Impacts of vietnamese standardized test of english proficiency (VSTEP) on the first year students’ english language learning at university of languages and international studies (ULIS), vietnam nation university, hanoi (VNU)

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES
******************

NGUYỄN THỊ LINH

IMPACTS OF VIETNAMESE STANDARDIZED TEST OF ENGLISH
PROFICIENCY (VSTEP) ON THE FIRST YEAR STUDENTS’ ENGLISH
LANGUAGE LEARNING AT UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND
INTERNATIONAL STUDIES (ULIS), VIETNAM NATIONAL
UNIVERSITY, HANOI (VNU)
(NHỮNG TÁC ĐỘNG CỦA KÌ THI CHUẨN HÓA ĐÁNH GIÁ NĂNG LỰC
TIẾNG ANH THEO KHUNG NĂNG LỰC NGOẠI NGỮ 6 BẬC DÙNG CHO
VIỆT NAM (VSTEP) TỚI VIỆC HỌC TIẾNG ANH CỦA SINH VIÊN NĂM
NHẤT TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ, ĐẠI HỌC QUỐC GIA HÀ NỘI)

M.A. MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS

Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60140111

Hanoi, 2016


VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES
*******************

NGUYỄN THỊ LINH

IMPACTS OF VIETNAMESE STANDARDIZED TEST OF ENGLISH
PROFICIENCY (VSTEP) ON THE FIRST YEAR STUDENTS’ ENGLISH
LANGUAGE LEARNING AT UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND
INTERNATIONAL STUDIES (ULIS), VIETNAM NATIONAL
UNIVERSITY, HANOI (VNU)
(NHỮNG TÁC ĐỘNG CỦA KÌ THI CHUẨN HÓA ĐÁNH GIÁ NĂNG LỰC
TIẾNG ANH THEO KHUNG NĂNG LỰC NGOẠI NGỮ 6 BẬC DÙNG CHO
VIỆT NAM (VSTEP) TỚI VIỆC HỌC TIẾNG ANH CỦA SINH VIÊN NĂM
NHẤT TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ, ĐẠI HỌC QUỐC GIA HÀ NỘI)

M.A. MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS

Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60140111
Supervisor: Tô Thị Thu Hương, PhD

Hanoi, 2016


DECLARATION
I hereby declare that my thesis submitted for the Faculty of Post-Graduate
Studies, University of Languages and International Studies, Vietnam National
University has been composed by myself, apart from the help recognized. This
paper has also not been submitted for any other degree or processional qualification
except as specified.
Hanoi, 2016

Ngu n Thị Linh

i


ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to send my thanks to many individuals for their invaluable help
during the conduct of the research. Without their help, the completion of this
research project would not have been possible.
First and foremost, I would like to express my special appreciation and
thanks to my supervisor, Dr. To Thi Thu Huong for her remarkable supervision,
enthusiastic guidance, invaluable support and critical feedback throughout the
research.
Besides my advisor, I would like to thank all the doctors and lecturers of the
Faculty of Postgraduate Studies, University of Foreign Languages and International
Studies, Vietnam National University, Hanoi for their useful lectures, which are
partly applied in this study.
Next, I wish to send my big thanks to the first year students at University of
Languages and International Studies (ULIS), Vietnam National University, Hanoi
(VNU) for their cooperation and the valuable information they provided in my
research questionnaire.
Furthermore, I would like to give my heartfelt thanks to my family and
friends, especially my mother, for standing by me and for giving me their
unconditional love, care, good assistance and patience.
Finally, my sincere thanks also goes to graders and readers for their valuable
evaluation and feedback on this thesis.

ii


ABSTRACT

Due to the globalization of the English language, a global testing campaign
has been established, specially standardized English proficiency tests. According to
Templer (2004), these tests have increasingly controlled access into privileged
educational and occupational paths in the professional and corporate world, and
affected many local language policies. In Vietnam, a new national English test - the
Vietnamese Standardized Test of English Proficiency (VSTEP) applied at the
University of Languages and International Studies (ULIS), Vietnam National
University, Hanoi (VNU) and other schools has gradually assumed a greater gatekeeping role. This paper aims to investigate the impacts of the VSTEP as a
graduation requirement on the first year university students‟ English learning at
ULIS. The paper begins with some background information about English
language‟s role and certification exit requirements. The next section discusses the
context that induced the introduction and implementation of the policy of using
VSTEP certificates to determine graduation eligibility. The main part of this paper
examines in detail the impacts of the VSTEP test on the learning of English of the
first year students at ULIS. Finally, the discussion section evaluates the efficiency
of the policy, followed by some recommendations.

iii


TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION .................................................................................................... i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT..................................................................................... ii
ABSTRACT ..........................................................................................................iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................... iv
LIST OF TABLES................................................................................................ vi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................. vii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION .................................................................. 1

1.1. The English language education in Vietnam ........................................... 1
1.2. Rationale of the study ............................................................................... 2
1.3. The significance of the study .................................................................... 2
1.4. Aims of the study ...................................................................................... 3
1.5. Research questions of the study ............................................................... 3
1.6. Organization of the study ........................................................................... 3
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................... 5
2.1. The VSTEP ............................................................................................... 5
2.1.1. The introduction of the VSTEP as an English certificate exit
requirement at ULIS. .................................................................................... 5
2.1.2. The basic information of the VSTEP levels 3-5 ................................ 6
2.2. Definition of impact and related studies ................................................ 11
2.3. Impacts of some English tests as a graduation requirement ................ 16
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY .......................................................... 20
3.1. Introduction ............................................................................................ 20
3.2. Method of the study ................................................................................ 20
3.3. Context of the study ............................................................................... 21
3.4. Participants ............................................................................................. 21
3.5. Data collection instrument ..................................................................... 22
3.6. Data collection and analysis procedures................................................ 26
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ........................................ 28
4.1. Some general information about the first-year students. ........................ 28
Table 7: Students’ general information.................................................................. 28
4.2. Impacts of the VSTEP on students’ English learning ............................. 30
iv


4.2.1. Academic impacts: Learning Content and Learning Methods ........ 30
4.2.2. Affective impacts: goal orientation, motivation, self-efficacy and
anxiety .......................................................................................................... 34

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS................. 42
REFERENCES .................................................................................................... 45
APPENDIX 1 ......................................................................................................... I

v


LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Format of the VSTEP................................................................................ 7
Table 2. VSTEP level conversion table .................................................................... 9
Table 3. VSTEP equivalency table ........................................................................ 10
Table 4: Structure of the questionnaire .................................................................. 23
Table 5: Changes of some items in the edited questionnaire compared to original
version. .................................................................................................................. 24
Table 6: Changes of some items between pilot and main questionnaire ................. 26
Table 7: Students‟ general information .................................................................. 28
Table 8. Impact of the VSTEP on students‟ learning content ................................. 30
Table 9. Impact of the VSTEP on students‟ learning methods ............................... 33
Table 10. Impact of the VSTEP on students‟ goal orientation ................................ 34
Table 11. Impact of the VSTEP on students‟ motivation ....................................... 35
Table 12. Impact of the VSTEP on students‟ self-efficacy ..................................... 38
Table 13. Impact of the VSTEP on students‟ anxiety ............................................. 39

vi


LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

VSTEP: Vietnamese Standardized Test of English Proficiency
ULIS: University of Languages and International Studies

VNU: Vietnam National University, Hanoi
MOET: Ministry of Education and Training
TOEIC: Test of English for International Communication
TOEFL: Test of English as a Foreign Language
CEFR: Common European Framework of Reference for Languages
DA2020: Đề Án Ngoại Ngữ Quốc Gia 2020
EFL: English Foreign Language
ASL: Arabic Second Language
HKCEE: Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination
NMET: National Matriculation English Test
GEPT: General English Proficiency Test
FCE: First Certificate in English
IELTS: International English Language Testing System
CET: College English Test

vii


CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1.

The English language education in Vietnam
As mentioned by Hoang (2011), English test is one of the six national exit

exams at Junior and Senior Secondary School and English is studied as a
compulsory subject by 94% undergraduates and 92% graduates at Vietnamese
institution. However, the teaching activities in classes are not delivered in an
effective way for students to achieve sufficient levels of competence to pass the
certifications required for recruitment. Ha (2007) also argues that the level of

communicative competence in English of most Vietnamese employees are still very
low, and many freshly graduated students cannot get jobs in foreign companies
because of the English language requirements. The fact is that most Vietnamese
learners still cannot use it effectively as a means of communication after a long
period of learning English. Pham (2004) estimated that in a class of fifty English
major learners, fewer than ten graduates have the sufficient English skills for jobs
such as interpreters, translators, tour guides or teachers of English. Moreover,
according to Ellis (1996) and Pham (2004), English classrooms in Vietnam continue
to focus more on grammar-oriented than communicative.
The current issues point to the fact that Vietnam should upgrade the currently
low English teaching and English use standards in order to catch up with the fast
globalisation process, sizable inputs and major changes. An innovation has been
proposed in order to ensure higher standards of English proficiency among students
graduating from Vietnamese tertiary institutions. One of the main goals of the
“National Foreign Languages Project to the year 2020” (DA2020) is to strengthen
students‟ English proficiency throughout the educational system. A key feature of
this English project is to impose graduation standards control; that is, to require
graduates to achieve certain minimum standards before they could graduate from
their study programmes. Therefore, in early 2008, Vietnamese Ministry of
Education & Training (MOET) gave an official instruction, requiring universities

1


and colleges to articulate their graduation standards, among which is the English
requirement, by the end of the same year.
1.2.

Rationale of the study
Since August 15th, 2015, ULIS-VNU has used the VSTEP as an exit test for

all students. This proficiency test is completely new in Vietnam and there has no
study on this. Therefore, I would like to conduct this study in order to explore its
impact on students‟ English learning at ULIS.
Students at ULIS have to achieve certain level of the VSTEP required by the
university before graduation. Therefore, the test would have certain impacts on
their learning. Among students at different years, the first year students are those
who just enter a new learning environment. The transition from high school to
higher education is considered the most stressful period for the first year university
students. Adapting to the new environment makes them experience many
unexpected circumstances. Different workload such as assignments, varied teaching
methods, and working with other students and lecturers are some examples of these
unexpected circumstances. Thus, knowing the impact of the test on the first year
students‟ learning of English would be helpful to both lecturers and students in their
teaching and learning.
As mentioned before, the VSTEP is a new test, so an investigation of its
impacts on students‟ learning of English at ULIS-VNU could be seen as an example
of research on test impact, which has become a significant area of interest in
language testing in recent years.
1.3.

The significance of the study
This is a small-scale empirical study of test impact in Vietnam. It is one of

the first studies exploring the impacts of the VSTEP - a new English proficiency
test in Vietnam, so this study would fill in the research gap on the VSTEP. The
study is potentially significant in that it provides an insight into the impact of an
exit test on English language learning in University of Languages and International

2

Studies (ULIS). Most importantly, the study highlights the voices of students, the
very people at the centre of the learning process.
The findings of this study should provide some important information to help
the institution; on the other hand, to further improve the test itself for more
beneficial impacts, i.e to enhance English teaching and learning through the design
and administration of the test and to improve the policy and implementation of the
English graduation requirement.
1.4.

Aims of the study
This study was conducted to investigate the impacts of the VSTEP on the

first year students‟ language learning at University of Languages and International
Studies (ULIS) – Vietnam National University (VNU). Following the study of
Hongli Li, Qi Zhong and Hoi K Suen (2012), the researcher would like to
investigate the impact of VSTEP on ULIS students‟ English learning in two ways:
academic and affective. The academic impact refers to the VSTEP‟s influence on
“students‟ English - learning behavior, as this pertains to learning content (i.e., what
students study) and learning methods (i.e., how they study)”, whereas affective
impact refers to the VSTEP‟s influence on “students‟ affective conditions, such as
goal orientation, motivation, self-efficacy, and anxiety.” (Hongli Li, Qi Zhong and
Hoi K Suen, 2012: 82).
1.5.

Research questions of the study
Research question 1: How does the VSTEP influence the students’ English
learning behavior in terms of learning content (i.e., what students study) and
learning methods (i.e., how they study)?

Research question 2: How does the VSTEP influence the students’ affective
conditions such as goal orientation, motivation, self-efficacy, and anxiety?

1.6.

Organization of the study
The study consists of 5 chapters

Chapter 1: Introduction of the research
Chapter 2: Literature review (Other researches on this topic are discussed)

3


Chapter 3: Methodology (the way the researcher collected the data as well as
analysis them is showed)
Chapter 4: Findings and discussion
Chapter 5: Conclusion and recomendations

4


CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1.

The VSTEP

2.1.1. The introduction of the VSTEP as an English certificate exit
requirement at ULIS.

It has been obvious that many tertiary institutions integrated graduation
standard control into study programmes which was essential for assuring the quality
of institutions‟ qualifications. There have been several means to achieve the goal.
Most universities in Vietnam adopted standardized English proficiency tests such as
Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC) and Test of English as a
foreign language (TOEFL), either self-developed tests or external public tests, as
the means of standards control. ULIS is an example of this policy. The institution
has newly applied a national English proficiency test called Vietnamese
Standardized Test of English Proficiency (VSTEP) and required all the students to
submit evidence of the required English level measured by the VSTEP for
graduation.
The VSTEP is a standardized test designed to measure the English
proficiency of undergraduate students at ULIS. The test is based on the Common
European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) and be relevant to the
context of English use in Vietnam. Students are expected to take the VSTEP from
the end of their second year till the last year at ULIS. The VSTEP are held several
times a year; therefore, students can take the test many times while at the university.
The test targets level 3 to level 5. The students of ULIS need to achieve level 5
which is equivalent to the level C1 of the CEFR test. Like most of the CEFR - based
test, VSTEP consists of four sections: listening, reading, writing and speaking. The
innovation - setting the VSTEP as a graduation requirement – is expected to have
impacts on what and how teachers teach and what and how students learn, thereby
promoting students‟ English skills development.

5


2.1.2. The basic information of the VSTEP levels 3-5
2.1.2.1.

The origin of the VSTEP

It is clearly that English has played a predominant role in the foreign
language teaching program at tertiary level in Vietnam for a long period (Hoang
Van Van, 2008). In 1986, opening the door of Vietnam to the world and under the
impact of globalisation and internationalisation in higher education lead to the
demand for enhancing English language teaching and learning which is one of the
most important purposes of higher education renovation in Vietnam. The
Vietnamese government also seems to prioritise this goal when it officially adopted
the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) as the
national framework of reference for foreign language education in Vietnam in 2008
under Decision 1400/QĐ-TTG. Decision 1400/QĐ-TTG is to approve DA2020 and
one of the duties of the DA 2020 is to design and apply a tool for assessing English
proficiency of Vietnamese students.
Therefore, linguists and educators created a local CEFR-V; that is, a
Vietnamese version of the Common European Framework of Reference for
Languages, a set of standards used in teaching English in Vietnam. According to
Circular No. 01/2014 / TT – 01- Ministry of Education & Training on January 24th,
2014, Minister of Education and Training has issued the Vietnameses Standardized
Test of English Proficiency (VSTEP) for levels from 3 to 5. It is applied to foreign
language training institutions, language training, and language learning in the
national education system.
2.1.2.2.

The format of the VSTEP

There are four parts in the test:
Part 1: Listening _40 minutes
Part 2: Reading _60 minutes
Part 3: Writing_60 minutes

Part 4: Speaking_12 minutes

6


Table 1. Format of the VSTEP
Parts

Time

Numbe

Item/ task type

Aims

r of
items/
tasks
Listening About

40 35

Test-takers listen to short To test different

minutes

multiple

exchanges,

(including

-choice

announcements,

time

to items

transfer

(MCQ)

answers
into

instruction/ listening

sub-

skills from level

coversations and longer 3/B1 to 5/C1:
talks and then do the listening

to

multiple choice questions. specific

the

information,

answer

main

sheet.

opinions,

ideas,

purposes
inferences....
Reading

60 minutes

40

Test-takers read 4 texts on To test different

(including

mutilple

various topics relevant to reading

time

to -choice

transfer

items

answers
into

level

3/B1-level

sub-

5/C1, skills from level

around 1900-2050 words 3/B1 to 5/C1:
in total, then do the reading

the

for

multiple choice questions. specific

answer

information,

sheet.

main

ideas,

opinions,
purposes
inferences,
meaning
words....

7

of


Writing 60 Minutes

2 tasks

Task 1: Time limit: 20 To test written
minutes.

Length:

120 interaction skills

words at least. Weighting: and

written

10/30. Test takers write a production
(n)

letter/

email

in skills.

response to a (n) given
letter/ email.
Task 2: Time limit: 40
minutes.

Length:

250

words at least. Weighting:
20/30. Test takers write
an essay on a given topic,
using his/ her experience
and knowledge to support
his/ her arguments.
Speaking 12 minutes

3 tasks

Task 1: Social Interaction: To test various
test-takers have to answer speaking skills:
three to six questions of interaction,
two different topics.
Task

2:

discussion

and

Solution presenting

a

Discussion: test-takers are topic

to

provided with a situation audience.
and

three

proposed

solution options and is

required to give opinions
about the best solution
and counter-arguments for
the others.
Task

8

3:

Topic

the


Development: test-takers
develop a given topic. He/
she can use the ideas
provided in the form of a
mind-map and/ or use his/
her own ideas to develop
the topic, followed by
some further questions.
(My translation from />
2.1.2.3.

Score conversion tables

Table 2. VSTEP level conversion table

Average

Proficiency

score

level

General description

0 – 3,5

Not mention No description

4,0 – 5,5

3

Can understand the gist of a text or a standard speech
clearly

on

familiar

themes

in

work,

study,

entertainment, ...
Can handle most situations occurring when travelling
in the areas where the language is used.
Can write simple texts related to familiar topics or
personal interests.
Can describe experiences, events, dreams, hopes,
aspirations and possibly give a short presentation of
reasons explaining their ideas and plans.
6,0 – 8,0

4

Can understand the main ideas of a complex text on
both

specific

9

and

abstract

topics,

including

technological exchanges in their field.
Can communicate fluently, naturally so that regular
communications with native speakers do not make any
difficulties for both sides.
Can write texts clearly about different topics and can
give explanation for their views on a topical issue,
point out the advantages and disadvantages of different
options.
8,5 – 10

5

Can understand long and difficult texts and identify
implications.
Can express the ideas fluently, promptly and do not
take time to find words or phrases to express the ideas.
Can use the language flexibly and effectively serving
the social/ academic/ professional purposes.
Can write texts clearly and cohesively on complex
topics, demonstrating the great ability of using types of
writing organizations, conjunctions and linking words
or phrases.

(My translation from />
Table 3. VSTEP equivalency table
The table below shows comparisons between various test scores and level
systems (like TOEFL, TOEIC, IELTS) and the VSTEP level system.

Level

TOEFL

TOEFL

TOEIC

Cambridge

IELTS

(VSTEP)

ITP

iBT

(0-990)

Tests

(0-9,0)

(310-677)

(0-120)

Level 3

450

45

(0-100)
450

70 - 89 PET
45 - 59 FCE

10

4,0 – 5,0


Level 4

500

61

600

90 – 100 PET 5,5 – 6,5
60 – 79 FCE

Level 5

550

80

780

80 – 100 FCE 7,0 – 8, 0
60 – 79 CAE

(The above scores are minimum that test takers need to achieve)
(My

translation

from

/>
DHQGHN-27Apr2015.PDF)
2.2.

Definition of impact and related studies
Recently, in language testing research, some researchers have distinguished

between „washback‟ and „impact‟. According to Wall (1997), test impact is “any of
the effects that a test may have on individuals, policies or practices, within the
classroom, the school, the educational system or society as a whole” whereas
washback is “the effects of tests on teaching and learning” (p. 291). Bachman and
Palmer (1996) considered washback as one dimension of test impact; thus, the
impact of the test is divided two levels: the micro level, such as the effect of a test
on individual students and teachers, and the macro level, such as the impact on
society and its educational systems. These definitions made the assumption that
“tests or examinations can or should drive teaching, and hence learning” (Cheng &
Curtis, 2004: 4).

At micro level, since the 1990s, the term „washback‟ (Alderson & Wall,
1993) in the field of applied linguistics and „backwash‟ (Biggs, 1996) in general
education has been used to refer to the impact which occurs in the form of teaching
and learning directed towards a test, in terms of both intended positive effects or
unintended effects and perhaps negative effects (Alderson & Wall, 1993; Bachman
& Palmer, 1996; Cheng, Watanabe, & Curtis, 2004; Hughes, 2003). Concurring
with this, Taylor (2005) also said that washback can be considered positive
(beneficial) or negative (harmful). Positive washback encourages good teaching and
learning practices while negative washback encourages bad teaching and learning
practices. Shohamy (1992) also focuses on washback in terms of language learners

11


as test-takers by describing "the utilization of external language tests to affect and
drive foreign language learning in the school context" (p. 513). Alderson and Wall
(1993) proposed the washback hypotheses which provide clear guidelines on the
areas that might be influenced by washback. For example, a test will influence
teaching and learning; a test will influence what learners learn and how they learn;
and a test will influence the rate, sequence, degree, and depth of teaching and
learning. Similarly, Hughes (1993) pointed out that a test will first influence the
participants‟ perceptions and attitudes, then how they perform, and finally the
learning outcomes.
In a broader way, Bachman and Palmer (1996) argued that washback was a
more complex phenomenon than simply the effect of a test on teaching and
learning. They think the impact of a test should be evaluated with reference to the
contextual variables of society's goals and values, the educational system in which
the test is used, and the potential outcomes of its use. Hughes (2003) also had the
same opinions as Bachman and Palmer when he defined washback as “a part of the
impact a test may have on learners and teachers, on educational systems in general,

and on society at large” (p. 53).
Despite different terms defined by different researchers, they all referred to
different aspects of the same phenomenon. Research studies showed that impact/
washback was an educational phenomenon related to (1) the relationship between
teaching, learning and testing, and the relationship between different curriculum
components, and to (2) curriculum change and innovation.
The term „washback‟at a micro level used interchangeably with impact was
chosen in this study as it was the most commonly used in the field of applied
linguistics. Moreover, Wall (1997) interpreted washback that it includes test effects
on teaching and learning. For the purpose of this study, the term impact meaning
„washback at micro level‟ is completely suitable as it covers the impact of the
VSTEP as a graduation requirement on the first year students‟ learning at ULIS.

12


The influence of washback has been observed on various aspects of learning
and it has been found that the washback was generated by numerous mediate
factors. There have been many research projects looking at washback carried out in
several different countries and contexts such as: Netherlands school language exams
(Luijten, 1991); a needs-based exam at a Turkish university (Hughes, 1988); the
national university entrance examination in China (Li, 1990); the various exams and
exam revisions in Hong Kong (Andrews, 1994; Cheng, 2005; Fullilove, 1992; Lam,
1994); the reformed high school entrance exam and a new test in Taiwan (Chen,
2002; Shih, 2007); washback in language testing (Balley, 1999). It is worth
examining some of these studies in a little more detail.
Shohamy (1993) and Shohamy et al. (1996) conducted two research projects
in the Israeli context to examine the washback of an interactive English Foreign
Language (EFL) oral matriculation test on teaching. They concluded that test
impact was multi-faceted towards teaching. Based on their conclusion, Ferman

(2004) later used questionnaires to explore students‟ views of the English Foreign
Language (EFL) oral matriculation test and found differential washback on learners,
according to proficiency level. The researcher found that low ability students
prepared for the test more intensively, including private tutoring and memorising
prompts. These students generally believed that they could improve their scores by
cramming, and studied independently for areas of the test that were not covered in
class. Additionally, students at the middle ability level said that they experienced
the highest average levels of anxiety and felt that the test was one of the most
important factors leading to improvement in their language skills. Therefore,
washback appeared to be most intense for students at this level.
In a study investigating the impact of an Arabic Second Language (ASL)
test, Shohamy et al. (1996) found that the ASL test did not generate a high degree of
washback on students‟ learning, and the effects decreased as time went by. In spite
of changing teaching and learning, the test had not successfully raised the role of
Arabic. It is found that the stakes of the test were low and teachers thought that the

13


test was not useful for facilitating higher-level learning; therefore, the influence of
the ASL test only lasted for a short period of time. Shohamy et al. draw a
conclusion that washback could change over time due to the language status, the
importance of the test, , the purpose of the test, the format of the test, and the skills
tested.
Cheng (1997, 1998, 1999, 2004, 2005) conducted a large-scale quantitative
and qualitative empirical study with the aim of investigating the influences of the
modified Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination (HKCEE) which was
taken by most secondary school graduates. In order to find out the washback of
HKCE on students‟ learning, she used questionnaire and received responses from
42 students. The students' data revealed that the HKCEE played "a 30% role in their

learning," followed by the influence of future jobs, their parents' concerns, and
competition with their classmates (ibid., p. 47). Thus Cheng (1997) concluded the
students felt that the exam is the single greatest factor influencing their English
progress. In her later 1998 study, Cheng found that students still retained their
original learning processes, learning strategies, and individual motivations to learn
English although they shifted their attention after the test content was change. With
respect to washback from HKCEE on students‟ feelings and attitudes, Cheng (1998:
296) pointed that students expressed mixed feelings towards the test itself. They
recognized that they had motivation to achieve good scores due to the test; on the
other hand, they thought that exams were not an accurate reflection of all aspects of
their study.
Li (1990) did a research titled “the National Matriculation English Test
(NMET)” for entrance examination to all universities in China. The aim of NMET
was to produce a positive washback effect on school teaching and learning. Li
suggested that due to a large number of people taking this test annually (about three
million), it could be seen as a high-stakes test. Li discovered that while teachers felt
uncomfortable with the NMET, students were much more adaptable and accepted

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the new testing methods quite readily, due to the significant influence of the test on
their future opportunities.
Chen (2002) explored the nature and scope of the impact of a reformed high
school entrance exam associated with educational reform. Chen found that there
was a mismatch of goals between the new curriculum and the reformed test. The
new curriculum aimed to promote a communicative syllabus for classroom teaching
and learning. However, it was unclear towards how students‟ communicative
competence could be assessed and whether washback from the test made classroom
teaching more interactive because the new test used multiple choice format and it

excluded oral and aural tests.
Shih (2007) investigated the washback of the General English Proficiency
Test (GEPT) on English learning in Taiwan. According to the researcher, the GEPT
had made various but limited degrees of washback on learning. Although it had no
impact on some students, it motivated other students to study English for a short
period of time. Students reported they often used commercially-written practice
books as materials for test preparation after school. Besides, they took preparatory
courses at cram schools as learning strategies. Based on these, Shih drew a
conclusion that the GEPT generated little washback, because of the status of the
test, students‟ learning attitudes, and departmental policies.
From the review of these studies, it is suggested that tests have an intense
impact on students‟ learning, and that individual learners have experienced this
influence in different ways.
Besides the listed studies, there have numerous studies also examining the
nature of washback, how it works, and its effects. A summary offered by Wall and
Horak (2007) showing that a number of studies have examined the impact of
international tests such as the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL)
(Alderson &Hamp-Lyons, 1996; Hamp-Lyons & Brown, 2005), the First Certificate
in English (FCE) (Tsagari, 2006) and the International English Language Testing
System (IELTS) (Green, 2006; Hawkey, 2006; Hayes & Read, 2004). The most

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common findings from these studies are that these tests do influence teaching and
learning. Nevertheless, Wall (2000) found that most studies have investigated how
testing influences classroom teaching, whereas studies on how testing influences
students‟ learning and their behaviors are relatively few.
2.3.

Impacts of some English tests as a graduation requirement
There have been many studies related to the today‟s trend in language testing

field which are using English proficiency tests as a graduation requirement for
students. Among several studies, there are three studies which are worth focusing
on in more detail.
The first study was conducted in context of Taiwan titled “The impact of
implementing English proficiency tests as a graduation requirement” at Taiwanese
universities of technology by Hui-Fen Hsu (2009). The researcher explored the
impacts of a new educational policy on two groups of university students: nonEnglish major students who had to pass one of a set of English proficiency tests at a
specified level as a graduation requirement and major English students who did not
prescribe any English graduation requirement. The results of the study showed that
washback on students‟ learning related to three aspects: students‟ learning context,
students‟ perception of the impact of the test and their learning. With respect to the
students‟ learning contexts, the implementation of English proficiency tests as a
graduation requirement did have a minimal washback effect on the classroom
activities and it did not encourage more English-medium activities outside class.
With regard to students‟ perceptions of the impact of English proficiency tests,
although students really did not like examinations, examinations seemed to be one
of their key motivations for learning English, indicating the important role of
examinations in students‟ lives. The study revealed that imposing the new
regulation might have changed certain aspects of the students‟ attitudes towards
teaching and learning, but the regulation did not seem to have changed their
attitudes towards the function of examinations. With regard to students‟ learning,
students who had to comply with the graduation regulation seemed not to be making

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