A study of the english preposition “on” in “theof the wild” by jack london and its vietnamese equivalents in the translation by nguyen cung ai and vu tuan phuong from cognitive perspective

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES

ĐẶNG THỊ PHƢƠNG THẢO

A STUDY OF THE ENGLISH PREPOSITION ―ON‖ IN ―THE CALL OF
THE WILD‖ BY JACK LONDON AND ITS VIETNAMESE EQUIVALENTS
IN THE TRANSLATION BY NGUYEN CUNG AI AND VU TUAN PHUONG
FROM COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE
(Nghiên cứu về giới từ tiếng Anh ―on‖ trong tác phẩm ―Tiếng gọi nơi hoang
dã‖ của Jack London và các nghĩa tiếng Việt tƣơng đƣơng trong bản dịch của
Nguyễn Cung Ái và Vũ Tuấn Phƣơng dƣới góc độ ngôn ngữ học tri nhận)

M.A MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS

Field: English linguistics
Code: 60220201

Hanoi, 2016


VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES

ĐẶNG THỊ PHƢƠNG THẢO

A STUDY OF THE ENGLISH PREPOSITION ―ON‖ IN ―THE CALL OF
THE WILD‖ BY JACK LONDON AND ITS VIETNAMESE EQUIVALENTS
IN THE TRANSLATION BY NGUYEN CUNG AI AND VU TUAN PHUONG

FROM COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE
(Nghiên cứu về giới từ tiếng Anh ―on‖ trong tác phẩm ―Tiếng gọi nơi hoang
dã‖ của Jack London và các nghĩa tiếng Việt tƣơng đƣơng trong bản dịch của
Nguyễn Cung Ái và Vũ Tuấn Phƣơng dƣới góc độ ngôn ngữ học tri nhận)

M.A MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS

Field: English Linguistics
Code: 60220201
Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Nguyen Quang

Hanoi, 2016


DECLARATION

I, Dang Thi Phuong Thao, certify that this thesis is the result of my own
research and the substance of the research has not been submitted for degree to any
other university or institution.
Hanoi, June 2016
Signature
Dang Thi Phuong Thao

i


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The completion of this study would not have been possible without the
assistance of special and wonderful people.

First of all, I would like to acknowledge my indebtedness and gratitude to
Prof. Dr. Nguyen Quang, for his unfailing encouragement, constant support and
supervision during all stages of the study. His enthusiastic assistance, guidance,
support, and his wisdom greatly contributed to the fulfillment of my thesis. I would
also like to thank my supervisor for his patience in reading and editing my draft. It
must be an excruciating experience.
My heartfelt gratitude is also to Dr. Huynh Anh Tuan, The Head of Faculty
of Post-Graduate Studies and all his staff members who have been of great help.
Last but not least, I would like to give my deepest gratitude to my parents,
and my friends for their moral support and encouragement throughout my training
course.
The study still has limitations, therefore all the suggestions and
recommendations would be warmly welcomed.

ii


ABSTRACT

Prepositions are known as a small but notoriously difficult lexical unit in
English due to their polysemy. Additionally, it is the differences in the linguistic
cognition among cultures that prevent language users from mastering and using
prepositions properly. In order to help language learners overcome these
difficulties, this study aims at exploring the potential meanings of prepositions ―on‖
in English and their Vietnamese equivalents in ―The Call of the Wild‖ and the
Vietnamese translation by Nguyen Cung Ai and Vu Tuan Phuong from cognitive
perspective. Image schemas, prototype theory and metaphorical extensions are
considered as the analytical framework to carry out this study. Approximately 160
of on-occurrences are categorized into small groups in terms of their meanings to
analyze based on qualitative and quantitative methods. The results show that

English and the Vietnamese share some common cognition in applying TR and LM
to locate things because they are endowed with the same biological features and
exposed to similar experiences with the environment. However, there exist many
differences in applying locative strategies and TR and LM to encode languages due
to the distinguishing features in perception regarding space, the living habits,
topography and sky orientation. It is hoped that the findings can be a small
contribution to the stock of prepositional research.

iii


LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

TR

: Trajector

TRs

: Trajectors

LM

: Landmark

LMs

: Landmarks

NP

: Noun Phrase

V

: Verb

iv


LIST OF FIRGURES AND TABLES
Figure 1: General image schema of on (Ming, 2011)……………………….

10

Firgure 2: Path schema for on (Ming, 2011)………………………………..

11

Figure 3:The contact image schema of on …………………………... .............. …….
12
Table 1.The potential meanings of preposition ―on‖ in English……………

29

Table 2.1, 2.2, 2.3. Preposition ―on‖ equals ―trên‖ in Vietnamese…............

30

Table 3.1. Preposition ―on‖ equals ―vào‖ in Vietnamese to denote

movement …………………………………………………………………..

32

Table 3.2. Preposition ―on‖ equals ―vào‖ in Vietnamese to denote time

32

Table 4.1. Preposition ―on‖ equals ―trong‖ in Vietnamese to denote
―Processes are path‖ ……………………………………………………….

32

Table 4.2. Preposition ―on‖ equals ―trong‖ in Vietnamese in temporal
expressions …………………………………………………………………

33

Table 5. Preposition ―on‖ equals ―lên‖ in Vietnamese ……………………..

33

Table 6. Preposition ―on‖ equals ―giữa‖ in Vietnamese ……………………

35

Table 7. Preposition ―on‖ equals ―bằng‖ in Vietnamese …………………...

35

Table 8.1. Preposition ―on‖ equals ―ở‖ in Vietnamese …………………….

35

Table 8.2. Preposition ―on‖ equals ―tại‖ in Vietnamese ……………………

36

Table 9. Preposition ―on‖ equals ―bên‖ in Vietnamese …………………….

36

Table 10. Preposition ―on‖ equals ―đến‖ in Vietnamese …………………

37

Table 11. Preposition ―on‖ equals ―xuống‖ in Vietnamese……………….

38

Table 12. On-occurrences denote the continuity ………………………….

38

Table 13. On-occurenes denote metaphorical extension of time………….

39

Table 14. On-occurrences denote that entitites put on some pieces of

39

―clothes‖ ……………………………………………………………………
Table 15. On-occurrences denote movement ending in contact…………….

39

Table 16. On-occurrences denote movement ending in support…………….

40

Table 17. On-occurrences denote that TR is a part of the LM……………..

40

v


Table 18. On-occurrences denote a topic …………………………………

40

Table 19.On-occurrences denote the direction of the movement…………

41

Table 20. On-occurrences denote a scope…………………………………

41

Table 21.The combination of preposition ―on‖ and other parts of speech….

42

Table 22. Other expressions of preposition ―on‖ …………………………..

42

Table 23. The Vietnamese equivalents of preposition ―on‖………………...

43

vi


TABLE OF CONTENTS
CANDIDATE‘S STATEMENT ................................................................................. i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................................... ii
ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................. iii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................... iv
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES ...........................................................................v
PART A: INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................1
1. Rationale of the study ..........................................................................................1
2. Aims of the study .................................................................................................2
3. Research questions ...............................................................................................2
4. Scope of the study ................................................................................................2
5. Methodology ........................................................................................................2
6. Significance of the study .....................................................................................3
7. Organization of the study.....................................................................................3
PART B: DEVELOPMENT ......................................................................................5

CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................5
1.1. Cognitive linguisics and cognitive semantics ..................................................5
1.1.1. Cognitive linguistics ...................................................................................5
1.1.2. Cognitive semantics ...................................................................................7
1.2. Spatial prepositions in cognitive semantics ......................................................8
1.3. Analytical framework .......................................................................................9
1.3.1. Image schemas ...........................................................................................9
1.3.1.1. Definition of image schema ...................................................................9
1.3.1.2. Image schemas of preposition ―on‖ ....................................................10
1.3.2. Prototype theory .......................................................................................12
1.3.2.1 Prototypical meaning ............................................................................12
1.3.2.2 Non - prototypical meaning ..................................................................15
1.3.3. Metaphorical extension ............................................................................16

vii


1.3.3.1 Spatial metaphors .................................................................................16
1.3.3.2. Temporal metaphors ............................................................................19
1.4. Review of previous studies .............................................................................19
CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY ............................................................................23
2.1. Research method .............................................................................................23
2.2. The data collection ..........................................................................................23
2.2.1. Sample ......................................................................................................24
2.2.2. Procedures of data collection ...................................................................24
2.3. Data analysis procedure ..................................................................................26
CHAPTER 3: DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION .........................................27
3.1. The potential meanings of preposition ―on‖ in English .................................27
3.2. The meanings of the English preposition ―on‖ and their Vietnamese
equivalents .............................................................................................................29

3.2.1. Prepositional equivalents ..........................................................................29
3.2.1.1. ―On‖ in English corresponds to ―trên‖ in Vietnamese…………......29
3.2.1.2. ―On‖ in English corresponds to ―vào‖ in Vietnamese…………......31
3.2.1.3. ―On‖ in English corresponds to ―trong‖ in Vietnamese…………...32
3.2.1.4. ―On‖ in English corresponds to ―lên‖ in Vietnamese………….......33
3.2.1.5. ―On‖ in English corresponds to ―giữa‖ in Vietnamese………….....34
3.2.1.6. ―On‖ in English corresponds to ―bằng‖ in Vietnamese…………....34
3.2.1.7. ―On‖ in English corresponds to ―tại/ở‖ in Vietnamese………….....35
3.2.1.8. ―On‖ in English corresponds to ―bên‖ in Vietnamese…………......36
3.2.1.9. ―On‖ in English corresponds to ―đến‖ in Vietnamese…………......37
3.2.1.10. ―On‖ in English corresponds to ―xuống‖ in Vietnamese…………37
3.2.2. Non-prepositional equivalents ..................................................................38
3.3. Comparison between English and Vietnamese Spatial Cognition .................43
3.3.1. Similarities ................................................................................................43
3.3.2. Differences ...............................................................................................44
PART C: CONCLUSION .........................................................................................46

viii


1. Summary of the study ........................................................................................46
2. Teaching implications ........................................................................................47
3. Limitations of the research and suggestions for further study..........................48
REFERENCES ..........................................................................................................50
APPENDICES............................................................................................................. I

ix


PART A: INTRODUCTION

1. Rationale of the study
In the global era, an international language is an integral part for people to
convey their ideas, their thought and their desire. With many prominent features,
English is chosen as a global language for people to communicate. In Vietnam, it is
considered as the core subject in the national curriculum and the prerequisite for job
application. However, it is not easy for Vietnamese learners to master and use this
language effectively and accurately.
In English teaching and learning, prepositions pose an immense challenge for
both language learners and teachers. According to Evan and Tyler (2001), the
semantics of prepositions is blamed for the most of difficulties that language
learners often encounter. Nguyen Tuyet Nhung (2010, p.6) holds that ―all the senses
of a preposition are arbitrary‖; therefore, it is hard for learners to fully understand
the meaning of a preposition without context. Being aware of this difficulty, a lot of
textbooks as well as reference materials are published to satisfy readers‘ needs. As
for teachers, they themselves spend considerable amount of time and effort giving
lecturers and practising for their students about the use of prepositions. However,
based on her own experiences and the discussions with her colleagues, the author
realizes that these methods are not really effective.

According to the studies

conducted by Lorincz & Gordon (2012), language users encounter a number of
prepositional errors such as substitution, omission and addition. For years, research
has been carried out to discover the reasons for these problems. With the birth of
cognitive linguistics, it is revealed that the difficulties of using prepositions do not
lie in its position, function or structure but the differences in the perception and
cognition of the language users from a variety of cultures (Tran Quang Hai, 2010).
In order to help English learners get an insightful view of these
prepositions, Cognitive Semantics is chosen as the tool for this investigation into
the meanings of the preposition ―on‖ and their equivalents in Vietnamese so that

the readers can figure out the differences as well as the similarities in their spatial

1


and non-spatial senses.
2. Aims and objectives of the study
The study aims at an intensive investigation into the meanings of preposition
―on‖ and their equivalents in Vietnamese from cognitive perspective. For the
realization of this aim, the following objectives are posed:
- To present a semantic description of the English preposition ―on‖ from the
perspective of cognitive linguistics;
- To investigate potential Vietnamese equivalents to the meanings of the
English preposition ―on‖ in ―The Call of the Wild‖.
3. Research questions
The following research questions are raised:
- What meanings are conveyed by the English preposition ―on‖ from a
cognitive semantic perspective?
- What are the Vietnamese equivalents to the meanings of the English
preposition ―on‖ in ―The Call of the Wild‖ by Jack London found in the translation
by Nguyen Cung Ai and Vu Tuan Phuong?
4. Scope of the study
The study only focuses on investigating the meanings of the English
preposition ―on‖ and their Vietnamese equivalents within cognitive theoretical
framework. The data are collected from the most famous novel by Jack London and
its translation in Vietnamese by Nguyen Cung Ai and Vu Tuan Phuong. The
instances collected are in form of (NP) + on + NP and NP + V + on + NP, where
on functions as a preposition.
5. Methodology
Both the quantitative and qualitative approach have been chosen to identify

the potential meanings of preposition ―on‖ in English from the work ―the Call of the
Wild‖ by Jack London and their equivalents found in the translation by Nguyen
Cung Ai and Vu Tuan Phuong. Besides, the combination of descriptive and
contrastive methods is employed to collect the qualitative information and find out

2


the similarities as well as differences between the English and the Vietnamese in the
field of spatial cognition.
6. Significance of the study
The thesis shows strong evidences that preposition ―on‖ has a number of
different but related senses. Through the analysis, there is a close-knit relationship
between the meanings of the English preposition ―on‖ and the conceptualization of
the Vietnamese and English. In other words, how prepositions is perceived depends
on the way in which people from different cultures realize their physical world
based on their experiences.
Secondly, it is expected that this thesis will contribute to the stock of
research on prepositions from cognitive perspectives, giving readers theoretical
background of one of the most complicated aspect in English.
Finally, the study provides readers with some suggestions to avoid the errors
in using prepositions and enrich the pedagogical methods in teaching English
prepositions and translating prepositions to English major students.
7. Organization of the study
The research consists of three main parts: Introduction, Development and
Conclusion.
Part A: Introduction presents the rationale, the aims, the research questions,
methods, scope, significance and organization of the study.
Part B: Development consists of three chapters:
Chapter 1 Literature review gives the concepts of cognitive linguistics and

cognitive semantics, prepositions in English and the analytical framework of the
study. Furthermore, the review of previous studies is also presented.
Chapter 2 Methodology includes the research method, the data collection and
data analysis.
Chapter 3 Analyses indicates the potential meanings of preposition ―on‖ in
English and their equivalents in Vietnamese of ―The Call of the Wild‖ in order to
answer two research questions: (1) the potential meanings of preposition ―on‖ in

3


English; (2) the Vietnamese equivalents of preposition ―on‖ found in the translation
by Nguyen Cung Ai and Vu Tuan Phuong.
Part C: Conclusion is the last part which offers a summary, some limitations
and suggestions for further study.

4


PART B: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW
1.1. Cognitive linguistics and cognitive semantics
1.1.1. Cognitive linguistics
It is widely known that cognitive linguistics is a modern school of linguistic
thought and practice. It views linguistic knowledge as part of general cognition and
thinking; linguistic behaviour is not separated from other general cognitive abilities
which allow mental processes of reasoning, memory, attention or learning, but
understood as an integral part of it.
Cognitive linguistics originally emerged in the 1970s (Fillmore, 1975;
Lakoff &Thompson, 1975; Rosch, 1975) and arose out of dissatisfaction with

formal approaches to language which were dominant, at that time, in the disciplines
of linguistics and philosophy. In spite of being a new approach, it has been strongly
influenced by theories and findings from the other cognitive sciences as they
emerged during the 1960s and 1970s, particularly cognitive psychology. The former
researchers such as Geeraerts (1988) and Jäkel (1999) have shown many common
ideas that are mentioned in cognitive linguistics.
The whole theory of cognitive linguistics consists of two main pillars as
followings:
(i) Language is an integral part of cognition;
(ii) Language is symbolic in nature.
According to the first tenet, language can be understood as a product of
general cognitive abilities. Consequently, a cognitive linguist must be willing to
accept what Lakoff (1990, p.40) calls the ―cognitive commitment‖, that is, s/he must
be prepared to embrace the link between language and other cognitive faculties
because linguistic theory and methodology must be consistent with what is
empirically known about cognition, the brain and language. This position is based on
a functional approach to language. As Saeed (1997) explains, this view implies that:
externally, principles of language use embody more general cognitive principles; and

5


internally, that explanation must cross boundaries between levels of analysis.
In other words, the difference between language and other mental processes
is not one of kind, but one of degree. Consequently, not only linguistic principles
must be investigated in reference to other mental faculties, but also any account of
the different levels of linguistic analysis (syntax, semantics, phonology…) must be
carried out taking into account all of these levels simultaneously. This view of
language is completely different from the formal approaches, which understand
knowledge of linguistic structures and rules as independent of other mental

processes such as attention, memory, and reasoning: they propose that different
levels of linguistic analysis form independent modules.
Furthermore, language is symbolic since it is based on the association between
semantic representation and phonological representation. This association of two
different poles refers to the Saussurian conception of the linguistic sign. However, it
is radically different on one basic point: the arbitrariness of the sign. For cognitive
linguists, language is not structured arbitrarily. It is motivated and grounded more or
less directly in experience, in our bodily, physical, social, and cultural experiences
because after all, ―we are beings of the flesh‖ (Johnson, 1992, p. 347). This notion of
―grounding‖ is known in Cognitive Linguistics as ―embodiment‖ (Johnson, 1987;
Lakoff, 1987; Lakoff & Johnson, 1980, 1999) and finds its philosophical roots in the
phenomenological tradition (Varela, Thompson & Rosch, 1993). Its basic idea is that
mental and linguistic categories are not abstract.
Cognitive linguistics practice can be divided into two main areas of research:
cognitive semantics and cognitive (approaches to) grammar. The area of cognitive
semantics is concerned with investigating the relationship between experience, the
conceptual system, and the semantic structure encoded by language whereas a
cognitive approach to grammar pays attention to modeling the language system (the
mental ‗grammar‘), rather than the nature of mind per se. However, it does so by
taking as its starting point the conclusions of work in cognitive semantics.

6


1.1.2. Cognitive semantics
As part of the field of cognitive linguistics, cognitive semantics represents an
approach to the study of the mind and its relationship with the embodied experience
and culture. Talmy (2000, p.4), one of the pioneers of cognitive linguistics, says
that ―Research on cognitive semantics is research on conceptual content and its
organization of language‖.

It is widely known that cognitive semantics is not a single unified
framework. The researchers who identify themselves as cognitive semanticists
typically have a diverse set of foci and interests. However, there are a number of
guiding principles that collectively characterize a cognitive approach to semantics.
According to Talmy (2000) and Lakoff & Johnson (1980), cognitive semantics
consists of four guiding principles as follows:
i) Conceptual structure is embodied (the ‗embodied cognition thesis‘);
ii) Semantic structure is conceptual structure;
iii) Meaning representation is encyclopaedic;
iv) Meaning construction is conceptualization.
The first guiding principle shows the fundamental concern of cognitive
semantics. Specifically, it reveals the relationship between the conceptual structure
and the external experience of the world. It is indicated that the nature of conceptual
organization comes from bodily experience. Due to the nature of our bodies, we
have a specific view of the world (Talmy, 1985, 2000; Taylor, 1989). It means that
our construal of ‗reality‘ is mediated, in large measure, by the nature of our
embodiment. The concepts we have access to and the nature of the ‗reality‘ we
think and talk about are a function of our embodiment. We can only talk about what
we can perceive and conceive, and the things that we can perceive and conceive
derive from embodied experience.
It is implied in the second guiding principle that language refers to concepts
in the mind of the speaker rather than, directly, to entities which inhere in an
objectively real external world. For instance, when a person says something, the

7


meaning of his/her utterance come from the concepts stored in his/her head. In other
words, semantic structure (the meanings conventionally associated with words and
other linguistic units) can be equated with conceptual structure (i.e., concepts).

However, it does not mean that these meanings are the same. On the contrary, the
meanings associated with linguistic units such as words arise from only subset of
possible concepts in the mind of speakers and hearers. As a result, we have more
thoughts, ideas and feelings than we can conventionally encode in language (Evans,
2006; Evans & Green, 2006).
The third guiding principle holds that semantic structure is encyclopaedic in
nature. This means that lexical concepts do not represent neatly packaged bundles
of meaning. Rather, they serve as ‗points of access‘ to vast repositories of
knowledge relating to a particular concept or conceptual domain (e.g., Langacker,
1987). Of course, it does not mean that conventional meanings associated with
words are deniable. Nevertheless, cognitive semanticists argue that the conventional
meaning associated with a particular linguistic unit is simply a ‗prompt‘ for the
process of meaning construction: the ‗selection‘ of an appropriate interpretation
against the context of the utterance.
The fourth guiding principle, meaning construction is conceptualizations,
states that language itself does not encode meaning. Instead, words (and other
linguistic units) are only ‗prompts‘ for the construction of meaning. Accordingly,
meaning is constructed at the conceptual level. Meaning construction is equated with
conceptualization, a process whereby linguistic units serve as prompts for an array of
conceptual operations and the recruitment of background knowledge. Meaning is a
process rather than a discrete ‗thing‘ that can be ‗packaged‘ by language.
1.2. Spatial prepositions in cognitive semantics
Spatial prepositions are used to describe the spatial relation in natural
language. They are used to indicate relation between two arguments, x and y and
how they relate to each other in space (In cognitive studies, TRs and LMs are used
as two terms for the arguments of x and y). By using the arguments y as reference,

8

spatial prepositions describe the place of x. For examples:
a. The books are on the table.
b. He washed his car in the garage.
Accordingly, ―on‖ in the example (a) locates the books (argument x) with
respect to (argument y): it assigns x to a place or location coincides the place taken
by top of the table whereas the preposition ―in‖ in example b expresses the interior
of the garage.
Furthermore, prepositions, as stated in cognitive semantics, possess the
following characteristics:
- Prepositional meaning is defined as a core sense. All the uses of
prepositions are reduced to the core sense (Leech, 1969, Bennett, 1975). This core
sense can be found in a variety of contexts.
- Prepositions are polysemious: There is a prototypical sense and other nonprototypical senses. There is a preference rule system that determines the prototype
which is always a spatial relation (Ciencki, 1989). The other senses of a preposition
can be derived from a basic image-schema by means of family resemblances and
image schema transformations (Brugman, 1980; Linder, 1983, Lakoff, 1987;
Cuyken, 1988, 1993).
1.3. Analytical framework
The analytical framework employed in this study includes image schemas,
prototype theory and metaphorical meaning extension.
1.3.1. Image schemas
1.3.1.1. Definition of image schemas
Image schemas are presented and discussed by Lakoff (1987), Lakoff &
Turner (1989) and Johnson (1987). As with other cognitive linguistic theoretical
constructs, it is argued that image schemas are more than elements of linguistic
theory: they have psychological reality for which there is supporting evidence from
experimental

research

in

psycholinguistics,

developmental psychology (Gibbs & Colston, 1995).

9

cognitive

psychology,

and


Images are representations of specific, embodied experiences. However,
image schemas are not specific images but are ―abstract'' in another sense of that
word: they are schematic. They represent schematic patterns arising from imagistic
domains, such as containers, paths, links, forces, and balance that recur in a variety
of embodied domains and structure our bodily experience (Lakoff, 1987; Johnson,
1987). Image schemas are also not specific to a particular sensory modality (Lakoff
1987; Johnson 1987). Image schemas structure our bodily experience, and they
structure our nonbodily experience as well, via metaphor. Image schemas transcend
particular modes of perceptions. They are not merely visual, but rather kinesthetic
in nature (Lakoff, 1987). According to Johnson (1987), an image schema is a
mental pattern that recurrently provides structured understanding of various
experiences, and is available for use in metaphor as a source of domain to provide
an understanding of yet other experiences.
1.3.1.2. Image schemas of preposition “on”
The spatial senses of on usually indicate a surface with two dimensions and

are generally classified into three basic image schemas: contact, support and path
(Linstromberg, 1998).
The most familiar usage of the preposition on is that the TR has contact to an
LM which plays the role of support as a surface but the TR is not any part of the
LM. The contact schema can be transformed into a rotated schema and an
attachment schema which may suffer from certain modifications due to the
perceptual shifts of perspectives or profile (Ming, 2011).
TR

LM
Figure 1. General image schema of on (Ming, 2011)
Secondly, the support image schema of on expresses the functional
relationship between the LM and the TR and normally the entity (the TR) is on the

10


upper surface of another (the LM) which shares overlapping spatial meaning with
contact and containment image schemas. On the one hand, if the TR is in contact with
the LM, the LM will offer a background or support the TR. On the other hand, in
some case studies (Yang, 2008) referring to vehicles, the image schema of on may
also be regarded as containment, e.g. on the train. However, in these cases, the image
schema of support is more substantial than containment. Ming (2011) found that there
is the usage of on to denote a kind of support from a vehicle, such as a ship, aircraft
and train etc., in which the supporting surface in it (the floor or seats) is the more
salient aspect of the scene rather than simply a physical container (Herskovits, 1986).
Thus, on phrases referring to vehicle are concluded as support image schema.
Similarly, if one object controls the location of the other by opposing the
force of gravity, it can be expressed as a pressure schema which can be considered
as complementary to the support schema. When one of the participants holds

control over the other, the controller will always be the TR of on, and the
controlee will be the LM.
According to Herskovits (1986), prepositions fall into two categories: some
are primarily static (e.g., at, in, under); others primarily dynamic (to, from, via).
Yang (2008) displays that the static usages of at are 95.03%, that of on are 98.84%
and that of in are 97.25%. However sometimes static prepositions can be used in
dynamic contexts and vice versa. Similarly, the preposition on is primarily static,
but it can also be used in the dynamic context. And there is a kind of dynamic
schema of on, which is described here as path image schema (see Figure 2). In the
specific context of the one tightening the attachment, there is a series of movement
involved in the process.

TR

LM
Figure 2. PATH schema for on (Ming, 2011)

11


The specialization of on takes place by simple highlighting one of the
perceptual aspects. It must be kept in mind that categories for senses are fuzzy, and
many examples are of difficult classification. The different image schemas of on in
fact reflect different aspects of one general schema, while they can be considered as
a static schema contact. Moreover, these image schemas themselves are related to
each other in systematic ways that reflect speakers‘ sensory-motor organization. In
the present study, the general image schema of on as contact in the static process is
considered, in order to present a simplified teaching method for English beginners.
The design of it is shown below.
TR

LM

Figure 3. The CONTACT image schema of on
The TR is as the square on the top and the LM is under the TR to support it
with closed contact (see Figure 3)
1.3.2. Prototype theory
1.3.2.1. Prototypical meaning
Prototype approach is pervasive among the studies in the acquisition of
English prepositions. It starts from Bernnett (1975). In localistic theory, three types of
meaning are considered as meanings of prepositions, namely, spatial, temporal and
abstract. He claimed that the centre of the meaning was spatial and the other two
meanings were derived from the spatial meaning. Since then, many researchers
theoretically have considered temporal and abstract relations as extensional usages of
spatial relations. In other words, the spatial usage, which is the easiest meaning to
show the relationship between the TR and LM, is the prototypical meaning of our
target prepositions.
According to Lindstromberg (1998), prototypical meaning is ‗conceptually
basic‘ compared to other meanings, which are considered to be secondary or

12


extended meanings/senses. He stated that the meaning of CONTACT and SUPPORT
accounts for the most familiar spatial usage of preposition ―on‖. In this case, the
subject is in contact with a LM that is a supporting surface. If the surface were not
there, the subject would fall - given the presence of gravity as in the example: the
book on the table. This meaning is regarded as prototypical one due to the fact that it
meets a number of criteria.These criteria have emerged from a stream of research in
cognitive linguistics which has aimed to see if it is possible to identify a prototypical
meaning for each polysemous preposition as following:

1. The meaning recorded earliest in history.
2. The first meaning acquired by native-speaking children.
3. The meaning which seems most grounded in physical experience.
4. The meaning which appears to be the one that (most of) the other senses
evolved from.
5. The meaning that is most readily elicited from native-speakers when they
are asked to give an example of a particular preposition.
6. The meaning that the preposition has in compound expressions.
7. The semantic relations between the target preposition and one or more
other prepositions.
8. The degree to which a candidate prototypical meaning explains particular
abstract usages of the preposition.
Lindstromberg (1998, p.20)
*) Meaning of contact:
a. Contact: Partial sanction of the conceptual schema leads here to profiling
the contact between the TR and outer limits or boundaries of the LM.
(64a). This meant a soft trail, greater friction on the runners, and heavier pulling for the dogs; yet
the drivers were fair through it all, and did their best for the animals. (p.42)

b. TR is part of a LM: The TR is understood as a part of the external side of
something (nose on face, expression on face, ears on head, peaks on mountain) or a
part attached to the whole, forming part of it (heels on shoes).
(56a) They cursed him, and his fathers and mothers before him, and all his seed to come after him

13


down to the remotest generation, and every hair on his body and drop of blood in his veins. (p.38).

c. Definite Contact: A LM designates an external definite zone or area of

another entity. Contact is more precise in terms of positional accuracy. Expressions
like side, flank, right, left, part, hand, edge or the points of compass occur
frequently after on.
(22a). He did not like to be approached on his blind side (p.17)
(54a). The circle had tightened till he could feel the breaths of the huskies on his flanks (p.36)

d. Contact with limits: The LM is construed as an area, so that its limits
clearly defined against the background and ―on‖ implies ―contact with the external
side of the LM‖. This sense occurs with the LMs like street, square, park, lake, road,
river, sea, bay, way, track, coast, shore, beach, bank … (as areas with outer limit):
(1a).There could not but be other dogs on so vast a place (p.6)
(7a). Concerning that night’s ride, the man spoke most eloquently for himself, in a little shed, back
of a saloon on the San Francisco water front. (p.8)

*) Meaning of support:
The TR achieves or maintains control-over the LM or itself through contact
of its resting side with the outside part of the LM. This relationship called support.
The general conceptual schema may suffer certain shift or perspective of profile.
From the LM point of view, the TR is a burden, and LM is a supporting entity from
the TR point of view.
The general conceptual schema may suffer certain shifts of perspective or
profile. Therefore, there are three further construals of conceptual schema as
follows:
- Rotated schema: A non horizontal surface is the supporting side of the LM.
Control and contact are still present. For example: ―Pictures of her in more
glamorous days were on the walls‖.
- Axial support: An axis sustains the TR as a ring on a finger.
- Part of a TR is LM: A part of the TR, which is contact with the actual
supporting place is the LM of the conceptualization. Eg: ―She remained squatting
on her heels all the time we were there.‖

14