Ebook Infection control in the intensive care unit (3rd edition): Part 2

Part IV

Infections on ICU


Lower Airway Infection

14

J. Almirall, A. Liapikou, M. Ferrer
and A. Torres

14.1

Definition

Lower respiratory tract infections (RTI) in intubated patients include
ventilator-associated tracheobronchitis (VAT) and ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP). Both are hospital-acquired infections that occur within 48 h after
intubation [1, 2]. Diagnostic criteria for VAT and VAP overlap in terms of clinical
signs and symptoms. In contrast to VAT, VAP requires the presence of new and
persistent pulmonary infiltrates on a chest radiograph, which may be difficult to
interpret in some critically ill patients, and two or more of the following criteria:
fever ([38.3°C) or hypothermia; leukocyte count [10,000/ll; purulent tracheobronchial secretions, or a reduced partial pressure of oxygen in arterial blood
(PaO2)/fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO2) ratio C15% according to the US centers
for disease control and prevention definitions. patients with a clinical pulmonary
infection score [6 are also considered to have pneumonia [3].
The apparent crude incidence of VAT ranges from 3 to 10%, but it is difficult to
determine the exact incidence and importance of VAT for several reasons. The major
reason is that to confirm the absence of infiltrates on a chest radiograph, a computed
tomography (CT) scan is required. VAT is probably an intermediate process between
lower respiratory tract colonization and VAP. Postmortem studies show a continuum

between bronchitis and pneumonia in mechanically ventilated (MV) ICU patients
[4]. VAP that occurs during the first 4 days of MV is defined as early onset in order to
differentiate it from late-onset VAP, which develops thereafter.

A. Torres (&)
Servei de Pneumologia i AlÁlèrgia Respiratòria,
Hospital Clínic, Barcelona, Spain
e-mail:

H. K. F. van Saene et al. (eds.), Infection Control in the Intensive Care Unit,
DOI: 10.1007/978-88-470-1601-9_14, Ó Springer-Verlag Italia 2012

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The term ventilator-associated pneumonia, however, is a misnomer, as the MV
is not the main risk factor for lung colonization and pneumonia. The endotracheal
tube (ETT) seems to play the most important role in the pathogenesis of VAP, as it
creates a direct conduit for bacteria to reach the lower airways and greatly impairs
host defenses. Interestingly, studies demonstrate that MV could also increase the
risk of pneumonia. Indeed, lungs become highly susceptible to bacterial colonization when injurious ventilatory settings are applied, i.e., with high tidal volumes
and low positive end expiratory pressures (PEEP).
Therefore, either ETT-associated pneumonia or ventilation-acquired pneumonia are better terms to describe pneumonia in tracheally intubated and MV
patients, as they emphasize the role of ETT and MV in the pathogenesis of such
pneumonia. The term ventilation-acquired pneumonia would allow physicians and
scientists to maintain the current acronym VAP [5].

14.2

Pathogenesis

Tracheally intubated patients can be colonized via exogenous and endogenous
bacterial sources. When bacteria gain access to the lower respiratory tract in
healthy, nonintubated patients, colonization is prevented by several defense
mechanisms, such as cough, cilia, mucous clearance, polymorphonuclear leukocytes, macrophages and their respective cytokines, antibodies [immunoglobulin
(Ig)M, IgG, IgA], and complement factors. Critically ill patients are already at
high risk of infection because of the illness, comorbidities, and malnutrition.
In MV patients, the tracheal tube may encourage aspiration by bypassing normal
defenses, allowing secretions to pool in the upper part of the trachea. It also creates
a direct conduit for bacteria to reach the airways, impairs cough, compromises
mucociliary clearance, and facilitates bacterial adhesion to the airways through
cuff-related injury to the tracheal mucosa. When endotracheal tubes are inserted
nasally instead of orally, sinusitis is significantly more likely to occur through
blockage of the sinus ostia. The occurrence of nosocomial sinusitis has been
associated with VAP.
High-volume, low-pressure, endotracheal tube cuffs, commonly used during
prolonged MV, are not leakproof, and micro- and macroaspiration of bacterialaden oropharyngeal secretions often occurs. Patients are colonized from exogenous bacterial sources via the hands and apparel of healthcare personnel, contaminated aerosols, and invasive devices such as tracheal aspiration catheters and
fiberoptic bronchoscopes (FOB). Pathogens are also acquired from the patient’s
endogenous flora, though there is still controversy regarding the primary source of
infection (oropharynx, stomach). It is well acknowledged, however, that in
critically ill patients, oral flora quickly shifts to a predominance of aerobic
Gram-negative pathogens Pseudomonas aeruginosa and methicillin-resistant
Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Following bacterial aspiration and colonization
of the proximal airways, the occurrence of VAP mainly depends on the size of the
inoculum, functional status, exposure to antibiotics, and potential host defenses.

14

Lower Airway Infection

14.3

221

Epidemiology

Nosocomial pneumonia accounts for 31% of all nosocomial infections, and a large
majority (83%) of patients who develop nosocomial pneumonia are mechanically
ventilated. The exact incidence of VAP is difficult to obtain due to overlapping
lower RTIs and the difficulty in diagnosing VAP correctly. The incidence of VAP
ranges from 9 to 67% of patients on MV. The rate of VAP, expressed as the total
number of episodes of VAP/1,000 ventilator days, ranges from 5 to 16 [6]. VAP
can increase the time on a ventilator by 10 days, length of ICU stay by 6 days, and
length of total hospital stay by 11 days.
Disease incidence depends greatly on the type of population studied, the
presence or absence of risk factors for colonization by multi-drug-resistant
pathogens, and the type and intensity of preventive strategies applied. Tracheal
intubation and MV are the main risk factors for VAP during the first week of
ventilation (risk assessed at approximately 3% per day in the first week of MV).
A one-day point-prevalence study conducted in 1,417 intensive care units (ICUs)
in Western Europe reported that VAP was the most common ICU-acquired
infection and MV was associated with a threefold increased risk of developing
pneumonia [7]. Studies conducted in several countries in the European Union
have shown varying incidence density ranging from approximately 9–25 cases/
1,000 ventilation days [6]. Epidemiological studies on a large United States

database with medical, surgical, and trauma patients have shown a VAP incidence of 9.3%.
Hospital mortality rate of patients with VAP is significantly higher than that
of patients without VAP. Crude VAP mortality rates range between 20 and
50%, depending on comorbidities, illness severity, pathogens, and quality of
antibiotic treatment [1]. Ventilated ICU patients with VAP appear to have a
two- to tenfold higher risk of death compared with patients without pneumonia.
However, several patients with VAP die and not because of VAP. However,
mortality rates vary from one study to another, and the prognostic impact is
debated. It is well recognized that one-third to one-half of all VAP deaths are
directly attributable to the disease. Mortality rates are higher when VAP
associated with bacteremia, especially with P. aeruginosa or Acinetobacter
spp., medical rather than surgical illness, and treatment with ineffective antibiotic therapy [2].
VAP is associated with higher medical care costs. Patients who develop VAP
during a hospital stay remain longer in the ICU and the hospital, and the increased
level of care and need for additional invasive procedures drastically increases
healthcare costs. It has been reported that each case of VAP is associated with
additional hospital costs of $20000 to more than US $40000. Infection with MRSA
increases hospital costs by an additional $7731 per patient. These data emphasize
the need for prevention and better outcomes [8].


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Etiologic Agents

The etiological cause of VAP is usually identified via semiquantitative

microbiologic analysis of tracheal aspirates with or without initial microscopic
evaluation. When VAP is diagnosed using a microbiologic strategy following
clinical suspicion of lung infection, samples from the lower respiratory tract are
collected and quantitative cultures performed. Pathology studies clearly show
that the sensitivity of microbiological studies is drastically reduced when
antibiotics are administered. Therefore, new antibiotics should be administered
after sampling. Specimens can be obtained noninvasively via a tracheal suction
catheter or invasively through an FOB. When an FOB is used, pathogens from
the lower respiratory tract are retrieved mainly through bronchoalveolar lavage
(BAL) or protected specimen brush (PSB). Several modifications of these
techniques have been developed, such as mini-BAL and blind PSB sampling.
During pneumonia, pathogens colonize the lower respiratory tract at concentrations of 105–106 colony-forming units/milliliter (CFU/ml). With regard to
sample size, the commonly accepted diagnostic threshold for PSB, BAL, and tracheal aspirates are 103, 104–105, and 105–106 CFU/ml, respectively. Most of the
current debate regarding VAP diagnosis still concerns invasive versus. noninvasive
sampling techniques. Five randomized clinical trials attempted to demonstrate differences in outcome between techniques; only one study showed significant survival
benefit using invasive sampling techniques [9].
Studies in the 1990s confirmed the association between oral bacterial colonization and nosocomial pneumonia in MV patients. In addition, patients in the ICU
have higher mean plaque scores than patients in non-ICU control groups. Pathogens isolated from plaque of these ICU patients included MRSA. These findings
suggest that dental plaque may also provide a reservoir for pathogenic bacteria that
contribute to VAP.
The most common microorganisms implicated as causative agents of VAP are
P. aeruginosa (24%), S. aureus (20%), and Enterobacteriaceae (14%) [10–12].
Increasing resistance of S. aureus to methicillin/oxacillin has been reported for
many years, reaching almost 60% in recent studies [13]. Multiple etiologic agents
are often present. All bacteria implicated in the VAP etiology are reported in
Table 14.1.
Several differences in the etiology of early- and late-onset pneumonia can be
recognized, with the former mainly caused by pathogens with enhanced
antibiotic susceptibility and better outcome, such as Haemophilus influenzae
and S. pneumonia. Anaerobic bacteria play a minor role in VAP pathogenesis.

Theoretically, patients who develop VAP within 4 days may have aspirated
oropharyngeal contents colonized by anaerobic bacteria, but the need to
administer antianaerobic drugs has not been clearly established. In general,
viruses and fungi are potential causes of VAP only in immunosuppressed
patients.


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Table 14.1 Causative agents of ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP)

Gram-positive
MSSA
MRSA
Streptococcus pneumoniae
Streptococcus spp.
Gram-negative
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Haemophilus influenzae
Enterobacteriaceae
Acinetobacter baumannii

Kollef [8] n = 398

Agbath [9] n = 313

Kollef [10] n = 93

35 (8.8)
59 (14.8)

68
25
24
13

(21.7)
(8.0)
(7.7)
(4.2)

15 (16.1)
10 (10.7)
6 (6.4)

57 (14.3)

43
52
64
10

(13.7)
(16.6)
(20.4)
(3.2)

19 (20.4)
6 (6.4)
15 (16.1)
6 (6.4)

38 (9.5)
8 (2.0)

MRSA methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus; MSSA methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus
aureus

14.5

Risk Factors

A number of papers using both univariate and multivariate statistical techniques
highlight the risk factors associated with VAP. Knowledge of these risk factors is
crucial in implementing effective preventive measures. These risk factors can be
modifiable or nonmodifiable conditions (Table 14.2). More importantly, several
identified risk factors have been modified in studies aiming at reducing VAP
incidence. These include enteral feeding, ventilator-circuit manipulation, patient
positioning, MV modes, and strategies for stress-ulcer prophylaxis. Recent
guidelines classify recommendations for preventative interventions of modifiable
risk factors [2]. Presumed relationships between identified risk factors, preventive
strategies, and VAP pathogenesis are shown in Fig. 14.1.

14.6

Preventive Strategies

The high morbidity and mortality rates of VAP and the costs of the disease, both in
terms of treatment and increasing hospital length of stay, have led to efforts to
reach consensus in control measures and prevention. Many hospitals have developed and implemented evidence-based prevention protocols and educational
programs for physicians and nurses. These strategies have often improved quality
of care and reduced VAP incidence. When North American epidemiological data
from the 2008 National Healthcare Safety Network (NHSN) report are compared
with data from the 2003 National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS),
pneumonia incidence densities are slightly lower overall, suggesting that new
preventive strategies applied in the meantime have had a positive effect [13].


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Table 14.2 Risk factors for ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP)
Modifiable risk factors

Nonmodifiable risk factors

Supine patient position

Age [60 years

Large-volume gastric aspiration

COPD/ARDS/pulmonary disease

Colonization of the ventilator circuit

Organ failure

Low endotracheal cuff pressure

Coma/impaired consciousness

Staff hand infection

Tracheostomy

Nasotracheal intubation

Reintubation

Oropharyngeal colonization

Intracranial pressure monitor

Histamine type 2 (H2) antagonists and antacids

Length of stay in the ICU
Duration of intubation and mechanical
ventilation [2 days
Prior antibiotics
Enteral nutrition
Therapeutic interventions
Use of sedative and paralytic agents

COPD chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; ARDS acute respiratory distress syndrome;

ICU intensive care unit

14.6.1 Ventilator and VAP Bundles
Preventive strategies have focused on reducing/avoiding cross-transmission, pulmonary aspiration across the cuff, and bacterial load in the oropharynx. Several
strategies with proven efficacy in reducing MV-related morbidity and mortality
rates have been grouped as a ventilator bundle and could bring about a 45%
reduction in VAP rates [14]. The interventions are recommended by the Institute
for Healthcare Improvement (IHI) and include:
1. elevating the head of the bed by 30–45°;
2. daily ‘‘sedation vacations’’ and assessment of readiness for extubation;
3. peptic ulcer disease prophylaxis;
4. deep venous thrombosis prophylaxis.
Although the aforementioned bundle was not specifically designed to prevent
VAP, effects of body position, sedation vacation, and assessment of readiness for
extubation have generated significant reduction in VAP rates. The bundle was
subsequently implemented specifically to address VAP prevention, and two
additional strategies were incorporated: (1) daily oral use of chlorhexidine; (2)
subglottic secretion drainage.

14.6.2 Endotracheal Intubation
Intubation and MV is undoubtedly associated with increased risk of VAP
and therefore should be avoided whenever possible. Noninvasive positivepressure ventilation (NPPV) is an attractive alternative for patients with acute


14

Lower Airway Infection
Pathogenesis

225

Risk factors
Malnutrition

Preventive strategies
Ensure appropriate
nutritional support ;

Poor oral hygiene

clean oral cavity; daily oral
use of chlorhexidine ;

Prior antibiotic

avoid unnecessary antibiotic

administration

administration;

Dry mouth

prevent dehydration

Gastrica alkalization

Avoid unnecessary stress-

Bacterial colonization,
(oropharynx/stomach/

sinuses/subglottic

ulcer prophylaxis

space/ventilator circuit
condensate)
Avoid long-term placement
Nasogastric tube

of nasogastric tube; interrupt
enteral nutrition for 8 h
every day;
use oral intubation; try

Nasal intubation

noninvasive positivepressure ventilation;

Accumulation of circuit

routinely drain circuit

condensate

condensate

Maintain semirecumbent
position
Supine positioning

Maintain oral hygiene

Nasogastric tube

Use continuous subglottic

Large gastric volumes

Avoid unplanned

suctioning

extubations
Aspiration of
contaminated

Patient/ventilator circuit

Routinely drain circuit

secretions/circuit

manipulation

condensate

Accumulation of circuit

Use a heat and moisture

condensate

exchanger

condensate/aerosols into
lower airways

Reintubation

Ensure adequate
endotracheal tube cuff
pressures
Extubate as soon as

VAP

clinically indicated

Fig. 14.1 Relationship between pathogenesis, risk factors, and preventive strategies for
ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP)


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exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) or acute hypoxemic respiratory failure and should be used whenever possible in selected
(immunosuppressed patients) with pulmonary infiltrates, fever, and respiratory
failure and to facilitate difficult weaning. Reintubation should be avoided, if
possible, as it increases the risk of VAP [15]. Orotracheal intubation should be

preferred over nasotracheal intubation to prevent nosocomial sinusitis and thus
reduce the risk of VAP.
Specific strategies, such as improved methods of sedation and the use of protocols to facilitate and accelerate weaning, have been recommended to reduce
intubation and MV duration but are dependent on adequate ICU staffing. Daily
interruption or lightening of sedation, in particular, can decrease time on MV, as
well as avoiding paralytic agents, which is also recommended so as not to depress
defence mechanisms.

14.6.3 Tracheal Tube, Ventilatory Circuit, and Gas Conditioning
Most endotracheal tubes used in the ICU have high-volume, low-pressure
(HVLP) cuffs. The internal volume of standard HVLP cuffs can exceed the
internal diameter of the trachea by up to 40%, so when inflated, HVLP cuffs
seal the trachea without being stretched, and their internal pressure closely
reflects pressure exerted against the tracheal wall. Nevertheless, longitudinal
folds invariably form, and bacteria-laden oropharyngeal secretions easily leak
along these folds, increasing risks for airways infection and pneumonia. Cuffs
made of new materials such as polyurethane have been developed. During
inflation, these cuffs form smaller folds and can prevent or greatly reduce the
aspiration of secretions past the cuff. Leakage of oropharyngeal contents past
the ETT cuff has also been reduced with a new endotracheal tube that contains
a separate dorsal lumen, which opens into the subglottic region and allows
continuous aspiration of subglottic secretions (CASS tube) This strategy has
significantly reduced the incidence of pneumonia, particularly early-onset VAP,
and should be used if available [16]. The internal pressure of the endotracheal
tube cuff pressure must also be maintained between 25–30 cm H2O, particularly when no PEEP is applied, to prevent leakage of contaminated secretions
past the cuff into the lower airways and tracheal injury. Patients who require
prolonged endotracheal intubation or bedside percutaneous dilation tracheostomy for prolonged MV are also at risk of developing swallowing dysfunctions
that may predispose to aspiration and the subsequent development of nosocomial pneumonia [17].
The ventilatory circuit can become colonized and facilitate bacterial inoculation. The frequency of ventilator circuit change does not affect the incidence of
VAP, but the condensate fluid collected in the ventilator circuit can increase the

risk of exogenous and endogenous bacterial colonization. Therefore, the inadvertent flushing of contaminated condensate into the lower airway should be
avoided through careful emptying of ventilator circuits.


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There are no consistent data showing reduced VAP incidence [2] and better
outcome using either heat and moisture exchangers (HME) or heated humidifiers
(HH). Neither humidification strategy can be recommended as a pneumonia prevention tool at this stage; however, inspiratory gases should be delivered at body
temperature or slightly below and at the highest relative humidity in order to
prevent heat and moisture loss from the airways and, more importantly, change in
rheologic properties of secretions and impairment of mucociliary clearance.

14.6.4 Gastric Colonization and Body Position
Gastric sterility is maintained in an acidic environment. In critically ill patients,
use of antacids for stress-ulcer prophylaxis, and enterally administered nutrition
alkalinizes gastric contents and facilitates bacterial colonization of the stomach.
Retrograde colonization of the oropharynx and pulmonary aspiration past
the ETT cuff causes bacterial colonization of the lower respiratory tract
and pneumonia. Guidelines recommend elevating the head of a patient’s bed
30–45°, especially during enteral feeding, to reduce gastroesophageal reflux and
incidence of nosocomial pneumonia [2]. Differences between the semirecumbent
and supine positions have been reported in one randomized clinical study. Drakulovic et al. [18] showed that the semirecumbent position (458) lowered the risk
for onset of nosocomial pneumonia by 78% in comparison with completely supine
position (0°), reducing the gastrooropharyngeal route of pulmonary infection.

14.6.5 Enterally Administered Nutrition
Enterally administered nutrition in supine patients is a risk factor for VAP development through increased risk of aspiration of gastric contents. Residual volume
should be carefully monitored and, in the case of consistently large volumes, the use
of agents that increase gastrointestinal (GI) motility (e.g., metoclopramide). When
necessary, enterally administered nutrition should be withheld to reduce aspiration
risk. Enterally administered nutrition acidification and postpyloric tube placement
and nutrition suspension 8 h daily (intermittent nutrition) are strategies that should
reduce gastric colonization and risk of gastroesophageal reflux, although investigators have reported inconsistent results [19]. However, the effectiveness of such
interventions awaits validation in clinical trials. Nevertheless, intubated patients
should be kept in a semirecumbent position (30–45°) to prevent aspiration, especially
when receiving enterally administered nutrition.

14.6.6 Stress-Ulcer Prophylaxis
As mentioned above, gastric sterility is maintained in an acidic environment within
the stomach. A gastric pH [4 facilitates bacterial colonization mostly due to
Gram-negative bacteria. However, the majority of critically ill patients are at a


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higher risk for GI bleeding during MV; hence, stress-ulcer prophylaxis is essential.
Antacids, histamine-2-receptor antagonists (H2 blockers), and proton-pump
inhibitors (PPI) are usually administered to prevent GI lesions. Sucralfate, an
alternative gastroprotective agent, does not change gastric acidity and prevents GI
bleeding, protecting gastric mucosa. Several randomized clinical trials and
meta-analyses investigated the rates of VAP using sucralfate versus agents that
alkalinize gastric juice (antacids, H2 blockers, PPI) with conflicting results. An
additional risk for GI bleeding using sucralfate has also been found [20]. Thus, the

use of sucralfate as VAP-preventive strategy should only be recommended in
patients with low risk of GI bleeding.

14.6.7 Oropharyngeal and Digestive Tract Colonization
Progression from colonization to tracheobronchitis and pneumonia is a dynamic
process, and identifying the different entities depends on the specificity of
diagnostic tools. Oropharyngeal colonization, either present on admission or
acquired during ICU stay, has been identified as an independent risk factor for
the development of ICU-acquired pneumonia caused by enteric Gram-negative
bacteria and P. aeruginosa [21]. In tracheally intubated patients, oral flora rapidly shifts from a predominance of aerobic Gram-positive bacteria and anaerobes
to a majority of aerobic Gram-negative pathogens. Oropharyngeal decontamination can be achieved through topical administration of antiseptics, such as
chlorhexidine. Using chlorhexidine in cardiac postsurgical patients and patients
requiring MV for at least 48 h has been shown to reduce the incidence of VAP.
Despite the reduction in nosocomial pneumonia, no survival benefits were
demonstrated.
Selective oropharyngeal decontamination (SOD) and subglottic decontamination can be obtained via topical administration of nonabsorbable antibiotics, the
most common being polymyxin E, tobramycin/gentamicin, and amphotericin B,
all of which provide antimicrobial activity against all aerobic Gram-negative
pathogens. An additional short course of systemic third-generation cephalosporins,
such as cefotaxime or ceftriaxone, has also been used for selective digestive
decontamination (SDD) to prevent early infections caused by H. influenzae and
S. pneumonia. Several randomized clinical trials and meta-analyses have shown
reduced bacterial colonization and VAP; however, effects on ICU length of stay
and mortality rates are inconsistent. Several concerns have dampened the enthusiasm for the SDD preventive strategy: possible emergence of antibiotic-resistant
bacteria; lack of consistent survival benefits demonstrated by randomized clinical
trials, and, ultimately, increased healthcare costs. A large randomized clinical trial
involving 5,939 patients shows an absolute reduction in mortality of 2.5 and 3.5
percentage points with SOD and SDD, respectively, without evidence of increased
emergence of antibiotic resistance [22]. Currently, they are not recommended for
routine use, especially in patients who may be colonized with multi-drug-resistant

pathogens.


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14.6.8 Probiotics
Probiotics are viable microorganisms that colonize the host GI tract by adhering
to the intestinal mucosa and compete with the adhesion of pathogens to epithelial
binding sites, thus creating an unfavorable local milieu for pathogen colonization. Probiotic products have been shown to be of some benefit in the following
diseases: acute infectious diarrhea in children, necrotizing enterocolitis in verylow-birth-weight infants, allergic atopic dermatitis prevention in children, and
prevention of relapses of ulcerative colitis. In critically ill patients, studies
demonstrate that oral administration of a probiotic Lactobacillus preparation
delayed respiratory tract colonization with P. aeruginosa and resulted in a
reduced rate of ventilator-associated pneumonia caused by P. aeruginosa. Also,
Morrow et al. [23] found that patients treated with Lactobacillus were significantly less likely to develop microbiologically confirmed VAP compared with
patients treated with placebo (40.0 vs. 19.1%, p = 0.007). A meta-analysis of
five randomized controlled trials concluded that probiotic administration is
associated with lower incidence of VAP [24]. Future studies need to be designed
with standardization of the probiotic product and dosing (both daily dose and
therapy duration).

14.6.9 Bacterial Biofilm
Bacterial biofilm is a highly structured, matrix-enclosed bacterial community.
Sessile bacteria encased within the matrix express genes in a different pattern from
their planktonic counterpart to achieve a survival advantage in a hostile environment. Studies show evidence that following tracheal intubation, bacterial biofilm is
formed early within the internal surface of the endotracheal tube. These sessile

communities develop resistance to antibiotics, to cellular and humoral immune
defenses, and are the cause of persistent infection. Certain bacteria, such as
Pseudomonas spp., appear to be more capable of forming biofilms, especially in
the presence of abnormal airway mucosa, such as that which as exists in patients
with cystic fibrosis. Bacteria from within the biofilm can be dislodged mechanically through tracheal suction catheters, bronchoscope, or airflow and can ultimately increase the risk for VAP. Coating medical devices, such as intravascular
and urinary catheters, with antimicrobial agents such as silver is a widely applied
method to reduce the incidence of device-associated infections. In the last decade,
several in vitro and in vivo laboratory studies have tested the efficacy and safety of
silver-coated ETTs, demonstrating reduced bacterial colonization of the ETT
without associated adverse effects. However, results from animal studies have also
emphasized that the antibacterial effect may not last beyond 24–48 h, mainly due
to mucus accumulation within the ETT. A large randomized clinical trial comparing bactericidal effects of silver-coated tracheal tubes to standard tubes showed
a relative VAP risk reduction of 36% and greatest efficacy within the first 10 days
of MV [12]. Silver-coated ETT is an attractive approach to decreasing risk of


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pneumonia, and further studies should be performed to improve antimicrobial
efficacy and assess limitations of the strategy.

14.7

Prognostic Factors

Medical conditions predisposing patients to serious infections, such as COPD,
immunosuppression, chronic heart failure, chronic hepatopathy, and chronic renal
failure can have an impact on the severity of VAP episodes. The presence of specific

factors may be associated with poorer outcomes in VAP patients, such as older age,
duration of ventilation before enrolment, presence of neurologic disease on admission, failure of the PaO2/FiO2 ratio to improve by day 3, acute renal failure, and
shock. But the most important prognostic factor associated with mortality is
appropriate initial antibiotic treatment. The percentage of inadequate treatment
ranges between 22 and 73% in the literature. Multi-drug-resistant microorganisms,
such as P. aeruginosa, Acinetobacter spp., and MRSA, are the more common
pathogens that are not susceptible to initial antibiotic therapy. Susceptibility to
antibiotics of microorganisms that cause VAP varies between patient populations,
hospitals, and ICUs. The most recent American Thoracic Society guidelines [2] list
the following risk factors for colonization and infection with multi-drug-resistant
bacteria: antibiotic treatment within the last 90 days; current hospitalization or
within the last 90 days of[5 days duration; high frequency of multi-drug-resistant
organism in the hospital/unit; presence of risk factors for healthcare-associated
pneumonia (hospitalization for C2 days in the preceding 90 days; residence in a
nursing home or extended care facility; home infusion therapy; chronic dialysis
within the last 30 days; home wound care; family members carriers of multi-drugresistant bacteria); immunosuppressive disease and/or treatment.
VAP onset is an important issue regarding the associated mortality risk for ICU
patients. Late-onset VAP has the worst prognosis in comparison with early-onset
pathogens. Typically, late-onset VAP is caused by high-risk microorganisms, and
hospital mortality rates can be as high as 65% when VAP is caused by
P. aeruginosa, Acinetobacter spp. or Stenotrophomonas maltophilia. Bacteremia has
been associated with increased mortality rates in patients with community-acquired
pneumonia, but less information is available for bacteremic episodes of VAP.
Most prognostic factors are included in several scores designed to stratify
patients according to disease severity on ICU admission. Some examples are the
acute physiology and chronic evaluation (APACHE) score versions I, II, III, and
IV; and the simplified acute physiology score (SAPS) versions I, II, and III. When
patients are infected, the following scores can be used: sequential organ failure
assessment (SOFA), a tool that evaluates six organs and has been recognized as a
valuable prognostic scoring system, multiple organ dysfunction score (MODS) and

the organ dysfunction and/or infection (ODIN) score. However, no score has been
developed to assess severity in VAP patients at the time of diagnosis. In the ICU
setting, attending physicians daily have to confront patients in whom a pulmonary
infection can complicate their already critical situation.


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A predisposition, infection, response, organ failure (PIRO)-based model could
be useful for assessing severity and stratifying mortality rate. This four-variable
score is based on the patient’s predisposition to the disease, gravity of the insult,
host’s response, and related organ dysfunction [25]. The VAP PIRO score could be
useful in daily practice, as it classifies patients according to their mortality risk
with only one measurement on the day of the VAP diagnosis. This simple tool has
been tested in different situations and has proven efficiency in assessing VAP
severity and predicting ICU mortality rate. It has also shown worse outcomes in
patients with a score of [2.

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Bloodstream Infection in the ICU
Patient

15

J. Valle´s and R. Ferrer

15.1

Introduction

Hospital-acquired infections (HAI) occur in 5–10% of patients admitted to
hospitals in the Unites States and remain a leading cause of morbidity and mortality [1]. The endemic rates of HAI vary markedly between hospitals and between
areas of the same hospital. Patients in intensive care units (ICUs), representing
8–15% of hospital admissions, experience a disproportionately high percentage of
HAI compared with patients in noncritical care areas [2–8]. Patients admitted to
ICUs account for 45% of all HA pneumonias and bloodstream infections (BSIs),
although critical care units comprise only 5–10% of all hospital beds [3]. The
severity of the underlying disease, invasive diagnostic and therapeutic procedures
that breach normal host defenses, contaminated life-support equipment, and the
prevalence of resistant microorganisms are critical factors in the high rate of
infection in the ICUs [9]. On the other hand, 40% of patients admitted to the ICU
present infections acquired in the community, and 17% of them present BSI [10].
The incidence rate of patients with community-acquired (CA) BSI admitted in a
general ICU is about nine to ten episodes per 1,000 admissions [11, 12] representing 30–40% of all episodes of BSI in a medical–surgical ICU (Fig. 15.1).

In this chapter, we discuss the characteristics and prognosis of BSI in the ICU,
including hospital- and CA episodes.

J. Vallés (&)
Critical Care Center, Hospital Sabadell,
Sabadell, Barcelona, Spain
e-mail:

H. K. F. van Saene et al. (eds.), Infection Control in the Intensive Care Unit,
DOI: 10.1007/978-88-470-1601-9_15, Ó Springer-Verlag Italia 2012

233


J. Valle´s and R. Ferrer

234
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

HAI-ICU

2005

2006

HAI-non ICU

2007

2008

2009

CA

Fig. 15.1 Distribution of bloodstream infections (BSI) in the medical–surgical intensive care
unit (ICU) of Hospital Sabadell (2000–2009) HAI-ICU, hospital-acquired BSI in ICU; HAI-non
ICU, hospital-acquired BSI in wards; CA, community-acquired BSI

15.2

Hospital-Acquired Bloodstream Infections in the ICU

15.2.1 Epidemiology

HA BSI in the ICU is defined in a patient with a clinically significant blood culture
positive for a bacterium or fungus and that is obtained more than 72 h after
admission or previously, if it is directly related to a invasive manipulation on
admission in the ICU (e.g., urinary catheterization or insertion of intravenous line)
[13]. Patients in the ICU not only have higher endemic rates of HAI than patients
in general wards, but the distribution of their infections also differs. The two most
important HAI in general wards are urinary tract and surgical wound infections,
whereas in the ICU, lower respiratory tract infections and BSI are the most
frequent [14]. This distribution is related to the widespread use of mechanical
ventilation and intravenous catheters. Data compiled through the national nosocomial infections surveillance system (NNIS) of the centers for disease control and
prevention (CDC) in the USA revealed that bloodstream infections accounted for
almost 20% of HAI in ICU patients, 87% of which were associated with a central
line [15]. A recent nationwide surveillance study in 49 US hospitals (SCOPE)
reported that 51% of HA BSIs occurred in the ICU [16]. Studies conducted in
critically ill patients show that the incidence rate of nosocomial BSI in the ICU
ranges from 27 to 68 episodes per 1,000 admissions [17–21] (Table 15.1),
depending on the type of ICU (surgical, medical, coronary care unit), severity of
patient’s illness, use of invasive devices, and the length of ICU stay. These
infection rates among ICU patients are as much as five to ten times higher than
those recorded for patients admitted to general wards.


15

Bloodstream Infection in the ICU Patient

235

Table 15.1 Rates of hospital-acquired bloodstream infections (BSIs) in the intensive care
unit (ICU)

Year

Type of ICU

Episodes of nosocomial
BSIs per 1,000 admissions

First author

1994

Medical–surgical

67.2

Rello [17]

1994

Surgical

26.7

Pittet [19]

1996

Adult, multicenter study

41

Brun-Buisson [20]

1997

Adult, multicenter study

36

Vallés [18]

2006

Adult, multicenter study

68

Garrouste-Orgas [21]

15.2.2 Risk Factors
Conditions that predispose an individual to BSI include not only the patient’s
underlying conditions but also therapeutic, microbial, and environmental factors.
Illnesses that have been associated with an increased BSI risk include hematologic
and nonhematologic malignancies, diabetes mellitus, renal failure requiring dialysis, chronic hepatic failure, immune deficiency syndromes, and conditions
associated with the loss of normal skin barriers, such as serious burns and pressure
ulcers. In the ICU, therapeutic maneuvers associated with an increased risk of HA
BSI include procedures such as placement of intravascular and urinary catheters,
endoscopic procedures, and drainage of intra-abdominal infections. Several risk
factors have been associated with the acquisition of BSI by specific pathogens.
Coagulase-negative staphylococci are mainly associated with central venous line

infection and with the use of intravenously administered lipid emulsions. Candida
spp. infections are related to exposure to multiple antibiotics, hemodialysis,
isolation of Candida spp. from sites other than the blood, azotemia, and the use of
indwelling catheters [22]. In an analysis of risk factors for HA candidemia in our
ICU, we found that exposure to more than four antibiotics during the ICU stay
[odds ratio (OR) 4.10], parenterally administered nutrition (OR 3.37), previous
surgery (OR 2.60), and the presence of solid malignancy (OR 1.57) were the
variables that were independently associated with the development of Candida
spp. infection [23].

15.2.3 Microbiology
The spectrum of microorganisms that invade the bloodstream in patients with HAI
during their stay in the ICU has been evaluated in several studies. Although almost
any microorganism can produce BSI, staphylococci and Gram-negative bacilli
account for the vast majority of cases. However, among the staphylococci, coagulase-negative staphylococci (CNS) have become a clinically significant agent of
BSIs in the ICU [17, 18, 24, 25]. The ascendance of this group of staphylococci has
increased the interpretative difficulties for clinicians, as a high number of CNS


J. Valle´s and R. Ferrer

236

Table 15.2 Microorganisms causing nosocomial bloodstream infection in adult intensive care
units
Reference

Gram-positive
microorganisms

Gram-negative
microorganisms

Fungi

Polymicrobial
episodes (%)

Rello [17]

44.1% CNS
S. aureusa
Enterococcus
spp.

40.5%
P. aeruginosab
E. coli
Enterobacter spp.

5.4%
Candida
spp.

9.9

Pittet [19]

51.0% CNS
S. aureusa

Enterococcus
spp.

39.0%
Enterobacter spp.
Klebsiella spp.
S. marcescensc

4.8%
Candida
spp.

21

Vallés[18]

49.8% CNS
S. aureusa
Enterococcus
spp.

32.6%
P. aeruginosab
A. baumanniid
K. pneumoniaee

4.4%
Candida
spp.

12.7

Jamal [27]

46.8% CNS
S. aureusa
Enterococcus
spp.

36.6%
Enterobacter spp.
S. marcescensc
K. pneumoniaee

17.6%
Candida
spp.

9.8

Garrouste-Orgas
[21]

52.5% ECN
S. aureusa
Enterococcus
spp.

29.3%
Enterobacter spp.

P. aeruginosab
Other

6.6%
Candida
spp.

11.6

CNS coagulase-negative staphylococci
Staphylococcus
b
Pseudomonas
c
Serratia
d
Acinetobacter
e
Klebsiella
a

isolations represent contamination rather than true BSI. The increased importance
of CNS BSI seems to be related to the high incidence of multiple invasive devices
used in critically ill patients and to the multiple antimicrobial therapies used for
Gram-negative infections in ICU patients, which results in selection of Grampositive microorganisms. The change in the spectrum of organisms causing HA
BSIs in an adult ICU is confirmed by Edgeworth et al. [26], who analyzed the
evolution of HA BSIs over 25 years in the same ICU. Between 1971 and 1990, the
frequency of isolation of individual organisms changed little, with S. aureus,
P. aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, and Klebsiella pneumoniae predominating.
However, between 1991 and 1995, the number of BSIs doubled, largely due to the

increased isolation of CNS, Enterococcus spp., and intrinsically antibiotic-resistant
Gram-negative organisms, particularly P. aeruginosa and Candida spp.
The leading pathogens among cases of HA BSIs in the ICU are Gram-positive
microorganisms, representing nearly half of the organisms isolated [17–19, 21, 27]
(Table 15.2). CNS, S. aureus, and enterococci are the most frequent Gram-positive
bacteria in all studies, and CNS is isolated in 20–30% of all episodes of BSI.


15

Bloodstream Infection in the ICU Patient

237

Table 15.3 Major sources of hospital-acquired bloodstream infection in the ICUs
Type of infection

Rello [17]
(%)

Pittet [19]
(%)

Vallés [18]
(%)

Edgewort [26]
(%)

Garrouste-Orgas

[21] (%)

Intravenous catheter

35

18

37.1

62

20.2

Respiratory tract

10

28

17.5

3

16.3

Intra-abdominal

9

NA

6.1

6.9

NA

Genitourinary tract

3.6

5.4

5.9

2.4

2.5

Surgical wound

8

8

2.4

3

9.9

Other

7

14.5

2.9

–

12.9

Unknown origin

27

20

22.4

32.7

28.1

Gram-negative bacilli are responsible for 30–40% of BSI episodes, and the
remaining cases are mostly due to Candida spp. Polymicrobial episodes are
relatively common, representing about 10%. Anaerobic bacteria are isolated in
fewer than 5% of cases. Among Gram-positive BSIs, the incidence of pathogens is

similar in the different ICUs, with CNS being the most frequently isolated
organism and S. aureus the second commonest pathogen in all studies. Only the
incidence of strains with antibiotic resistance, such as methicillin-resistant
Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) or vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE), differs substantially according to the characteristics of individual institutions and
depending on whether they become established as endemic nosocomial pathogens
in the ICU. On the other hand, the Gram-negative species isolated from HA BSIs
in ICUs of different institutions show marked variability. The relative contribution
of each Gram-negative species to the total number of isolates from blood varies
from hospital to hospital and over time. The antibiotic policy of the institution may
induce the appearance of highly drug-resistant microorganisms and the emergence
of endemic nosocomial pathogens, in particular, Pseudomonas spp, Acinetobacter
spp., and Enterobacteriaceae, with extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL).

15.2.4 Sources
The vast majority (70%) of nosocomial BSIs in the ICU are secondary bacteremias, including the BSIs related to intravascular catheter infection, and the
remaining 30% are bacteremias of unknown origin. Table 15.3 summarizes the
sources of nosocomial bacteremias in the ICU reported in several series [17–19,
21, 26]. As shown, intravascular catheter-related infections and respiratory tract
infections are the leading sources of secondary episodes. The source of nosocomial
BSIs varies according to microorganism. Coagulase-negative staphylococci and S.
aureus commonly complicate intravenous-related infections, whereas Gramnegative bacilli are the main etiology for secondary BSIs following respiratory
tract, intra-abdominal, and urinary tract infections. Among bacteremias of
unknown origin, most are caused by Gram-positive microorganisms, mainly CNS,


238

J. Valle´s and R. Ferrer

and may originate also in device-related infections not diagnosed at the time of

BSI development.

15.2.5 Systemic Response
The host reaction to invading microbes involves a rapidly amplifying polyphony of
signals and responses that may spread beyond the invaded tissue. Fever or
hypothermia, chills, tachypnea, and tachycardia often herald the onset of the
systemic inflammatory response to microbial invasion, also called sepsis. BSI and
fungemia have been simply defined as the presence of bacteria or fungi in blood
cultures, and four stages of systemic response of increasing severity have been
described: the systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS), which is identified by a combination of simple and readily available clinical signs and symptoms (i.e., fever or hypothermia, tachycardia, tachypnea, changes in blood
leukocyte count); sepsis, in patients in whom the SIRS is caused by documented
infection; severe sepsis, when patients have dysfunction of the major organs;
septic shock, which describes patients with hypotension and organ dysfunction in
addition to sepsis [28]. The presence of organisms in the blood is one of the most
reliable criteria for characterizing a patient presenting with SIRS as having sepsis
or one of its more severe presentations, such as severe sepsis or septic shock.
In a multicenter study, Brun-Buisson et al. [20] analyzed the relationship
between BSI and severe sepsis in adults ICUs and general wards in 24 hospitals in
France. Of the 842 episodes of clinically significant BSI recorded, 162 (19%)
occurred in patients hospitalized in ICUs. Three hundred and seventy-seven episodes (45%) of BSIs were HA, and their incidence was 12 times greater in ICUs
than in wards. The frequency of severe sepsis during BSI differed markedly
between wards and ICUs (17% vs. 65%, p \ 0.001). HA episodes in the ICU
represented an incidence rate of 41/1,000 admissions, and the incidence rate of
severe sepsis among patients with HA BSI in the ICU was 24 episodes per 1,000
admissions. A multicenter study reported by our group [18] analyzed 590 HA BSIs
in adult ICUs of 30 hospitals in Spain and classified their systemic response as
sepsis in 371 episodes (62.8%), severe sepsis in 109 (18.5%), and septic shock in
the remaining 110 (18.6%). Episodes of BSI associated with intravascular catheters showed the lowest rate of septic shock (12.8%); episodes of BSI secondary to
lower respiratory tract, intra-abdominal, or genitourinary tract infections showed
the highest incidence of severe sepsis and septic shock. In the study by BrunBuisson et al. [20] involving patients hospitalized in ICUs, intravascular catheterrelated BSI was also associated with a lower risk of severe sepsis [OR 0.2; 95%

confidence interval (CI) 0.1–0.5; p \ 0.01). Systemic response may differ
according to the microorganism causing the episode. Gram-negative and Candida
spp. have been associated with a higher incidence of severe sepsis and septic shock
[18], whereas CNS caused the lowest incidence of septic shock. In the French
multicenter study, episodes caused by CNS were also associated with a reduced
risk of severe sepsis (OR 0.2; p = 0.02) relative to other microorganisms [20].


15

Bloodstream Infection in the ICU Patient

239

15.2.6 Prognosis
HA BSIs remain a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in critically ill
patients. The crude mortality rate related to HA BSIs in ICU patients ranges from
20 to 60%, and the mortality rate directly attributable to BSI infection ranges from
14 to 38% [17–21]. Although one-third of deaths occur within the first 48 h after
symptom onset, death can occur 14 or more days later. Late deaths are often due to
poorly controlled infection, complications during ICU stay, or failure of multiple
organs. Bueno-Cavanillas et al. [29] analyzed the impact of HAI on the mortality
rate in an ICU. Overall crude relative risk (RR) of mortality was 2.48 (95% CI
1.47–4.16) in patients with a HAI compared with noninfected patients, and 4.13
(95% CI 2.11–8.11) in patients with BSI. In a matched, risk-adjusted multicenter
study in 12 ICUs, Garrouste-Orgas et al. [21] found that HA BSI was associated
with a threefold increase in mortality.
The risk of dying is influenced by the patient’s prior clinical condition and the
rate at which complications develop. Analysis using prognostic stratification
systems (such as Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE) or

the Simplified Acute Physiological Score (SAPS) II) indicate that factoring in the
patient’s age and certain physiologic variables results in more accurate estimates
of the risk of dying. Variables associated with the high-care fatality rates include
acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), renal insufficiency, and multiple organ dysfunction (MOD). Microbial
variables are less important, although high-care fatality rates have been observed
for patients with BSI due to P. aeruginosa and Candida spp., and for patients with
polymicrobial BSI [21].

15.2.7 Prevention
Indwelling vascular catheters are a leading source of BSIs in critically ill
patients. More than 250,000 vascular-catheter-related BSIs (CR-BSI) occur
annually in the USA [30–32], resulting in substantial morbidity and mortality
rates and costs [33–35]. Despite the publication of clinical practice guidelines
[30] on managing and preventing intravascular catheter-related infection,
CR-BSI are common. According to the NNIS system of the CDC, the median
rate of all types of CR-BSI ranges from 1.8 to 5.2 episodes per 1,000 catheter
days. In Spain, the mean rate of CR-BSI in the National Study of Nosocomial
Infections Surveillance in the ICU (ENVIN-UCI) in 2006 was five episodes per
1,000 catheter days [36]. In our medical–surgical ICU in 2006, central venous
catheters (CVC) were used in 83% of patients, and the incidence of CR-BSI was
5.8 episodes per 1,000 catheter-days.
Pronovost et al. [37] implemented an evidence-based intervention in 108 ICUs to
reduce CR-BSI, designating a team leader for each hospital instructed in the different
interventions and responsible for disseminating this information among their colleagues. The intervention consisted of five evidence-based procedures recommended


J. Valle´s and R. Ferrer

240

by the CDC: hand washing, using full-barrier precautions during CVC insertion,
cleaning the skin with chlorhexidine, avoiding the femoral site if possible, and
removing unnecessary catheters. A checklist was used to ensure adherence to
infection-control practices. Three months after implementing the intervention, their
median rate of CR-BSI had decreased from 2.7/1,000 catheter days at baseline to 0/
1,000 catheter days (p \ 0.002), and their mean rate had decreased from 7.7/1,000
catheter days at baseline to 1.4/1,000 catheter days (p \ 0.002). This improvement
was maintained throughout the 18-month study period.
In 2007 in our ICU, we implemented a similar multiple-system intervention
applying evidence-based measures and reduced the incidence of catheter-relate
BSI from 6.7/1,000 catheter days to 2.4/1,000 catheter days (RR 0.36; 95% CI
0.16–0.80; p = 0.015), with a 20% reduction in the incidence of HA BSIs in the
ICU [38] (Fig. 15.1).

15.3

Community-Acquired Bloodstream
Infections in the ICU

15.3.1 Epidemiology
CA BSI is defined as infection that develops in a patient prior to if the bacteremia
develops within the first 48 h of hospital and ICU admission and is not associated
with any procedure performed after admission. CAI represent an important reason
for ICU admission. Severe CA pneumonia a Abstract 585
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ventilator-associated pneumonia is not evidence based. J Critical Care 25:152–153
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patients: respective role of mechanical subglottic secretions drainage and stress ulcer

prophylaxis. Intensive Care Med 18:20–25
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preventing ventilator-associated pneumonia. Ann Intern Med 122:179–186
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of subglottic secretions in cardiac surgery patients. Chest 116:1339–1346
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