Ebook Handbook of fluid, electrolyte, and acid base imbalances (3/E): Part 1

Handbook of

Fluid, Electrolyte, and
Acid-Base Imbalances
Third Edition
Joyce LeFever Kee, MS, RN
Associate Professor Emerita
College of Health Sciences
University of Delaware
Newark, Delaware

Betty J. Paulanka, EdD, RN
Dean and Professor
College of Health Sciences
University of Delaware
Newark, Delaware

Carolee Polek, RN, PhD
Associate Professor of Nursing
College of Health Sciences
University of Delaware
Newark, Delaware

Australia • Canada • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States


Handbook of Fluid, Electrolyte, and
Acid-Base Imbalances:
Third Edition
Joyce LeFever Kee, Betty J. Paulanka,

Carolee Polek
Vice President, Career and Professional
Editorial: Dave Garza
Director of Learning Solutions:
Matthew Kane
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1 2 3 4 5 XX 11 10 09


Dedication
To
Joyce Kee for her consistent
support to faculty development in
the School of Nursing in the
College of Health Sciences
at the University of Delaware.

iii


Contents

UNIT I

FLUIDS AND THEIR
INFLUENCE ON THE BODY / 1

Chapter 1: Extracellular Fluid Volume
Deficit (ECFVD) / 11
Chapter 2: Extracellular Fluid Volume
Excess (ECFVE) / 22
Chapter 3: Extracellular Fluid Volume Shift
(ECFVS) / 35
Chapter 4: Intracellular Fluid Volume
Excess (ICFVE) / 40

UNIT II

ELECTROLYTES AND THEIR
INFLUENCE ON THE BODY / 49

Chapter 5: Potassium Imbalances / 54
Chapter 6: Sodium and Chloride
Imbalances / 74

iv


Contents

● v

Chapter 7: Calcium Imbalances / 89

Chapter 8: Magnesium Imbalances / 105
Chapter 9: Phosphorus Imbalances / 116

UNIT III

ACID-BASE BALANCE AND
IMBALANCES / 127

Chapter 10: Determination of Acid-Base
Imbalances / 132
Chapter 11: Metabolic Acidosis and Metabolic
Alkalosis / 137
Chapter 12: Respiratory Acidosis and Respiratory
Alkalosis / 145

UNIT IV

INTRAVENOUS THERAPY / 153

Chapter 13: Intravenous Solutions and Their
Administration / 160
Chapter 14: Total Parenteral Nutrition (TPN) / 178

UNIT V

FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID-BASE
IMBALANCES IN CLINICAL
SITUATIONS / 189

Chapter 15: Fluid Problems in Infants and

Children / 190
Chapter 16: Older Adults with Fluid and Electrolyte
Imbalances / 215


vi ●

Contents

Chapter 17: Acute Disorders: Trauma and Shock / 236
Chapter 18: Burns and Burn Shock / 263
Chapter 19: Gastrointestinal (GI) Surgical
Interventions / 275
Chapter 20: Neurotrauma: Increased Intracranial
Pressure / 285
Chapter 21: Clinical Oncology / 292
Chapter 22: Chronic Diseases with Fluid and Electrolyte
Imbalances: Heart Failure, Diabetic
Ketoacidosis, and Chronic Obstructive
Pulmonary Disease / 314
Appendix A: Common Laboratory Tests and
Values for Adults and Children / 354
Appendix B: Foods Rich in Potassium, Sodium,
Calcium, Magnesium, Chloride, and
Phosphorus / 375
Appendix C: The Joint Commission’s (TJC) List
of Accepted Abbreviations / 379
References/Bibliography / 383
Glossary / 393
Index / 404

Preface
The Handbook of Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base
Imbalances, Third Edition is developed from a parent text, Fluids and Electrolytes with Clinical Applications: A Programmed Approach, 8th Edition by
Joyce LeFever Kee, Betty J. Paulanka, and Carolee
Polek. It is designed to be used in the clinical setting, both in conjunction with the parent text and
as a stand-alone product. With a clear comprehensive approach, this quick reference pocket guide
of basic principles of fluid, electrolyte, and acidbase balances, imbalances, and related disorders
is a must-have for all who work in the field! The
convenient handbook size enables readers to keep
it handy for quick access to over 200 diagrams and
tables containing valuable information. A developmental approach is used to provide examples
across the life span that illustrate common health
problems associated with imbalances. The chapter on increased intracranial pressure has been
completely rewritten with a stronger focus on
neurotrauma and common conditions that cause
increased intracranial pressure. A glossary has
been added for quick reference. The reference/
bibliography list has been completely updated
and expanded. Also, the appendix on common lab
vii


viii ●

Preface

studies has been reduced to focus on lab studies with particular reference to fluid imbalances and electrolyte disorders
associated with the clinical manifestations of these disorders. A new appendix with the Joint Commission’s (TJC) list

of accepted abbreviations has been added for the reader’s
convenience. Nursing assessments, nursing diagnoses, interventions, and rationales are in a tabular format for quick
retrieval and ease of comprehension. All the important information readers need is right at their fingertips!

ORGANIZATION
Handbook of Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Imbalances
comprises 22 chapters organized into five units:
Unit I lays the foundation for influence of fluids on the
body. It covers fluid imbalances related to extracellular fluid
volume deficit, excess, and fluid shift, and intracellular fluid
volume excess.
Unit II builds upon this material and discusses six electrolyte imbalances—potassium, sodium, chloride, calcium,
magnesium, and phosphorus.
Unit III provides a quick guide to determine the types of
acid-base imbalances.
Unit IV covers intravenous therapy. The chapters on intravenous fluid therapy and total parenteral nutrition (TPN)
inclpiratory Acidosis and Respiratory Alkalosis

● 149

CLINICAL MANAGEMENT
The three treatment modalities for respiratory acidosis are:
remove the cause; have the patient perform deep breathing
exercises; use a ventilator. In respiratory acidosis, the kidneys conserve alkali and excrete hydrogen or acid in the
urine. Excess CO2 accumulation stimulates the lungs to blow
off carbon dioxide or acid to compensate for the respiratory
acidotic state.
With respiratory alkalosis, the three treatment modalities include: remove the cause; have the patient rebreathe
expired air to obtain CO2; use antianxiety drugs. The kidneys
excrete alkaline ions (HCO3) and retain acid or hydrogen

ions. Figure 12-2 demonstrates the body’s defense action and
treatment for respiratory acidosis and alkalosis.

CLINICAL CONSIDERATIONS: RESPIRATORY
ACIDOSIS AND ALKALOSIS
1. Respiratory acidosis is characterized by an increase in

CO2 and H2CO3 concentration in body fluids. The pH is
Ͻ7.35 and PaCO2 Ͼ45 mm Hg.
2. ABGs should be closely monitored when respiratory
acidosis is suspected; e.g., with chest injuries, respiratory
distress syndrome, COPD (asthma, emphysema, chronic
bronchitis), pneumonia.
3. Warm, flushed skin (vasodilation from increased CO2),

dyspnea, increased pulse rate are signs and symptoms
of respiratory acidosis due to hypercapnia.
4. Respiratory alkalosis is characterized by a decrease in
CO2 and H2CO3 concentration in body fluids. The pH is
Ͼ7.45 and PaCO2Ͻ35 mm Hg.
5. Severe apprehension and anxiety lead to hyperventilation and respiratory alkalosis. Dizziness and tetany-like
symptoms occur.
6. Treatment modalities include rebreathing expired

air via paper bag (not plastic bag) and use of
antianxiety drugs.


150 ●

Unit III Acid-Base Balance and Imbalance

Respiratory Acidosis
(Excess of carbonic acid in the extracellular fluid)
Kidneys
compensate

Lungs

Lungs are affected:
insufficient gas exchange
and/or ventilation. High
PaCO2 will cause a reflexive
attempt to increase ventilation.

Urine is acid.
Kidneys conserve
base (bicarbonate
ions) and excrete
acid.

Treatment: Remove the cause. Administer an IV alkali solution. Deep
breathing exercises or use of a ventilator.

Respiratory Alkalosis
(Deficit of carbonic acid in the extracellular fluid)
Lungs

Ventilation is affected.
Treatment would

be recommended.

Kidney

Urine is alkaline.
Kidneys excrete base
(bicarbonate ions)
and retain acid.

Treatment: Remove the cause. Rebreathe expired air, e.g., CO 2 , from a
paper bag. Antianxiety drugs, e.g., Ativan (lorazepam).

FIGURE 12-2 Body’s defense action and treatment for respiratory acidosis
and alkalosis.

PATIENT MANAGEMENT

Assessment
●

Obtain a patient history of clinical problems. Identify
health problems associated with respiratory acidosis
and alkalosis (refer to Tables 12-1 and 12-2).


Chapter 12 Respiratory Acidosis and Respiratory Alkalosis

● 151

●

Check for signs and symptoms of respiratory acidosis
and alkalosis (refer to Table 12-3).

●

Obtain vital signs for a baseline record to compare with
future vital signs.

●

Check arterial blood gases (ABGs), particularly the pH and
PaCO2. A pH Ͻ7.35 and PaCO2 Ͼ45 mm Hg are indicative
of respiratory acidosis; a pH Ͼ7.45 and PaCO2 Ͻ35 mm Hg
are indicative of respiratory alkalosis.

Nursing Diagnoses
●

Impaired Gas Exchange, related to alveolar
hypoventilation secondary to COPD

●

Ineffective Airway Clearance, related to thick bronchial
secretions and/or bronchial spasms

●

Risk for Injury, related to hypoxemia and hypercapnia

●

Ineffective Breathing Pattern, related to inadequate
ventilation

●

Ineffective Breathing Pattern, related to hyperventilation
and anxiety

●

Risk for Injury, related to dizziness, lightheadedness,
and syncope secondary to respiratory alkalosis
(hyperventilating)

Interventions
Respiratory Acidosis
●

Monitor the patient’s respiratory status for changes in
respiratory rate, distress, and breathing pattern.

●

Monitor arterial blood gases.

●

Auscultate breath sounds periodically to determine
wheezing, rhonchi, or crackles that indicate poor gas
exchange.

●

Monitor vital signs for tachycardia or cardiac
dysrhythmias associated with hypercapnia and
hypoxemia (oxygen deficit in the blood).

●

Encourage the patient to breathe slowly, deeply, and
cough to eliminate bronchial secretions and improve
gas exchange.


152 ●

Unit III Acid-Base Balance and Imbalance

●

Assist the patient with use of an inhaler containing a
bronchodilator drug.

●

Administer chest clapping on COPD clients to break up
mucous plugs and secretions in the alveoli.

●

Teach breathing exercises and postural drainage to
patients with COPD to remove secretions that are
trapped in overextended alveoli.

●

Encourage the patient to increase fluid intake in order
to decrease tenacity of secretions.

●

Monitor the patient’s state of sensorium for signs of
disorientation due to a lack of oxygen to the brain.

●

Encourage the patient to participate in a pulmonary
rehabilitation program.

Respiratory Alkalosis
●

Encourage the patient who is overanxious and
hyperventilating to take deep breaths and breathe
slowly to prevent respiratory alkalosis.

●

Listen to the patient who is emotionally distressed.
Encourage the patient to seek professional help.

●

Demonstrate a slow, relaxed breathing pattern to decrease
overbreathing, which causes respiratory alkalosis.

●

Administer a sedative as prescribed to relax the patient
and restore a normal breathing pattern.

●

Monitor ABGs and vital signs.

Evaluation/Outcomes
●

Confirm that the cause of respiratory acidosis or
respiratory alkalosis is corrected or controlled; ABGs
are returning to or have returned to normal range.

●

The patient remains free of signs and symptoms of
respiratory acidosis or respiratory alkalosis.

●

The patient exhibits a patent airway and the breath
sounds have improved.

●

The patient ambulates with little or no assistance and
without breathlessness.

●

Document compliance with prescribed drug therapy
and medical regimen.