ASSESSMENT OF ECOLOGICAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUATION OF WETLANDS IN BIRBHUM DISTRICT, WEST BENGAL, INDIA FOR CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE USE

ASSESSMENT OF ECOLOGICAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUATION
OF WETLANDS IN BIRBHUM DISTRICT, WEST BENGAL, INDIA FOR
CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE USE

THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE
OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
IN SCIENCE (CONSERVATION BIOLOGY)
OF
THE UNIVERSITY OF BURDWAN

2015

SANTANU GUPTA

PG DEPARTMENT OF CONSERVATION BIOLOGY
DURGAPUR GOVERNMENT COLLEGE
(THE UNIVERSITY OF BURDWAN)


Dedicated
To
My Late Father

Sri Sushanta Gupta


Dr. DEBNATH PALIT
Department of Botany and
P.G. Department of Conservation Biology
Durgapur Government College

Mob: 09832175737
Ph: 0342-2634565 (R)
0343-2504344 (O)
E-mail:
J.N. Avenue, Durgapur-713214
West Bengal, India

CERTIFICATE
This is to Certify that the thesis entitled ‘ECOLOGICAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC
VALUATION OF WETLANDS IN BIRBHUM DISTRICT, WEST BENGAL, INDIA
FOR CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE USE’ which is being submitted by Sri.
Santanu Gupta for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Science (Conservation
Biology) of The University of Burdwan is a record of his own research work. He
carried out the work under my guidance in the Department of Conservation Biology
of The University of Burdwan. Such help or source of information as has been
availed of during the investigation is duly acknowledged.

It is further certified that the matter embodied in the thesis has not been submitted
for award of any other degree by him or by anybody else.

Date:
Place: Durgapur

.........................................................
[Debnath Palit]


ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank my Sir, Dr. Debnath Palit for his guidance and inspiration which

enable me to complete this thesis.

I am indebted to Prof. Ambarish Mukherjee, Department of Botany, Burdwan
University and Dr Gautam Aditya, Associate Professor, Department of Zoology,
Calcutta University for providing motivation and encouragement during the course of
this work.

I am especially grateful to Dr Dipak Ranjan Mondal, former Principal of the college
and Sri Achintya Kumar Pal, Officer in Charge of the college for their advice and
encouragement. I also owe a special debt of gratitude to my teachers Dr Utpal
Singha Roy, Head PG Department of Conservation Biology; Dr Bharati Mukherjee,
Head Department of Botany; Dr Aloke Mukherjee and Sir Sanghamitra Sanyal
whose teachings have been a constant source of knowledge and inspiration. Thanks
also go to the Librarian and Office staff of the Durgapur Government College, for
their timely help.

I would be failing in my duties if I do not mention the encouragement and blessings I
received from Dr Arnab Banerjee, former faculty member of PG Department of
Conservation Biology, Durgapur Government College.
I specially acknowledge the financial assistance and guidance received from the
Inspire Division, Department of Science and Technology, Ministry of Science and
Technology, Government of India in connection with the project I worked in. I would
like to thank Dr. Amalesh Mukherjee, Scientist G, DST Government of India for his
continuous support. I would like to thank the Office of the District Magistrate,
Birbhum; Birbhum Zilla Parishad, Birbhum and Fisheries Department, Suri, Birbhum
for their timely help and cooperation.

I would like to thank Dr Rudolf de Groot, Department of Environmental Systems
Analysis, Wageningen University, USA;

Prof. Kevin J Murphey, Institute of

Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow,


United Kingdom; Prof. Georg A. Janauer, Department of Limnology and
Oceanography, University of Vienna, Austria; Dr Zsolt Török, Danube Delta National
Institute for Research and Development, Romania and Dr Sudip Chattopadhyay,
Department of Biotechnology. NIT Durgapur for inspiring myself through their
continuous motivation and encouragements.

I wish to specially thank my co-research scholars Miss Aparajita Mukherjee, Mrs
Debalina Kar and Mrs Sharmila Roychowdhury for their help and suggestions.

I would like to acknowledge the love, inspiration and heartily support I received from
my Late father Sri Sushanta Gupta, Smt Tanulata Gupta and my sister Chaitali
Gupta towards the successful fulfillment of my Ph.D research.

Place- Durgapur
Date-

(Santanu Gupta)


CONTENTS

PAGE
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION

1-12

CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF LITERATURE

13-71

CHAPTER III: DISTRICT AT A GLANCE

72-84

CHAPTER IV: MATERIAL AND METHODS

85-109

CHAPTER V: RESULTS
V (A) INVENTORY OF WETLANDS

110-123

V (B) ECOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS OF WETLANDS

124-165

V (C) WETLAND VALUATION

166-212

V(D) WETLAND CONSERVATION

213-220

CHAPTER VI: DISCUSSION

221-241

CHAPTER VII: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

242-249

CHAPTER VIII: REFERENCES

250-289


LIST OF TABLES
Sl No
1.

Table No
Table 1

2.

Table 2

3.
4.
5.

Table 3
Table 4

Table 5

6.
7.
8.

Table 6
Table 7
Table 8

9.

Table 9

10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.

Table 10
Table 11
Table 12
Table 13
Table 14
Table 15
Table 16

17.
18.

Table 17
Table 18

19.
20.

Table 19
Table 20

21.
22.

Table 21
Table 22

23.
24.

Table 23
Table 24

25.
26.

Table 25
Table 26

27.
28.
29.

Table 27
Table 28
Table 29

Title
Wetland types initially recognized by the Ramsar
Convention (1989)
Hierarchical classification of wetlands and deepwater
habitats, according to Cowardin et al. (1979)
Wetland classification suggested by Dugan (1990)
Classification system for Wetland Types (Davis, 1994)
Classification of wetlands proposed by Gopal and Sah
(1995)
Major functions of wetlands
Area Estimates of Wetlands of India (in million ha)
Area Estimates of Wetlands of India (in million ha) during
different inventories
State-wise list of wetlands covered under National
Wetlands Conservation Programme.
Major threats to Indian wetlands at a glance
List of Ramsar Sites of the India (RAMSAR, 2015)
Definitions of “Value”
Reasons for under valuation of wetlands.
Services provided by inland wetlands.
Ecological valuation criteria and measurement indicators.
Socio-cultural valuation criteria and measurement

indicators.
Monetary valuation methods, constraints, and examples.
The relationship between ecosystem functions and
services and monetary valuation technique
Administrative Units of the District
Demographic profile of Birbhum district, West Bengal,
India
Area estimates of wetlands in Birbhum
Data collection sheet for inventory and ecological
characterization of wetlands
Data collection sheet for stakeholder analysis
Data collection sheet for function analysis of wetland
services
Data collection sheet for ecological valuation of wetlands.
Data collection sheet for sociocultural valuation of
wetlands.
Data collection sheet for Economic valuation of wetlands.
Data collection sheet for conservation of wetlands
List of wetlands (Block wise) in Birbhum District, West
Bengal, India

Page
20
20 - 21
21 - 23
23 - 24
25 – 26
27 - 28
35
36

36-39
41
42 - 43
45 - 46
46 - 47
49
51
52 - 53
60 - 62
62 - 63
74
77 - 78
82
87 - 90
92-93
94- 97
99
100
102
103-109
116-119


30.
31.

Table 30
Table 31

32.

Table 32

33.

Table 33

34.

Table 34

35.

Table 35

36.

Table 36

37.

Table 37

38.

Table 38

39.

Table 39

40.

Table 40

41.

Table 41

42.

Table 42

43.

Table 43

44.

Table 44

45.

Table 45

46.

Table 46

47.

Table 47

48.

Table 48

49.

Table 49

50.

Table 50

Classification of wetlands according to area
Aquatic species in floral composition of wetlands in
Birbhum District, West Bengal.
Checklist of avifauna associated with the wetlands of
Birbhum District during the study period.
Checklist of piscifauna associated with wetlands of
Birbhum District during the study period.
List of wetlands prioritized for wetland valuation studies in
Birbhum district.
Ecosystem services of wetlands as recorded during field
survey in Suri subdivision, Birbhum district.
Ecosystem services of wetlands as recorded during field
survey in Bolpur Sriniketan subdivision, Birbhum district.
Ecosystem services of wetlands as recorded during field
survey in Rampurhat subdivision, Birbhum district.

Statement of ecosystem services of wetlands in Birbhum
district based on field data
Squred cosines of the ecosystem services to the first two
(F1 and F2) axis of the Canonical correspondence
analysis (CCA)
List of ecosystem services for prioritization according to
Gross Importance (%) for ecological, sociocultural and
economic valuation of wetlands.
List of ecosystem services selected for valuation of
wetlands (monetary).
Key species (%) observed in wetlands of Birbhum district
during the present study.
Key water bird species recorded from wetlands in
Birbhum during the study period
Population of notable water birds in wetlands of Birbhum
district, West Bengal.
Economic valuation of wetlands in Birbhum district, West
Bengal, India
Range of monetary value of different ecosystem services
in wetlands of Birbhum district, West Bengal, India
Economic valuation of fish resources in wetlands of
Birbhum district, West Bengal, India
Economic valuation of water for irrigated agriculture in
wetlands of Birbhum district, West Bengal, India
Economic valuation of water sports and activities in
wetlands of Birbhum district, West Bengal, India
Economic valuation of water for livestock in wetlands of
Birbhum district, West Bengal, India

121

128-130
133-137
139-141
162-163
170-171
172-173
174-175
176-177
184-185

187-189

189
192-193
194-196
199
204
206-207
207-208
208-209
209-210
210-211


51.

Table 51

52.

Table 52

53.

Table 53

54.

Table 54

55.

Table 55

Economic valuation of livestock fodder in wetlands of
Birbhum district, West Bengal, India
List of conservation measures to be implemented through
different Socioeconomic Developmental Plans (SDPs)
Site specific conservation measures for Suri subdivision,
Birbhum district.
Site specific conservation measures for Bolpur Sriniketan
subdivision, Birbhum district.
Site specific conservation measures for Rampurhat
subdivision, Birbhum district.

211-212
215-216
218
219
220

LIST OF FIGURES
Sl No
1.
2.

3.

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

15.

16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.

23.

Figure No
Title
Figure 1
Ramsar Sites of the world (RAMSAR, 2015)
Figure 2
Map showing State-wise number of wetlands in India.
(Note: Figure in parenthesis represents total number of
wetlands in respective State)
Figure 3
Relationships among ecological components and
processes that comprise a wetland and the ecosystem
services they deliver
Figure 4
The components of the Total Value of a wetland.
Figure 5
The Total Economic Value Framework
Figure 6
The Total Economic Value (TEV) of the main ecosystem
services provided by wetlands (US$/ha/year)
Figure 7
Birbhum district (administrative) at a glance.
Figure 8
Wetland map in Birbhum district
Figure 9
Framework for valuation of wetland services in Birbhum
district, West Bengal India
Figure 10 Location of wetlands in Birbhum district, West Bengal,
India

Figure 11 Inventory of wetlands in Birbhum district, West Bengal,
India
Figure 12 Wetland area composition in different subdivisions of
Birbhum district.
Figure 13 Distance of studied wetlands from nearest locality
(village/town) in Birbhum district.
Figure 14 Distribution studied wetlands in three subdivisions of
Birbhum district in relation with Elevation, Geographical
position and Size (area in hectare).
Figure 15 Biplot showing interrelationship of different morphometric
attributes studied in wetlands of Birbhum district during the
study period.
Figure 16 Geomorphologic features of areas in and around the
wetlands of Birbhum District
Figure 17 Elevation (meter) of studied wetlands from MSL in
Birbhum district.
Figure 18 Water regime of studied wetlands
Figure 19 Composition of water regime in studied wetlands
Figure 20 Composition of water source in studied wetlands
Figure 21 Species richness in different plant groups in wetlands
studied.
Figure 22 Status of water birds in wetlands of Birbhum district.
Figure 23 Population trend of water birds in wetlands of Birbhum
district

Page
33
39

48

50
55
59
75
83
91
114
115
120
120
121

122

125
126
127
127
128
130
132
132


24.

Figure 24

25.

26.

Figure 25
Figure 26

27.

Figure 27

28.

Figure 28

29.
30.
31.
32.

Figure 29
Figure 30
Figure 31
Figure 32

33.

Figure 33

34.

Figure 34

35.

Figure 35

36.
37.

Figure 36
Figure 37

38.

Figure 38

39.

Figure 39

40.

Figure 40

41.
42.

Figure 41
Figure 42

43.

Figure 43

44.
45.
46.

Figure 44
Figure 45
Figure 46

47.

Figure 47

Composition of wetland fishes (Orders) in wetlands of
Birbhum District.
Land use around the wetlands of Birbhum District
Prioritized wetland for valuation studies in Birbhum district,
West Bengal, India
Variation in wetland size (A= >8ha, B= <8ha) in Birbhum
district, West Bengal, India.
Variation in elevational distribution of wetlands in Birbhum
district, West Bengal, India.
Stakeholder composition in wetlands of Birbhum district.
Provisioning services in wetlands of Birbhum District.
Regulation services in wetlands of Birbhum District.
Cultural and Supporting services in wetlands of Birbhum
District.
Biplot derived from Multiple Correspondence Analyses of

ecosystem services observed in different wetlands of
Birbhum district.
Biplot derived from Discriminant analyses of ecosystem
services observed in different wetlands of Birbhum district.
Biplot derived from Canonical Correspondence Analysis
(CCA) of ecosystem services observed in different we.
tlands of Birbhum district.
Scree Plot of F1-F7 axes derived from CCA
Dendogram derived from Cluster analysis of ecosystem
services depending on their association with different
wetlands of Birbhum district
Dendogram derived from Cluster analysis of wetlands
based on importance level of ecosystem services they
provide.
Priority level of Ecosystem services in wetlands of
Birbhum district.
Ecosystem services categorization according to market
value.
Bird families observed during the study period
Composition (%) of Bird families observed during the
study period
SSRA by number of bird species observed in wetlands of
Birbhum district.
SSRA percentages of water birds
Population trends of water bird species in wetlands.
Composition of Sociocultural values in wetlands of
Birbhum district
Sociocultural values in wetlands of Birbhum district.

138

142
164
165
165
167
178
179
180
181

182
183

183
186

186

190
190
196
197
197
198
198
201
201


48.

Figure 48

49.

Figure 49

50.

Figure 50

51.
52.
53.

Figure 51
Figure 52
Figure 53

54.
55.
56.

Figure 54
Figure 55
Figure 56

57.

Figure 57

58.

Figure 58

Sociocultural values in wetlands of Suri subdivision of
Birbhum district
Sociocultural values in wetlands of Bolpur Sriniketan
subdivision of Birbhum district
Sociocultural values in wetlands of Rampurhat subdivision
of Birbhum district
Total value of wetlands in Birbhum district
Value of fish resource in wetlands of Birbhum
Value of water for irrigated agriculture in wetlands of
Birbhum
Value of water sports and activities in wetlands of Birbhum
Value of water for livestock in wetlands of Birbhum
Value of water for fodders of livestock in wetlands of
Birbhum
Dendogram derived from AHC analysis of wetlands
depending on monetary value they provide.
A schematic diagram on the major SDPs for conservation
and wise use of wetlands in Birbhum district.

202
202
202
205
205
205

205
205
205
212
217

LIST OF PLATES
Sl No

Figure No

Title

Page

1.

Plate1

View of Salkhana bandh in Suri II block

123

2.

Plate 2

View of Pansuri bandh in Khoyrashole block.

123

3.

Plate 3

View of Deer Park Lake in Bolpur Sriniketan block.

123

4.

Plate 4

View of Lalbandh in Bolpur Sriniketan block.

123

5.

Plate 5

View of Barrobandh in Illambazar block.

123

6.

Plate 6

Wetland oriented agricultural practice (Suri)

171

7.

Plate 7

Wetland oriented agricultural practice (Bolpur Sriniketan).

171

8.

Plate 8

Spritual and religious value around wetlands

177

9.

Plate 9

Historical value around wetlands

177

10.

Plate 10

Macrophyte species

181

in wetlands of Birbhum with

economic importance
11.

Plate 11

Siltation a major threat of wetlands in Birbhum district

216


PREFACE

Wetlands

are

transitional

zones

Now, there is increasing concern to

between land and water, a collective

conserve and restore perishing wetlands

term for marshes, swamps, bogs and

and endangered habitats to achieve

similar

ecological sustainability.

areas.

They

have

been

described as the “kidneys” of the
landscape as they filter sediments and

“Value” is an anthropogenic concept as

nutrients from surface water.

it depends upon the perception or
judgment of the human society about

Wetlands are often referred to as

the usefulness of something. The goods

“biological supermarkets” because they

and services provided by an ecosystem

support all life forms through extensive

are then considered as values. All

food webs and biodiversity. They help

values are derived from the functions

regulate water levels within watersheds,

performed

improve water quality, reduce flood and

wetlands perform certain functions and

storm damages, provide habitat for

hence, have some values.

important
hunting,

fish

and

fishing,

wildlife,

other

by

an

recreational

Valuation forms a key exercise in
economic

analysis

functions

important

information

the

All

support

activities and perform some useful
in

ecosystem.

maintenance

of

ecological balance.

and
for

provides
wetland

conservation. The basic aim of valuation
is to determine people’s preferences-

Dense human population in catchments,

how much they are willing to pay for,

urbanization and various anthropogenic

and how much better or worse off they

activities

over

would consider themselves to be as a

resources,

result of changes in the supply of,

has

resulted

of

wetland

exploitation

in

leading to degradation in their quality
and quantity.

different goods and services.


Wetlands provide various goods and

never

services

particularly difficult to value.

such

as

food

production,

bought

or

sold,

they

are

climate regulation, pollution control etc.
Efforts to quantify these services are not

The economic benefits generated by

without their critics. There are those who

wetlands,

resist putting dollar values in nature,

associated with wetlands degradation or

since not everything that humans’ value

loss, are frequently overlooked- by

has a price. None the less, the use of

government and private industry, as well

human currency to evaluate natural

as by the land and resource users in the

services is a growing field in economics

wetland areas. As well as resulting in

(e.g. Costanza et al., 1997).

decisions being made or activities being

and

the

economic

costs

carried out which have negative impacts
Valuation

provides

a

means

of

on wetlands, this omission has meant

quantifying the benefits that people

that

receive

costs

generate income, subsistence and other

associated with their loss, and the

benefits has been under- emphasized in

relative

both

from

wetlands,

profitability

the

of

land

and

the

potential

of

wetlands

to

conservation and development

resources uses which are compatible

policy, planning and practice. Attaching

with

vis-à-vis

monetary values to wetlands goods and

which

services aims to make them directly

degradation.

comparable with other sectors of the

those

wetland

conservation

economic

contribute

to

Valuation

helps

activities

wetlands
to

predict

and

economy when activities are planned,

understand the economic decisions and

policies are formulated and decision

economic activities which impact on

made.

wetlands integrity and status.
Wetland ecosystems sustain life on
Due to wide, variable and often unclear

earth,

regardless

ecological, economic and management

understanding of the biology, chemistry,

boundaries of wetlands, and because

and

many wetlands goods and services are

increase

geology

of

involved.

coupled

with

mankind’s

Population
intense

anthropogenic activities and unplanned


developmental activities have impaired

The objectives of this study include:

the wetland ecosystems’ functions and
are resulting in the extinction of these
fragile ecosystems. The consequence
may

be

long

term

and

1. Preparation of an inventory of the
concerned water-bodies / wetlands.

possibly

irreversible changes.

2. Ecological characterization of the
concerned water-bodies / wetlands:

Such changes reduce the value of the
wetland ecosystems, even affecting the

a) Assessment of various ecological

economy. Understanding of functions

components of selected wetlands.

and values of the ecosystem is crucial
for appropriate decision making. The

b) Documentation

of

wetland

decisions with the holistic ecosystem

biodiversity with special emphasis

approach ensure the sustainability of the

on macrophytes, water birds and

wetland ecosystem.

piscifauna in selected wetlands.

3. Evaluation
The objectives of the present study:

of

ecological,

socio-

cultural and economic values of
wetlands.

Considering

these

entire

aspects

present author took the responsibility to

4. Formulation

of

comprehensive

assess the wetlands in Birbhum district.

strategies

for

The study can be broadly put into three

conservation,

management

aspects:

sustainable utilization of wetlands.

restoration,
and

a) Wetland inventory and ecological

This work discusses the valuation of

characterization,

of

wetland ecosystems in Birbhum district,

selected wetlands and c) Wetland

a drought prone region in West Bengal,

conservation for sustainable use.

India

b)

Valuation

considering

different

benefits

derived from wetlands as goods and
services.


In this respect, the present study is

monitoring, management and protection

probably one of the few initiatives to

for conservation before it is too late,

conceptualize and quantify the values of

since

wetlands

fragile

in

Birbhum district, West

Bengal, India. The work embodied in the

they

collectively

natural

constitute

resource

of

a

great

importance.

thesis is presented in form of eight
chapters.

This documentary work may prove its
worth in laying the foundation of a

After

introducing

the

study in

the

wetland

based

multidimensional

Chapter I, a detailed review of both the

conservation

theoretical and empirical studies on

economy and environment in Birbhum

wetlands

District, West Bengal, India.

along

with

valuation

and

conservation of wetlands is presented in
the Chapter II. Chapter III outlines a
general account of Birbhum District
followed by Chapter IV which illustrates
the detailed methodology used in the
study.

Results of this work are presented in
Chapter V. In Chapter VI, the whole
work has been discussed keeping parity
with the results in Chapter V and finally
the work has been summarized along
with conclusion in Chapter VII. All the
references cited in different chapters,
sections and subsections have been
presented collectively in Chapter VIII.

The wetlands considered in the present

work need rational utilization, periodic

programme

for

health,


RKJ

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

1


RKJ

Wetland ecosystems are beauty of nature and wealth for future. As defined by the
Ramsar Convention (1971), wetlands include a wide variety of habitats such as
marshes, peat lands, floodplains, rivers and lakes, and coastal areas such as salt
marshes, mangroves, and sea grass beds, but also coral reefs and other marine
areas no deeper than six meters at low tide, as well as human-made wetlands such
as waste-water treatment ponds and reservoirs. They are the ―water logged wealth‖
(Maltby, 2013; Ghadimi et al., 2014; Ajibola et al., 2015). Wetlands are defined as
―lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic eco-system‖ where the water table
is usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by shallow water. Wetlands
are diverse ecosystems that link people, wildlife and environment in special and
interdependent ways through the essential life-support functions of water (Maltby

and Barker, 2009).Wetlands are perhaps the most interesting landscapes in the
world to have earned global importance during the last few decades. They are being
discussed all round the world in matters of environmental protection, pollution
control, eco-restoration, biodiversity conservation etc (Chaudhuri et al., 2012;
Andersson, 2012; di Martino, 2014).

Wetlands have been drawing considerable attention of agriculturists, natural and
social scientists, urban planners, land managers, landscape designers and many
others. Under the Ramsar international wetland conservation treaty, an international
agreement signed by 168 countries, wetlands are defined as follows ―...wetlands are
areas of marsh, fen, peat land or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or
temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas
of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters (Article
1.1). In addition, for the purpose of protecting coherent sites, the Article 2.1 provides
that wetlands to be included in the Ramsar List of internationally important wetlands
―may incorporate riparian and coastal zones adjacent to the wetlands, and islands or
bodies of marine water deeper than six meters at low tide lying within the wetlands
(RAMSAR, 1971). However Ministry of Environment and Forest (MoEF, Government
of India) has not adopted a clear distinction between Lakes and Wetlands (MoEF,
2009). Shallow lakes (generally less than 3 m deep over most of their area) are
usually rich in nutrients (derived from surroundings and their sediments) and have
abundant growth of aquatic macrophytes. They support high densities and diversity
of fauna, particularly birds, fishes and macroinvertebrates, and therefore, have high
2


RKJ

value for biodiversity conservation. These shallow lakes are rightfully categorized as
―WETLANDS‖ (MoEF, 2010).

What is of utmost necessity concerns the dissemination of a comprehensive idea
about wetlands. In view of this there have been several attempts to define it with as
much clarity as possible. One of the early definitions of wetland was presented by
United States Fish and Wildlife Service in 1956 through their Circular 39 which reads
as ―The term Wetlands refers to lowlands covered with shallow and sometimes
temporary or intermittent waters. They are referred to by such names as marshes,
swamps, bogs; wet meadows, potholes, sloughs, and river overflow lands. Shallow
lakes and ponds, usually with emergent vegetation as a conspicuous feature, are
included in the definition, but the permanent waters of streams, reservoirs and deep
lakes are not included. Neither are water areas that are so temporary as to have little
or no effect on the development of moist soil vegetation. (Mitsch and Gosselink,
1986). According to US Army Corps of Engineers (1977) the term wetland means
those ―areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or ground water at a
frequency and duration sufficient to support a prevalence of vegetation typically
adapted for life in saturated soil condition”. Wetlands generally include swamps,
marshes, bogs, and similar areas. The most accepted and frequently used definition
of wetland was adopted by the wetland scientists associated with the US Fish and
Wildlife Service which is ―Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and
aquatic systems where the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land is
covered by shallow water”.

They must have one or more of the following attributes (Cowardin et al., 1979).
(a) at least periodically the land supports predominantly hydrophytes.
(b) the substrate is predominantly undrained hydric soil and
(c) the substrate is non-soil and is saturated with water or covered by shallow water
at sometime during the growing season of each year.

According to Cook (1996), wetland can be considered a place where inundation
must occur for at least 14 days and saturation for at least about 60 consecutive days.

The modified version of its definition as per IUCN (1999) treats wetlands as all
submerged or water saturated lands, natural or manmade, inland or coastal,
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permanent or temporary, static or dynamic, vegetated or non-vegetated which
necessarily have a land-water interface.

Wetlands representing an ecotone between terrestrial uplands and true aquatic
bodies cover about 6% of total earth surface (Williams, 1990; Tiner, 2002; Cózar et
al., 2007; Xiao et al., 2012; Troxler et al., 2014). Interestingly these are ubiquitous
being found in almost every climatic realm from tundra mires of the pole to the
tropical mangroves of the equator, and in every continent except Antarctica. As per
Ramsar Convention (1971) wetlands identified to be internationally important as per
the norms laid down by Ramsar Bureau, are designated as ‗Ramsar sites´. Until
2015, no less than 2186 wetlands of 160 countries covering a total area of
208,674,247 hectares are known to be Ramsar Sites.

Wetland support very large numbers, and a rich diversity of animal and plant species
(Maltby, 2009). Wetlands are well known for high diversity in class, composition and
four broad categories of functions viz. physical/ hydrological, chemical, biological and
socioeconomic (Junk et al., 2013; Huryna

et al., 2014; Gardner et al., 2015).

Wetland supports plant species intermediate between true aquatic and terrestrial
habitats (Banerjee and Venu, 1994; Ghosh and Santra, 1995; Cronk, 2001; Vymazal,
2013; Ellery, 2015; Watson et al., 2015). According to Mistch and Gosselink (1986)

wetlands support vegetation adapted to the wet conditions (hydrophytes) and
conversely is characterized by an absence of flood intolerant vegetation. Plants
growing in wetlands are not only economically important but also play a number of
important ecological functions in addition to primary production (Marchand et al.,
2010; Hamilton, 2014). Wetlands are known to trap pollutants, decompose various
wastes and are aptly regarded as the ―Kidneys of landscape‖ for the function they
perform (Mistch and Gosselink, 1986; Salvato et al., 2012; Marois et al., 2015). It is
important for a nation to conserve wetlands and their biodiversity to define its ―critical
environmental capital‖ (Denny, 1991; Mafabi, 2000; Gibbes et al., 2009; Finlayson,
2012, 2014). Wetlands are important for the provision of environmental and
ecological services (MA, 2005) that result from functioning.

Wetlands are geologically very young and ecologically very fragile. They occur in all
climates and change peripherally with time and season. Although wetlands are
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among the most productive and restorative or optimizing ecosystems, they are
destroyed all over the world irrationally (Gibbs, 2000; Zhang et al., 2010; Fennessy,
2014).Tropical countries like Cameroon, Nigeria, Bangladesh, India, Thailand, and
Vietnam have lost over 80 percent of their freshwater wetlands (Mc Neely et al.,
1990; Mc Neely, 1992; Alongi, 2008; Laurance et al., 2012; Vázquez-González et al.,
2014) resulting in disruptions of the hydrological cycle, destruction of habitats of
migratory birds, impoverishment of piscifauna and loss of biodiversity. In many cases
they are exploited exclusively for pisciculture and agriculture (Naylor et al., 2000;
Mwanja et al., 2007; Martins et al., 2010; Pascual-Aguilar et al., 2015). Monoculture
practices for a specific resource at the cost or depletion of nontarget biodiversity
have been creating critical environmental conditions much affecting the life

sustaining system of the nature.

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment estimates conservatively that wetlands
cover seven percent of the earth‘s surface and deliver 45% of the world‘s natural
productivity and ecosystem services of which the benefits are estimated at $20
trillion a year (Source : www.MAweb.org). Wetlands deliver multiple co-benefits of
significant social and economic values, and can help address a wide range of needs
and objectives. Many of the ecosystem services that benefit people, society and the
economy at large are related to water and wetlands through water provision,
regulation, purification and groundwater replenishment, and are crucial in addressing
objectives of water security and water for food security. Ecosystem services provided
by wetlands also play important roles in relation to nutrient cycling, climate mitigation
and adaptation, food security, job security and a range of cultural benefits, including
knowledge (scientific and traditional), recreation and tourism, and formation of
cultural values, including identity and spiritual values. The values of benefits
provided by wetlands, per unit area, have consistently been shown to be orders of
magnitude higher than for other ecosystems. Importantly, most of this value is
derived from their role in regulating water; for example, water-related disaster risk
reduction.

Wetlands provide natural infrastructure that can help meet a range of policy
objectives. Beyond water availability and quality, they are invaluable in supporting
climate change mitigation and adaption, disaster risk and impact reduction health as
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well as livelihoods, local development and poverty eradication. Meeting sustainable
water

management

objectives

cost

effectively.

Wetlands

provide

natural

infrastructure that delivers a wider range of services and benefits than corresponding
man-made infrastructure, and at lower cost. They are also an important complement
to man-made infrastructure in river basin planning and management efforts.
Wetlands can provide protection against coastal and river flooding to (partially) offset
the need for man-made infrastructure, while simultaneously providing a multitude of
other services, such as tourism and recreation, carbon storage or a range of
provisioning services. Nature-based solutions can constitute a lower cost approach
than alternative built capital solutions, or offer significant cost savings where an
integrated natural and man-made infrastructure approach is adopted.

Wetlands provide multiple benefits to cities and rural communities. The aesthetic and
recreational amenities of urban wetlands, and their value as wildlife habitat, can be
significant. The capacity of a functional urban wetland in flood control can also be
very important. In Sri Lanka, for example, flood attenuation and wastewater
treatment provided by the 3000 ha Muthurajawela Marsh near Colombo have been

valued at over US$5 million/year and US$1.6 million/year respectively. This exceeds
the value of the wetland for agricultural production (around US$0.3million/ year)
more than twentyfold. In rural areas, wetlands provide multiple benefits that are vital
to local communities. The water tank system in Kala Oya, Sri Lanka provides water
for domestic use and livestock, fish and wild plants with benefits for the majority of
households exceeding those from rice cultivation. Wetlands have high nature
conservation values. Wetlands are among the most bio-diverse ecosystem types.
They are home to a very diverse range of animal and plant species which live
permanently in wetlands or rely on wetlands for at least part of their life cycle. They
are particularly important for migratory species, especially migratory water birds.
Because of the threats to wetlands they support a disproportionate number of high
conservation priority species.

However, the very existence of these unique resources is under threat due to
developmental activities, and population pressure (Narayanan and Venot, 2009; He
et al., 2015; Oduor et al., 2015). Despite these benefits (Boyer and Polasky, 2004;
Zedler and Kercher, 2005; Gardner et al., 2008; Georgiou and Turner, 2012; Mitsch
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et al., 2015) wetlands are the first target of human interference and are among the
most threatened of all natural resources (Battisti et al., 2008; Venturas et al., 2013;
Van Rees, 2014). Around 50% of the earth‘s wetlands is estimated to already have
disappeared worldwide over the last hundred years through conversion to industrial,
agricultural and residential developments (Pittman and Waite, 2009;

Gao et al.,

2012; Abebe, 2014). Even in current scenario, when the ecosystem services
provided by wetlands are better understood - degradation and conversion of
wetlands continues (Cui et al., 2015; Zhao et al., 2015). This is largely due to the fact
that the ‗full value‘ of ecosystem functions is often ignored in policy-making, plans
and corporate evaluations of development projects. This calls for a long term
planning for preservation and conservation of these resources.

India with its large geographical spread supports large and diverse wetland classes,
some of which are unique. The Indian subcontinent is also familiar as the aquatic
subcontinent. There is a close intrication of water bodies with the food and livelihood
of the Indian communities in addition to various aspects of socioeconomic
implications. The topographic, climatic, and geographical diversity of India sustains a
great diversity of wetlands, which belong to five major categories, viz.

i) Wetlands of the Himalayan Region,
ii) Wetlands of the Gangetic plains,
iii) Wetlands of the peninsular uplands,
iv) Coastal wetlands and
v) Wetlands of the oceanic islands.

The first scientific mapping of wetlands of the country was carried out using satellite
data of 1992–1993 by Space Applications Centre (SAC), Ahmedabad. The exercise
classified wetlands based on the Ramsar Convention definition. This inventory
estimated the areal extent of wetlands to be about 7.6 m ha (Garg et al., 1998). The
estimates did not include paddy fields, rivers, canals and irrigation channels. Thus,
all these early assessments were marred by problem of in adequate understanding
of the definition and characteristics of wetlands (Gopal and Sah, 1995).

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Wetlands of India are considered to have unique ecological features which provide
numerous products and services to humanity (Prasad et al., 2002). These wetlands
support a spectacular concentration of individual species as well as diversity of
species and thereby act as important genetic reservoirs. In addition they provide
excellent habitats for migratory avifauna and nurture a broad spectrum of animal
forms and microorganisms. Most of the Indian wetlands are in the floodplains of
rivers, lakes, and streams. India with its large geographical spread supports large
and diverse wetland classes, some of which are unique. Wetlands, variously
estimated to be occupying 1-5 per cent of geographical area of the country, support
about a fifth of the known biodiversity. Like any other place in the world, there is a
looming threat to the aquatic biodiversity of the Indian wetlands as they are often
under a regime of unsustainable human pressures. Sustainable management of
these assets therefore is highly relevant. Realizing this, Govt. of India has initiated
many appropriate steps in terms of policies, programmes and plans for the
preservation and conservation of these ecosystems. The Ministry of Environment
and Forests has identified a number of wetlands for conservation and management
under the National Wetland Conservation Programme and some financial assistance
is being provided to State Governments for various conservation activities through
approval of the Management Action Plans.

Wetlands have been extensively investigated for their ecology, management,
conservation and restoration (Gopal et al. 1982; Gore, 1983; Sharitz and Gibbons,
1989; Lugo et al. 1990; Mitsch, 1994; Koudstall and Slootweg, 1994; McComb and
Davis, 1999; Westlake et al. 1999; Keddy, 2000; Mitsch and Goselink, 2000; Fraser
and Keddy, 2005). Although the importance of Wetlands has been realized
throughout the world the study of these ecosystems and scientific management still
lag considerably behind the need, particularly in India (Gopal, 1990, 2000). As a step

towards conservation and management of wetland ecosystems, a national inventory
entitled ―All India Wetland Survey‖ was initiated in the late 1960´s. On 1st. October
1981 India acceded to the Ramsar Convention of 1971, which was an expression of
the commitment of the international community to the cause of conserving wetlands
and her Chilika Lake (Orissa) and Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan) were
declared as Ramsar sites. On 23rd March 1990 Wular Lake (Jammu and Kashmir),
Harike Lake (Punjab), Loktak Lake (Manipur) and Sambar Lake (Rajasthan) were
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enlisted as internationally important wetlands. On 22 nd January 2002 Kanjli (Punjab)
and Ropar (Punjab) and on 19th September of the same year wetlands like
Asthamudi (Kerala), Bhitar Kanika Mangrove (Orissa), Bhoj (Madhya Pradesh),
Deepor Beel (Assam), East Calcutta Wetlands (West Bengal), Korellu Lake (Andhra
Pradesh), Point Calimeri Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary (Tamil Nadu), Pong Dam Lake
(Himachal Pradesh), Sastharnkotta Lake (Kerala), Tsomoriri (Jammu & Kashmir),
Vernbanad-kol wetland (Kerala) have been recognized as Ramsar sites. Till date
there are 26 such wetlands of International importance (i.e Ramsar sites). The
Ministry of Environment and Forests have also identified a few more wetlands for
research and survey such as Dal Lake (Jammu and Kahsmir), Renuka (Himachal
Pradesh), Kabar lake (Bihar), Pichola (Rajasthan), Ujni (Maharashtra), Bhoj (Madhya
Pradesh), Koleru (Andhra Pradesh), Astamudi (Kerala).

West Bengal, a state in the eastern portion of India, stretches from the Himalayas in
the north to the Bay of Bengal in the south. With Sikkim and Bhutan on the north,
Assam and Bangladesh in the east, Orissa, Bihar and Nepal in the West and the Bay
of Bengal in the South, West Bengal attains geographical as well as wildlife features
of a highly admirable status being the only state in India (between 21 045´ and 27016´

N latitude 85055´ and 89056´ E longitude) where there is a complete physiographic
and ecological continuum stretching from the tropical to temperate and alpine zones.
The plant diversity stretches from the magnificent littoral forests of the Sundarbans to
the luxuriant forests of the Eastern Himalaya. The major landmass of West Bengal is
divisible into two natural subdivisions viz., the Northern Himalayan and the Plains
which is a part of the massive Gangetic delta extending from the West Dinajpur in
the north to the intricate deltaic system of creeks of the South 24 Parganas. There
has been an extension of hilly plateau of Bihar, Jharkhand and Orissa along the
western boundary of the state into the bordering districts viz. Birbhum, Burdwan,
Bankura, Purulia and Midnapore. The geographical features of the state have given
rise to 5 well defined phytoecological zones viz., the Himalayan zone of Darjeeling;
Submontane Terai region and the adjacent plains; vast alluvial plain on both sides of
the Bhagirathi and its northern and western tributaries; the western dry flank of
Chotonagpur plateau and the mangrove forest of the Sundarbans. Due to rivarian
origin of major landmass of West Bengal like its eastern counterpart under
monsoonic regime, the wetlands form an important constituent of her geography.
9