8.3 Public Health Implications of the CPSAct..................................................................................... 94
4.9 Noise Control Act, 1972.............................................................................................................................. 95
4.9.1 History............................................................................................................................................ 95
4.9.2 Public Health Implications of the Noise Control Act..................................................................... 95
4.10 Environmental Research and Development Demonstration Authorization Act, 1976................................ 96
4.10.1 History............................................................................................................................................ 96
4.10.2 Public Health Implications of the ERDDAAct.............................................................................. 97
4.11 Information Quality Act, 2001.................................................................................................................... 97
4.11.1 History............................................................................................................................................ 97
4.11.2 Public Health Implications of the Information Quality Act.......................................................... 99
4.12 Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act, 2002.................................... 100
4.12.1 History.......................................................................................................................................... 100
4.12.2 Key Provisions of the Bioterrorism Preparedness Act Relevant to Public Health....................... 100
4.12.2.1 Title I—National Preparedness for Bioterrorism and Other Public Health
Emergencies����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 100
4.12.2.2 Title II—Enhancing Controls on Dangerous Biological Agents and Toxins................101
4.12.2.3 Title III—Protecting Safety and Security of Food and Drug Supply.......................... 102
4.12.2.4 Title IV—Drinking Water Security and Safety............................................................ 102
4.12.2.5 Title V—Additional Provisions.................................................................................... 102
4.12.3 Public Health Implications of the Bioterrorism and Preparedness Act....................................... 102
4.13 Pandemic and All-Hazards Preparedness Act, 2006................................................................................ 103
4.14 Summary................................................................................................................................................... 103

4.15 Policy Questions........................................................................................................................................ 103
References............................................................................................................................................................ 104
Chapter 5 Global Environmental Health Programs and Policies......................................................................................... 107
5.1
Introduction............................................................................................................................................... 107
5.2
United Nations........................................................................................................................................... 107
5.2.1
United Nations Environment Programme.................................................................................... 108
5.2.1.1
The Basel Convention, 1989......................................................................................... 109
5.2.1.2
UN Conference on Environment and Development, 1992............................................110
5.2.1.3
Convention on POPs, 2000............................................................................................111
5.2.1.4
World Summit on Sustainable Development, 2002.......................................................111
5.2.2
World Health Organization...........................................................................................................112
5.2.2.1
WHO’s Global Health Risk Factors...............................................................................113
5.2.2.2
WHO’s Environmental Health Programs......................................................................115
5.2.3
International Labour Organization...............................................................................................115
5.2.4
Food and Agriculture Organization..............................................................................................116
5.2.5
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe......................................................................116
5.3

World Bank.................................................................................................................................................117
5.4
World Trade Organization..........................................................................................................................118
5.5
European Union..........................................................................................................................................119


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Contents

5.5.1
European Environmental Agency................................................................................................ 120
5.5.2
European Chemical Agency......................................................................................................... 121
5.5.3
European Food Safety Authority................................................................................................. 121
5.6
Global Rankings of Environmental Status................................................................................................ 121
5.7
Summary................................................................................................................................................... 122
5.8
Policy Questions........................................................................................................................................ 122
References............................................................................................................................................................ 123

Section II:  Known Environmental Hazards to Public Health
Chapter 6 Climate Change.................................................................................................................................................... 129
6.1
6.2
6.3

I ntroduction............................................................................................................................................... 129
Global Perspective..................................................................................................................................... 130
History of Global Climate Change Policies.............................................................................................. 133
6.3.1 Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer, 1987...................................... 134
6.3.2 Establishment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 1988................................... 135
6.3.3 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 1992............................................. 135
6.3.4 Kyoto Protocol of the UNFCCC, 1987........................................................................................ 136
6.3.5 The Marrakesh, Morocco, Accord, 2001..................................................................................... 138
6.3.6 The Bali Action Plan, Bali, Indonesia, 2007............................................................................... 138
6.3.7 The Cancún, Mexico, Agreements, 2010..................................................................................... 139
6.3.8 UN Climate Change Conference, Doha, Qatar, 2012.................................................................. 139
6.3.9 UN Climate Change Conference, Paris, France, 2015................................................................. 140
6.4 Portent of Climate Change on Agriculture and Species Endangerment....................................................141
6.5 Portent of Climate Change on Human Health...........................................................................................143
6.6 Portent of Climate Change on Ecosystem Health..................................................................................... 144
6.7 Policy Issues.............................................................................................................................................. 146
6.7.1 Overview of U.S. Climate Change Policymaking....................................................................... 146
6.7.2 Obama Administration’s Policymaking on Climate Change....................................................... 146
6.7.2.1 U.S. Supreme Court Decisions..................................................................................... 146
6.7.2.2 GHG Reporting Program, 2008................................................................................... 148
6.7.2.3 Climate Action Plan, 2013............................................................................................ 148
6.7.2.4 Clean Power Plan, 2015................................................................................................ 149
6.7.3 Global Policies on Climate Change............................................................................................. 150
6.7.3.1 EU Climate Change Policies........................................................................................ 150
6.7.3.2 China’s Climate Change Policies.................................................................................. 151
6.7.4 Policy Frameworks for Mitigating Climate Change.................................................................... 152
6.7.4.1 Carbon Taxes and Emissions Trading Systems............................................................ 152
6.7.4 2 Cap and Trade of GHGs............................................................................................... 153
6.7.5 Policies on Climate Change Adaptation...................................................................................... 155

6.7.6 The Public’s Role in Climate Change Policymaking................................................................... 155
6.8 Hazard Interventions................................................................................................................................. 155
6.9 Summary................................................................................................................................................... 155
6.10 Policy Questions........................................................................................................................................ 156
References............................................................................................................................................................ 157
Chapter 7 Tobacco Products................................................................................................................................................. 159
7.1
7.2
7.3

7.4
7.5

I ntroduction............................................................................................................................................... 159
Précis History of Tobacco Use.................................................................................................................. 159
Prevalence of Tobacco Products and Users in the U.S...............................................................................161
7.3.1 Cigarettes: Adults and Youth.........................................................................................................161
7.3.2 Other Tobacco Products................................................................................................................161
7.3.3 Electronic Cigarettes (e-Cigarettes)............................................................................................. 163
Global Prevalence of Tobacco Products and Users................................................................................... 164
Associations between Use of Tobacco Products and Human Health........................................................ 165


xvi

Contents

7.5.1

Cigarettes...................................................................................................................................... 165

7.5.1.1 Secondhand Tobacco Smoke........................................................................................ 167
7.5.1.2 Thirdhand Tobacco Smoke........................................................................................... 168
7.5.2 Other Tobacco Products............................................................................................................... 168
7.5.2.1 Cigars............................................................................................................................ 168
7.5.2.2 Pipes.............................................................................................................................. 168
7.5.2.3 Smokeless Tobacco Products........................................................................................ 169
7.5.3 Electronic Cigarettes.................................................................................................................... 169
7.6 Associations between Use of Tobacco Products and Ecosystem Health.................................................. 169
7.7 U.S. Federal Policies on Tobacco Use and Control....................................................................................170
7.8 State and Local Tobacco Policies...............................................................................................................175
7.9 Private Sector Tobacco Policies................................................................................................................ 180
7.10 Global Control of Tobacco and Related Products..................................................................................... 180
7.10.1 WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, 2005........................................................... 180
7.10.2 WHO Key Facts on Global Tobacco Control................................................................................181
7.10.3 European Union Directive on Tobacco, 2001.............................................................................. 182
7.10.4 Tobacco Use in China.................................................................................................................. 183
7.10.4.1 Factors Affecting Tobacco Use in China...................................................................... 184
7.10.4.2 Tobacco Control Progress in China.............................................................................. 184
7.11 Hazard Interventions................................................................................................................................. 184
7.12 Summary................................................................................................................................................... 185
7.13 Policy Questions........................................................................................................................................ 185
References............................................................................................................................................................ 186
Chapter 8 Air Quality........................................................................................................................................................... 189
8.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................... 189
8.2
Sources of Emissions of Air Pollutants..................................................................................................... 190
8.3
Toxicology and Standards for Criteria and Other Key Air Pollutants.......................................................191
8.4
Global Prevalence of Air Pollution........................................................................................................... 192

8.4.1
Prevalence of Air Pollution in the U.S......................................................................................... 193
8.4.2
Prevalence of Air Pollution in the EU.......................................................................................... 194
8.4.3
Prevalence of Air Pollution in China........................................................................................... 194
8.4.4
Prevalence of Air Pollution in India............................................................................................. 195
8.4.5
Global Indoor Air Pollution Prevalence....................................................................................... 196
8.5
Associations between Ambient (Outdoor) Air Pollution and Human Health........................................... 197
8.5.1
Effects on Morbidity.................................................................................................................... 197
8.5.2
Effects on Mortality..................................................................................................................... 198
8.5.3
Effects on Children’s Health........................................................................................................ 199
8.6
Associations between Air Pollution and Ecosystem Health..................................................................... 201
8.7
Air Quality Monitoring Technology and Models...................................................................................... 202
8.7.1
AQM Technology......................................................................................................................... 202
8.7.2
Air Quality Modeling................................................................................................................... 203
8.7.3
Where Monitoring and Modeling Meet: Policy........................................................................... 203
8.8
Policies on Air Pollution Control.............................................................................................................. 204

8.8.1  U.S. Primary Policy: CAAct, 1955.............................................................................................. 204
8.8.1.1
History of the CAAct.................................................................................................... 204
8.8.1.2
Key Provisions of the CAAct Relevant to Public Health............................................. 207
8.8.1.3
EPA’s Air Quality Index................................................................................................210
8.8.1.4CAAct Regulations on GHGs........................................................................................210
8.8.2
EU’s Policies on Air Pollution Control.........................................................................................211
8.8.3
China’s Policies on Air Pollution Control.................................................................................... 215
8.8.4
India’s Policies on Air Pollution Control.......................................................................................216
8.9
Case Study: VW Corporation & Diesel Emissions, 2014–2016.................................................................216
8.10
Costs and Benefits of U.S. Air Pollution Control.......................................................................................217
8.11
Global Economic Impact of Air Pollution..................................................................................................218
8.12
Hazard Interventions..................................................................................................................................218


xvii

Contents

8.13
Summary....................................................................................................................................................219

8.14
Policy Questions.........................................................................................................................................219
References............................................................................................................................................................ 220
Chapter 9 Water Quality and Security.................................................................................................................................. 225
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4 

I ntroduction............................................................................................................................................... 225
Water Contamination and Security........................................................................................................... 225
Global State of Water Quality and Security.............................................................................................. 227
U.S. Water Policies.................................................................................................................................... 229
9.4.1 The Clean Water Act, 1972.......................................................................................................... 229
9.4.1.1 History.......................................................................................................................... 229
9.4.1.2 Clean Water Act Perspective........................................................................................ 232
9.4.1.3 Key Provisions of the CWAct Relevant to Public Health............................................. 233
9.4.1.4 Associations between Contaminated Water and Human Health.................................. 234
9.4.1.5 Associations between Contaminated Water and Ecosystem Health............................ 235
9.4.1.6 The EPA Water Quality Trading Policy, 2003............................................................. 236
9.4.1.7 The EPA Clean Water Rule, 2015................................................................................. 236
9.4.1.8 Cost and Benefits of Water Pollution Control............................................................... 237
9.4.2 The Safe Drinking Water Act, 1974............................................................................................. 237
9.4.2.1 History.......................................................................................................................... 237
9.4.2.2 SDWAct Amendments.................................................................................................. 238
9.4.2.3 Key Provisions of the SDWAct, as Amended, Relevant to Public Health.................... 239
9.4.2.4 EPA Drinking Water Requirements for States and PWS............................................. 242
9.4.2.5 Associations between Nonpotable Water and Human Health...................................... 242
9.4.2.6 Associations between Nonpotable Water and Ecosystem Health................................. 243
9.4.2.7 Bottled Drinking Water................................................................................................ 244

9.4.2.8 Case Study: Flint, Michigan, Water Crisis, 2014–2016................................................ 245
9.5 Global Water Pollution Policies................................................................................................................. 246
9.5.1  EU Water Pollution Policies........................................................................................................ 246
9.5.2 China’s Water Pollution Policies.................................................................................................. 248
9.5.3 India’s Water Pollution Policies.................................................................................................... 248
9.6 Global Water Security Policies.................................................................................................................. 249
9.6.1 Climate Change’s Impact on Water Security............................................................................... 250
9.6.2 State of California’s Drought Policies.......................................................................................... 250
9.6.3 Water Security and Produced Water............................................................................................ 251
9.6.4 Water Security and Gray Water................................................................................................... 251
9.6.5 Water Security and Desalination.................................................................................................. 252
9.7 Improved Water Efficiency and Other Successes...................................................................................... 252
9.8 Hazard Interventions................................................................................................................................. 253
9.9 Summary................................................................................................................................................... 253
9.10 Policy Questions........................................................................................................................................ 254
References............................................................................................................................................................ 255

Chapter 10 Food Safety and Security..................................................................................................................................... 259
10.1
Introduction............................................................................................................................................... 259
10.2
Food Safety and Security Policies............................................................................................................. 259
10.3
U.S. Food Safety and Security Policies..................................................................................................... 260
10.3.1
U.S. Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, 1906................................................................................... 260
10.3.1.1
History.......................................................................................................................... 260
10.3.1.2
Key Provisions of the FDCAct Relevant to Public Health........................................... 261

10.3.1.3
Public Health Implications of the FDCAct, as Amended............................................ 261
10.3.1.4
Associations between Unsafe Food and Human Health............................................... 263
10.3.1.5
Associations between Unsafe Food and Ecosystem Health......................................... 263
10.3.2
U.S. Federal Meat Inspection Act, 1906...................................................................................... 264
10.3.2.1
History.......................................................................................................................... 264


xviii

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10.3.2.2
Public Health Implications of the FMIAct................................................................... 265
10.3.2.3
Associations between Unsafe Meat and Human Health............................................... 266
10.3.2.4
Associations between Unsafe Meat and Ecosystem Health......................................... 266
10.3.3
Nutrition Labeling and Education Act, 1990............................................................................... 267
10.3.4
FDA Food Safety Modernization Act, 2011................................................................................ 267
10.3.5
USDA Food Security Policies...................................................................................................... 269
10.3.6
U.S. State and Local Food Safety Policies................................................................................... 270

10.4
Global Food Safety and Security Policies................................................................................................. 272
10.4.1 EU Food Safety Policies............................................................................................................... 272
10.4.2
Food Safety Policies in China...................................................................................................... 273
10.4.3
Food Safety Policies in India....................................................................................................... 274
10.4.4
U.S. Global Food Security Act, 2016........................................................................................... 274
10.5
State of Food Security in the U.S.............................................................................................................. 275
10.6
Global State of Food Security................................................................................................................... 275
10.6.1
Threats to Food Security.............................................................................................................. 276
10.6.1.1
Human Population Growth and Food Security............................................................ 276
10.6.1.2
Food Waste................................................................................................................... 277
10.6.1.3
Climate Change............................................................................................................ 278
10.6.1.4
Loss of Pollinators........................................................................................................ 279
10.6.1.5
Soil Security and Arable Land..................................................................................... 279
10.6.1.6
Genetically Modified Food........................................................................................... 280
10.6.2
Resources for Enhancing Food Security...................................................................................... 280
10.6.2.1

UN World Food Programme........................................................................................ 280
10.6.2.2
Famine Early Warning Systems Network.................................................................... 280
10.6.2.3
Natural Resources Conservation Service..................................................................... 280
10.6.2.4
Required Agricultural Practices (Vermont)................................................................. 281
10.7
Hazard Interventions................................................................................................................................. 281
10.8
Summary................................................................................................................................................... 282
10.9
Policy Questions........................................................................................................................................ 282
References............................................................................................................................................................ 283
Chapter 11 Hazardous Chemical Substances......................................................................................................................... 287
11.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................... 287
11.2
U.S. Policies on Hazardous Chemical Substances.................................................................................... 287
11.2.1
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act, 1947.......................................................... 287
11.2.1.1
History.......................................................................................................................... 288
11.2.1.2
Key Provisions of the FIFRAct Relevant to Public Health.......................................... 290
11.2.1.3
Associations between Pesticides and Human Health................................................... 290
11.2.1.4
Associations between Pesticides and Ecosystem Health.............................................. 291
11.2.2
Federal Hazardous Substances Act, 1960.................................................................................... 293

11.2.3
Toxic Substances Control Act, 1976............................................................................................. 293
11.2.3.1
History.......................................................................................................................... 293
11.2.3.2
Key Provisions Relevant to Public Health.................................................................... 294
11.2.3.3
Amendments to the TSCAct......................................................................................... 296
11.2.3.4
Public Health Implications of the TSCAct................................................................... 296
11.2.3.5
Associations between Hazardous Substances and Human Health............................... 297
11.2.3.6
Associations between Hazardous Substances and Ecosystem Health......................... 301
11.2.4
Lautenberg Chemical Safety for the 21st Century Act, 2016....................................................... 302
11.2.4.1
History.......................................................................................................................... 302
11.2.4.2
Key Provisions Relevant to Public Health.................................................................... 302
11.2.5
The Food Quality Protection Act, 1996....................................................................................... 303
11.2.5.1
History.......................................................................................................................... 303
11.2.5.2
Key Provisions of the FQPAct Relevant to Public Health............................................ 304
11.2.5.3
Public Health Implications of the FQPAct................................................................... 304
11.3
U.S. Agencies with Hazardous Substances Policies.................................................................................. 305

Contents

xix

11.3.1
U.S. Department of Labor............................................................................................................ 305
11.3.2
U.S. Chemical Safety Board........................................................................................................ 305
11.3.3
National Toxicology Program...................................................................................................... 306
11.4
U.S. State Policies on Hazardous Substances............................................................................................ 306
11.4.1
State of California........................................................................................................................ 306
11.4.2
State of Massachusetts................................................................................................................. 307
11.4.3
States’ Legislation on Consumers’ Right to Know ..................................................................... 307
11.5
Global Perspective on Toxic Substances................................................................................................... 308
11.5.1
EU Policies on Hazardous Substances......................................................................................... 308
11.5.2
WHO Polices on Hazardous Substances...................................................................................... 309
11.5.2.1
International Agency for Research on Cancer.............................................................. 309
11.5.2.2
International Programme on Chemical Safety..............................................................310

11.5.3
World Health Assembly’s Resolution on Chemicals Management, 2016.....................................311
11.6
Hazard Interventions..................................................................................................................................312
11.7
Summary....................................................................................................................................................313
11.8
Policy Questions.........................................................................................................................................313
References.............................................................................................................................................................314
Chapter 12 Waste Generation and Management......................................................................................................................317
12.1 I ntroduction................................................................................................................................................317
12.2 Policy Overview.........................................................................................................................................317
12.3  U.S. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, 1976...............................................................................318
12.3.1 History...........................................................................................................................................318
12.3.2 Amendments to the RCRAct........................................................................................................ 321
12.3.3 Key Provisions of the RCRAct Relevant to Public Health........................................................... 322
12.3.4 Associations between Solid Waste and Human Health............................................................... 323
12.3.5 Associations between Solid Waste and Ecosystem Health.......................................................... 324
12.3.6 Illustrative State Solid Waste Act................................................................................................. 324
12.3.6.1 Permits.......................................................................................................................... 324
12.3.6.2 Permit Revocation......................................................................................................... 324
12.3.6.3 Site Modification........................................................................................................... 325
12.3.6.4 Site Inspection.............................................................................................................. 325
12.3.7 Policy Issues................................................................................................................................. 325
12.4 Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, 1980................................. 325
12.4.1 History.......................................................................................................................................... 325
12.4.2 Key Provisions of the CERCLAct, as Amended, Relevant to Public Health............................... 328
12.4.3 Associations between Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste and Human Health................................ 330
12.4.4 Associations between Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste and Ecosystem Health........................... 330
12.4.5 Successes and Criticisms of the CERCLAct.................................................................................331

12.4.6 EPA’s Brownfields Program......................................................................................................... 332
12.5 Ocean Waste Pollution.............................................................................................................................. 332
12.5.1  U.S. Policies on Maritime Pollution............................................................................................. 333
12.5.1.1 Ocean Dumping Act, 1972........................................................................................... 333
12.5.1.2 Act to Prevent Pollution from Ships, 1980................................................................... 334
12.5.2 International Policies on Maritime Pollution............................................................................... 335
12.5.2.1 London Convention and Protocol, 1972....................................................................... 335
12.5.2.2 International Maritime Organization........................................................................... 335
12.5.2.3  EU Maritime Pollution Policies.................................................................................... 335
12.6 U.S. Oil Pollution Act, 1990...................................................................................................................... 336
12.6.1 History.......................................................................................................................................... 336
12.6.2 Public Health and Ecosystem Implications of the OPAct............................................................ 336
12.7 U.S. Pollution Prevention Act, 1990.......................................................................................................... 337
12.7.1 History.......................................................................................................................................... 337
12.7.2 Public Health Implications of the PPAct...................................................................................... 338
12.8 Global Perspective of Waste Generation................................................................................................... 338


xx

Contents

12.8.1 F
 ood Waste................................................................................................................................... 338
12.8.2 Plastics Waste............................................................................................................................... 339
12.8.2.1 Plastics as Solid Waste.................................................................................................. 339
12.8.2.2 Plastics in Oceans......................................................................................................... 340
12.8.2.3 Microbeads in Waste.................................................................................................... 341
12.8.2.4 Human Health and Ecological Effects of Plastics Waste............................................. 341
12.8.3 Electronic Products Waste........................................................................................................... 342

12.9 Waste Reduction: Recycling of Waste....................................................................................................... 342
12.9.1 Recycling Issues........................................................................................................................... 343
12.9.2 Innovative Technology for Waste Reduction................................................................................ 343
12.9.3 The Circular Economy................................................................................................................. 344
12.10 Hazard Interventions................................................................................................................................. 344
12.11 Summary................................................................................................................................................... 344
12.12 Policy Questions........................................................................................................................................ 345
References............................................................................................................................................................ 346
Chapter 13 Environment-Related Infectious Diseases............................................................................................................351
13.1
Introduction................................................................................................................................................351
13.2
Infectious Diseases: A Global Perspective.................................................................................................351
13.3
The Environment and Infectious Diseases.................................................................................................351
13.3.1
Cholera..........................................................................................................................................351
13.3.2
Typhus.......................................................................................................................................... 352
13.3.3
Implications for Environmental Health Policy: Clean Water and Sanitation ............................. 353
13.4
Zoonotic Diseases and Human Health...................................................................................................... 353
13.4.1
H1N1 Global Pandemic................................................................................................................ 353
13.4.2
West Africa Ebola Epidemic........................................................................................................ 354
13.4.3
Implications for Environmental Health Policy: Quarantine and Public Health.......................... 355
13.5

Emergence of Vector-Borne Diseases....................................................................................................... 355
13.5.1
Mosquito-Borne Diseases............................................................................................................ 355
13.5.1.1
Malaria.......................................................................................................................... 355
13.5.1.2
Yellow Fever................................................................................................................. 356
13.5.1.3
Dengue.......................................................................................................................... 357
13.5.1.4
West Nile Virus............................................................................................................ 357
13.5.1.5
Chikungunya Virus...................................................................................................... 357
13.5.1.6
Zika Virus..................................................................................................................... 357
13.5.1.7
Implications for Environmental Health Policy: Vector Control and Pesticides .......... 358
13.5.2
Tick-Borne Diseases..................................................................................................................... 358
13.5.3
Rodent-Borne Diseases................................................................................................................ 359
13.5.4
Implications for Environmental Health Policy............................................................................ 359
13.6
Tropical Infectious Diseases...................................................................................................................... 360
13.7
Implications for Environmental Policy: Climate Change......................................................................... 360
13.8
Implications for Ecosystem Health........................................................................................................... 360
13.9

Hazard Interventions................................................................................................................................. 361
13.10Summary................................................................................................................................................... 361
13.11Policy Questions........................................................................................................................................ 361
References............................................................................................................................................................ 362

Section III:  Emerging Areas Impacting Environmental Health
Chapter 14 Energy Production and Associated Policies......................................................................................................... 367
14.1
Introduction............................................................................................................................................... 367
14.2Précis History of U.S. Energy Production Policies................................................................................... 367
14.2.1
Early History................................................................................................................................ 367


Contents

xxi

14.2.2
Postwar Changes.......................................................................................................................... 368
14.3  U.S. Energy Production............................................................................................................................ 369
14.3.1
Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 369
14.3.2
Influences on U.S. Production and Policy.................................................................................... 370
14.3.3
Policy Instruments........................................................................................................................ 370
14.3.4
Sources of U.S. Energy................................................................................................................ 371
14.3.4.1

Fossil Fuels................................................................................................................... 371
14.3.4.2
Renewable Energy Sources........................................................................................... 372
14.3.4.3
Nuclear Energy............................................................................................................. 374
14.4  U.S. Energy Policies.................................................................................................................................. 375
14.4.1
Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration........................................................... 375
14.4.2
Energy Policy Act, 2005.............................................................................................................. 375
14.4.3
State Renewable Portfolio Standards (RPS)................................................................................ 375
14.5
Energy Production and Climate Change................................................................................................... 375
14.6
Global Implications................................................................................................................................... 376
14.6.1
China’s Energy Policies................................................................................................................ 376
14.6.2
India’s Energy Policies................................................................................................................. 376
14.6.3
Europe’s Energy Policies.............................................................................................................. 377
14.7
Associations between Energy Development and Human Health.............................................................. 377
14.8
Associations between Energy Development and Ecosystem Health......................................................... 378
14.9
Hazard Interventions................................................................................................................................. 378
14.10Summary................................................................................................................................................... 378
14.11Policy Questions........................................................................................................................................ 379

References............................................................................................................................................................ 380
Chapter 15 Genetically Modified Organisms......................................................................................................................... 383
15.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................... 383
15.2
History....................................................................................................................................................... 384
15.3
Current GMO Prevalence and Practices in the U.S.................................................................................. 384
15.4
Current Global Prevalence of GMOs and Practices.................................................................................. 385
15.5 U.S. Policies on GMOs and Practices....................................................................................................... 385
15.5.1 U.S. Coordinated Framework for Regulation of Biotechnology, 1986........................................ 385
15.5.2
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, 2003........................................................................................ 386
15.5.3 U.S. GMO Policy and Authorities................................................................................................ 387
15.5.3.1 U.S. Food and Drug Administration............................................................................ 387
15.5.3.2 U.S. Department of Agriculture................................................................................... 387
15.5.3.3
Environmental Protection Agency............................................................................... 388
15.5.3.4
U.S. National Environmental Policy Act...................................................................... 388
15.5.3.5
U.S. State Laws............................................................................................................. 388
15.6
Global Policies on GMOs and Practices................................................................................................... 389
15.6.1
European Union GMO Policies.................................................................................................... 389
15.6.2
GMO Policies in China................................................................................................................ 390
15.6.3
GMO Policies in Brazil................................................................................................................ 391

15.7
Labeling of Products Containing GMO Ingredients................................................................................. 392
15.7.1
U.S. Policies on Labeling of GMOs............................................................................................. 392
15.7.2
Industry’s Voluntary Labeling of GMO Products........................................................................ 392
15.7.3
EU Policies on Labeling of GMOs............................................................................................... 393
15.7.4
Other Nations’ Policies on Labeling of GMOs............................................................................ 393
15.8
Public’s Perceptions of GMOs................................................................................................................... 394
15.9
Associations between GMOs and Human Health..................................................................................... 394
15.10Associations between GMOs and Ecosystem Health................................................................................ 395
15.11Hazard Interventions................................................................................................................................. 395
15.12Summary................................................................................................................................................... 395
15.13Policy Questions........................................................................................................................................ 396
References............................................................................................................................................................ 397


xxii

Contents

Chapter 16 Biodiversity and Endangered Species.................................................................................................................. 399
16.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................... 399
16.2
History....................................................................................................................................................... 399
16.3

The Importance of Biodiversity................................................................................................................ 401
16.3.1
Biological Services Performed by Ecosystems............................................................................ 401
16.3.2
Economic Values.......................................................................................................................... 401
16.3.3
Intrinsic Values............................................................................................................................. 402
16.4
U.S. and Global Policies on Endangered Species and Biodiversity.......................................................... 402
16.4.1
Marine Mammal Protection Act, 1972........................................................................................ 402
16.4.2
U.S. Endangered Species Act, 1973............................................................................................. 402
16.4.3
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species, 1973............................................... 403
16.4.4
EU Directives on Species and Biodiversity.................................................................................. 404
16.4.4.1
EU Birds Directive, 1979.............................................................................................. 404
16.4.4.2
The Habitats Directive, 1992........................................................................................ 405
16.4.4.3
The North American Bird Conservation Initiative, 1999............................................. 405
16.4.4.4
Natura 2000.................................................................................................................. 406
16.4.4.5
EU Biodiversity Strategy.............................................................................................. 406
16.4.5
Australia’s Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act, 1999........................... 407
16.4.6

Convention on Biological Diversity............................................................................................. 407
16.5
Current U.S. Endangered Species Practices and Issues............................................................................ 408
16.5.1
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service..................................................................................................... 408
16.5.2
National Marine Fisheries Service................................................................................................410
16.5.3
EPA’s Responsibilities under the Endangered Species Act...........................................................410
16.6
Species at Risk of Endangerment...............................................................................................................410
16.7
Successful Rescues of Endangered Species...............................................................................................412
16.8
Associations between Endangered Species and Human Health................................................................412
16.9
Associations between Endangered Species and Global Ecosystem Health...............................................412
16.10Hazard Interventions..................................................................................................................................413
16.11Summary....................................................................................................................................................414
16.12Policy Questions.........................................................................................................................................414
References.............................................................................................................................................................415
Chapter 17 The Built Environment..........................................................................................................................................417
17.1
Introduction................................................................................................................................................417
17.2
Terms and Concepts...................................................................................................................................417
17.2.1
Land-Use Policy Tools..................................................................................................................417
17.2.2
Land-Use Policy Actors................................................................................................................418

17.3
History of U.S. Planning Practices.............................................................................................................418
17.3.1
Industrialization and the Birth of a Movement.............................................................................419
17.3.2 U.S. Federal Government’s Growth into Planning...................................................................... 420
17.3.3
New Federalism and the Reemergence of Public Health............................................................. 421
17.4
Social Environment................................................................................................................................... 421
17.5
Policy Overview........................................................................................................................................ 422
17.6
Current Practices and Issues..................................................................................................................... 422
17.7
Policies....................................................................................................................................................... 424
17.7.1
Health in All Policies................................................................................................................... 424
17.7.2
Complete Streets.......................................................................................................................... 424
17.7.3
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design....................................................................... 425
17.7.4
Other Built Environment Policies................................................................................................ 425
17.8
Global Perspective..................................................................................................................................... 426
17.8.1
Europe’s Built Environment......................................................................................................... 426
17.8.2
China’s Built Environment........................................................................................................... 426
17.8.3

India’s Built Environment............................................................................................................ 427
17.8.4
Seminal Issue of Selected Global Built Policies.......................................................................... 427
17.9
Associations between the Built Environment and Human Health............................................................ 428


xxiii

Contents

17.10Associations between the Built Environment and Ecosystem Health....................................................... 429
17.11Hazard Interventions................................................................................................................................. 429
17.12Summary................................................................................................................................................... 429
17.13Policy Questions........................................................................................................................................ 430
References............................................................................................................................................................ 430

Section IV:  Influences on Environmental Health Policymaking
Chapter 18 Policy Impacts of Environmental Justice............................................................................................................. 435
18.1 I ntroduction............................................................................................................................................... 435
18.2 The Matter of Definition........................................................................................................................... 435
18.3 History....................................................................................................................................................... 437
18.3.1 Warren County, North Carolina, Protest, 1982............................................................................ 437
18.3.2 Bullard’s 1990 Book and Thesis.................................................................................................. 437
18.3.3 Five Key Conferences/Meetings.................................................................................................. 438
18.3.3.1 University of Michigan’s Natural Resources Conference, 1990................................ 438
18.3.3.2 ATSDR Environmental Justice Conference, 1990...................................................... 438
18.3.3.3 First National People of Color Environmental Leadership Summit, 1991................. 439
18.3.3.4 National Environmental Justice Conference, 1994..................................................... 440
18.3.3.5 Second National People of Color Environmental Leadership Summit, 2002............ 440

18.3.4 Seven Seminal Studies................................................................................................................. 440
18.3.4.1 GAO Study, 1983........................................................................................................ 440
18.3.4.2 United Church of Christ Report, 1987........................................................................ 441
18.3.4.3 Mohai and Bryant Study, 1992................................................................................... 441
18.3.4.4 EPA Study, 1992......................................................................................................... 442
18.3.4.5 National Law Journal Study, 1992............................................................................ 444
18.3.4.6 Metzger et al. Study of Environmental Hazards and Hispanics’ Health, 1995.......... 444
18.3.4.7 Maantay Study of Municipal Zoning Laws and Environmental Justice, 2002.......... 444
18.3.5 Demographics Investigations....................................................................................................... 444
18.3.5.1 Hird Study, 1993......................................................................................................... 444
18.3.5.2 Anderton et al. Study, 1994........................................................................................ 445
18.3.5.3 Zimmerman Study, 1993............................................................................................ 446
18.3.5.4 GAO Study, 1995........................................................................................................ 446
18.3.5.5 Been Study, 1995........................................................................................................ 447
18.3.5.6 Heitgerd et al. Study, 1995.......................................................................................... 448
18.3.5.7 Oakes et al. Study, 1996.............................................................................................. 448
18.3.5.8 Anderton et al. Study, 1997........................................................................................ 449
18.3.5.9 Baden and Coursey Study, 1997................................................................................. 449
18.3.5.10 Carlin and Xia Study, 1999........................................................................................ 450
18.3.5.11 Davidson and Anderton Study, 2000.......................................................................... 450
18.3.5.12 Morello-Frosch et al. Study, 2002.............................................................................. 450
18.3.5.13 Mohai and Saha Study of 2015................................................................................... 450
18.3.6 Tabulation of Studies.................................................................................................................... 450
18.4 President Clinton’s Executive Order on Environmental Justice................................................................ 451
18.5 Global Perspective..................................................................................................................................... 452
18.6 Poverty and Environmental Justice........................................................................................................... 453
18.7 Tribal Issues of Environmental Justice...................................................................................................... 453
18.8 Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, 1964....................................................................................................... 454
18.9 NAACP Environmental and Climate Justice Program............................................................................. 454
18.10 Perspective on Evolution of Environmental Justice.................................................................................. 455

18.11 Policy Implications of Environmental Justice........................................................................................... 456
18.12 Summary................................................................................................................................................... 457
18.13 Policy Questions........................................................................................................................................ 457
References............................................................................................................................................................ 458


xxiv

Contents

Chapter 19 Policy Impacts of Risk Assessment...................................................................................................................... 461
19.1
Introduction............................................................................................................................................... 461
19.2
Key Definitions and Abbreviations........................................................................................................... 461
19.3
Evolution of Risk Assessment in the U.S.................................................................................................. 462
19.4  U.S. Federal Government’s Involvement.................................................................................................. 463
19.5
Human Health Risk Assessment............................................................................................................... 464
19.5.1
Methods for Quantifying Human Health Risks........................................................................... 465
19.5.1.1
Traditional Regulatory Approach to Characterizing Noncancer Risks........................ 465
19.5.1.2
Regulatory Approaches to Characterization of Cancer Risks...................................... 466
19.5.2
Case Study: Arsenic Risk Brouhaha............................................................................................ 467
19.5.3
What Is the Value of a Human’s Life?.......................................................................................... 468

19.6
Ecological Risk Assessment...................................................................................................................... 469
19.7
Ecological Risk of Chlorpyrifos................................................................................................................ 470
19.8
Occupational Injury Risk Assessment....................................................................................................... 470
19.9
Other Applications of Risk Assessment.................................................................................................... 471
19.9.1
Comparative Risk Assessment..................................................................................................... 471
19.9.2
Risk-Based Corrective Action...................................................................................................... 473
19.9.3
Data-Derived SFs......................................................................................................................... 474
19.10Public Health Concerns about Risk Assessment....................................................................................... 475
19.11Other Critics of Risk Assessment.............................................................................................................. 476
19.12Summary................................................................................................................................................... 477
19.13Policy Questions........................................................................................................................................ 477
References............................................................................................................................................................ 478
Chapter 20 Lessons Learned and Authors’ Reflection........................................................................................................... 481
20.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................... 481
20.2
Summary of Lessons Learned.................................................................................................................. 481
20.3
Closure....................................................................................................................................................... 484
References............................................................................................................................................................ 484

Section V:  Support Material
Appendix 1: List of Abbreviations.......................................................................................................................................... 487
Appendix 2: List of Key Websites........................................................................................................................................... 489

Appendix 3: Glossary of Key Terms...................................................................................................................................... 491
Index.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 497