Using competence based approach in the development of a writing course for engineers at vietnam atomic energy institute

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES

PHẠM THỊ THU TRANG

USING COMPETENCE-BASED APPROACH IN THE
DEVELOPMENT OF A WRITING COURSE FOR
ENGINEERS AT VIETNAM ATOMIC ENERGY INSTITUTE
(Sử dụng cách tiếp cận dựa trên năng lực để phát triển một
khóa học viết dành cho các kỹ sư tại Viện Năng lượngnguyên tử Việt Nam)

M.A. MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS

Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60140111

HANOI – 2016


VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES

PHẠM THỊ THU TRANG

USING COMPETENCE-BASED APPROACH IN THE
DEVELOPMENT OF A WRITING COURSE FOR
ENGINEERS AT VIETNAM ATOMIC ENERGY INSTITUTE
(Sử dụng cách tiếp cận dựa trên năng lực để phát triển một
khóa học viết dành cho các kỹ sư tại Viện Năng lượngnguyên tử Việt Nam)

M.A. MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS

Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60140111
Supervisor: Dr. Dương Thu Mai

HANOI – 2016


DECLARATION

I hereby certify that this thesis is entirely my own work. I have provided
fully documented references to the others‟ work. The material in this thesis has
not been submitted for assessment in any other formal course. I also accept all
the requirements of ULIS relating to the retention and use of M.A Graduation
Thesis deposited in the library.

Hanoi, 2016

Phạm Th Thu Trang

i


ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This thesis would not be fulfilled without the help of some people, and in some
ways, I would like to thank everyone who has taught me, inspired me, challenged me,
and supported me throughout the realization of this thesis.

I would like to express my deepest thanks to my beloved supervisor, Duong
Thu Mai, Ph.D, for her whole-hearted assistance, encouragement as well as her
profound guidance she gave me while I was doing my research.
I would like to take this opportunity to express my gratitude to all lecturers in
Faculty of Post-graduate Studies, University of Languages and International Studies,
Vietnam National University, Hanoi for their interesting lectures which have inspired
me to conduct this thesis. Besides, I would like to send my gratitute to the teaching
experts at Vietnam National University, Hanoi who took part in my interview and gave
me orientation to edit the course guide.
I would also like to express my thanks to the leaders and working learners at
Vietnam Atomic Energy Institute for their willingness to participate in the research.
Without their help, this project could not be fulfilled.
Last but not least, I am most thankful to my family members who have always
inspired and encouraged me to complete this study.
Hanoi, 2016

Phạm Th Thu Trang

ii


ABSTRACT
Strong needs of working learners, urgent demands of occupation and great
expectation of leaders have revealed there is a call for designing a writing course at
Vietnam Atomic Energy Institute. This course with workplace orientation was
developed using competence-based approach so that the learning outcomes can meet
future staffing requirements of the nuclear organization. In this case, based on
understanding of VAEI context, learners‟ needs and employers‟ requirements analysis,
the paper is to explore the target genres, determine the specificity of writing
competences covered within the course, and then develop course schedules. Notably,

there have been no attempts in investigating this issue before. Hopefully, the paper
would investigate needed English written competences for engineers at Vietnam
Atomic Energy Institute and provide suggestions for the course components including
contents, objectives, teaching methods and assessment to implement the future writing
course under the light of Competence-Based Approach.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART A: INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................... 1
1. Rationale ................................................................................................................. 1
2. Aims of study........................................................................................................... 3
3. Research questions.................................................................................................. 3
4. Scope of study ......................................................................................................... 3
5. Methods of study ..................................................................................................... 4
6. Design of study........................................................................................................ 4
PART B: LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................... 5
Chapter 1- An Overview of the Competence-Based Approach............................. 5
1.1. Definition of Competence and Competency ................................................................ 5
1.1.1. Definition of Competence ................................................................................... 5
1.1.2. Definition of Competency ................................................................................... 5
1.2. Approaches in course designing ...................................................................................... 6
1.2.1. Skill-based approach.......................................................................................... 6
1.2.2. Content-based approach .................................................................................... 7
1.2.3. Theme-based approach ...................................................................................... 8
1.2.4. Functional-Notional approach ........................................................................... 8
1.2.5. Competence-based Approach ............................................................................. 9
1.2.3.1. The application and features of CBA in course designing ................................ 9
1.2.3.2. The application of CBA in English Language Teaching (ELT) ...................... 10

1.2.3.3. Course development process according to CBA ............................................ 12
Chapter 2- Theoretical Issues on Writing Course .............................................. 15
2.1. Nature of writing................................................................................................................ 15
2.2. English writing competence in theory and in reality .............................................. 15
2.2.1. English writing competences in theory ............................................................. 15
2.2.2. Realization of English writing competence ....................................................... 17
2.2.3. Writing teaching approaches ........................................................................... 22
2.2.3.1. The Product Approach .................................................................................. 22
2.2.3.2. The Process Approach .................................................................................. 23
PART C: METHODOLOGY ............................................................................ 26
3.1. Context of the study .......................................................................................................... 26
3.2. The study .............................................................................................................................. 27

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3.2.1.Research questions............................................................................................ 27
3.2.2. Participants ..................................................................................................... 28
3.2.3. Data collection instruments.............................................................................. 28
3.2.3.1. Survey questionaire ....................................................................................... 28
3.2.3.2. Semi-structured interviews ............................................................................ 30
3.2.4. Data collection procedure ................................................................................ 32
3.2.5. Data analysis ................................................................................................... 34
3.2.5.1. Needs analysis by graphical method and simple percentage analysis....... 34
3.2.5.2. Content analysis .......................................................................................... 35
PART D: FINDINGS & DISCUSSIONS ................................................................ 36
4.1. Students’ needs and employers’ requirements analysis ......................................... 36
4.1.1. Needs from students‟ perspectives .................................................................... 36
4.1.2. Needs from employers‟ perspectives................................................................. 44
4.2. Interview results of the 1st course draft – Editting the 1st course content ...... 46

4.2.1. Interview results ............................................................................................... 46
4.2.1.1. The appropriateness of the course objectives to students‟ language proficiency
.................................................................................................................................. 46
4.2.1.2. The completeness of the course content and materials ................................... 47
4.2.1.3. The coherence of course schedule and assessment scheme to the course
objectives ................................................................................................................... 48
4.2.1.4. The integration of teaching methods, teachers and students‟ roles ................ 50
4.2.1.5. The success probability of course implementation ......................................... 50
4.2.2. Decisions on editting the 1st course guide......................................................... 51
4.2.2.1. Course objectives .......................................................................................... 51
4.2.2.2. Course content and materials ........................................................................ 51
4.2.2.3. Course schedule and assessment scheme ....................................................... 52
PART E: CONCLUSION ........................................................................................ 53
5.1. Reflection on research process ......................................................................... 53
5.2. Recommendations ............................................................................................. 54
5.3. Limitations and suggestions for further study ................................................. 55
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................ 57
APPENDICES............................................................................................................ I

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
ADDIE

Analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation

CBA

Competence – based approach

CBESL

Competency – based education in ESL

CBLT

Competence- based language teaching

CBI

Content-based instruction

CEFR

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages

CSW

Common Scale for Writing

ELT

English Language Teaching

EOP

English for Occupational Purposes

ESOL

English for Speakers of Other Languages

ESL

English as Second Language

ESP

English for Specific Purposes

ETS

Educational Testing Service

FNA

Functional-Notional approach

IELTS

International English Language Testing System

L2

Second language

No.

Number

SBA

Skill-based approach

TBA

Theme-based approach

TOEFL

Test of English as Foreign Language

ULIS

University of Languages and International Studies

VAEA

Vietnam Atomic Energy Agency

VAEI

Vietnam Atomic Energy Institute

VNU

Vietnam National University

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LIST OF TABLES, CHARTS, FIGURES
Table 1. VAEI leaders‟ features in the semi-structured interview ............................... 33
Table 2. Experts‟ features in the semi-structured interview ........................................ 34

Chart 1: Course development process according to CBA ........................................... 13
Chart 2. Stages of teaching writing under the product approach ................................. 22
Chart 3.1. Stages of writing process according to process approach ........................... 23
Chart 3.2. Stages of writing process according to process approach ........................... 24

Figure 1. Tasks expected in thewriting course ............................................................ 36
Figure 2. Major skills needed to support .................................................................... 37
Figure 3. Aim at CEFR level of language proficiency ................................................ 37
Figure 4. Genres of written documents needed to learn .............................................. 38
Figure 5. Genres of written documents with difficulty ............................................... 38
Figure 6. Type of feedback expected in the course ..................................................... 39
Figure 7. The importance of assessment types ........................................................... 40
Figure 8. The effectiveness of assessment types ......................................................... 40
Figure 9. The appropriate teaching methods ............................................................... 41
Figure 10. The students‟ willingness for self-study .................................................... 41
Figure 11. The appropriate proportion of class time/self-study time ........................... 41
Figure 12. The effectiveness of the given lesson sequences ....................................... 41
Figure 13. The students‟ roles in the course ............................................................... 42
Figure 14. The teachers‟ roles .................................................................................... 42
Figure 15. The types of materials included in a writing course ................................... 43

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PART A: INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale
In the industrialized world, a great number of graduates, engineers and
businessmen, who are expecting to gain more advanced knowledge and open access to
the world, notably need English competences. Among English competences that
working learners seek training, achievement of English writing proficiency assumes
an enormous importance in fitting the heavy literacy demands of their employers. Not
only is it hard to imagine modern workplaces without English essays, commercial
emails, reports, case studies and journal articles but writing is also a key feature for
writers to demonstrate their understanding of subjects and their experiences.
Nevertheless, these kinds of experiences are extremely challenging to students
and may be especially frightening to those writing in a second language. This is not
only because different languages seem to have different ways of organizing ideas
and structuring arguments but because students‟ prior writing experiences in the
school, college or university do not prepare them for the literacy expectations of their
professional workplace. That is one of reasons why for the last decades, the matter of
educational contents corresponding to future job demands has become an essential
issue in educational reforms all over the world.
Due to widespread concern about the quality of students‟ learning process, in
particular, fluency in the conventions of writing in English at work, Competence –
Based Approach originated in response to increase calls for learning outcomes upon
course

completion.

The

approach

focuses

on

assisting

students

towards

writing competence in particular target genres so as to be more responsive to
professions‟ needs; in other words, familarizing them with writing English for
Occupational Purposes (EOP) (Auerbach, 1986).
As a result, writing course designers are supposed not simply to develop the
content of teaching writing generally but to recognise particular kinds of writing
which are valued and expected in one certain professional context. In details, EOP
practitioners need to make considerable use of the findings such as the literacy
demands to determine what is to be learned and to organise instruction around the
genres that learners need and the social contexts in which they will operate.
In the social context of Vietnam, one recent upsurge attempts in acquiring
English competence involves in human resource of nuclear field, when the network

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of nuclear programs has spread in various regions of the world and Vietnam is
considering the introduction of Nuclear Power as part of its national energy strategy.
Related to this strategy, Vietnam Atomic Energy Institute (VAEI), Ministry of Science
and Technology is national research institute whose responsibility is to train and
develop man power in the field of atomic energy – the field encompassing a plenty of
international scientific studies and technological materials. Hence, building and

maintaining the availability of research workforce, who are competent in written
English, has been one of the most critical challenges of VAEI.
Meanwhile, the same issue as above-mentioned, “the abyss existing between
the goals of the academic and the professional world” inevitably exists at VAEI
(Dominguez and Rokowski, 2002). In particular, because of a discrepancy between
the university English language curriculum and requirements for jobs, almost all
graduates working here have deficiency of written English competences. As a
consequence, much concern of both themselves and their employers has been given to
the adequate outcomes of their written works in English to effectively serve the
occupational demands in a research institute.
Strong needs of working learners, high demands of occupation and great
expectation of leaders reveal there is a call for study of designing an EOP writing
course at VAEI. This course with workplace orientation should be developed using
competence-based approach so that the learning outcomes can meet future staffing
requirements of the nuclear organization. In this case, based on understanding of VAEI
context, learners‟ needs and employers‟ requirements analysis, course designers are to
explore the target genres, determine the specificity of writing competences covered
within the course, and then build up course guides and schedules. Notably, there have
been no attempts in investigating this issue before. It is, hence, of principal importance
to research the matter intensively at this Institute.
The aforementioned reasons have given rise to the development a writing
course in this study, in which competence-based approach is selected. Hopefully, the
researcher would make the contribution to complete an in-depth investigation of
needed competence in English written communication for engineers to shed some light
in the area where resources are limited.

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2. Aims of study

As discussed earlier, the present study aims to develop an English writing
course regarding to professional preparation for VAEI staff. The course is similar to a
workplace-oriented language program since its main goal is to enable the learners to
use written English at work.
The first objective of the research is to interview human resources managers
and conduct a survey among engineers to identify and analyze their English writing
needs and expectation. The second, the paper aims to design the course guide,
including the description, learning objectives, contents, activities, materials,
assessment and testing. Accordingly, the course would be developed based on the
needs analysis. Finally, experts were invited to validate and evaluate the course in
order that necessary adjustments can be done according to their suggestions.
3. Research questions
In order to achieve the above-mentioned aims, the following research questions
are raised in the study:
1. What are the components of

a writing course using competence-based

approach for engineers at VAEI?
2. What are the teaching experts‟ opinions of the developed need-based
competence-based writing course?
4. Scope of study
The development of a EOP writing course using competence - based approach
is such a broad topic that it can not be wholly discussed within the framework of this
paper. Thus, this minor thesis is restricted in touching upon the theory and application
of Competence – Based Approach in English Language Teaching, particularly in a
workplace – oriented writing course, the theory and realization of English writing
competences in Literature Review. Then it attempts to investigate the foremost needs
of targeted learners group and leaders‟ typical requirements for their staff‟s English
writing competences. VAEI has 09 subsidiaries across the country but the survey of

the study was merely conducted among the participants currently working in Hanoi
due to the limited time. Also, the syllabus was designed with the most important
learning activities, so that the framework can be flexibly used and adapted by the
Institute later.

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5. Methods of study
This study employed qualitative and quantitative research methods in order to
have a more detailed and comprehensive picture about what is investigated. To take
the first place, an occupational needs analysis was conducted. Due to time and
resources limitation, the first step was to utilize semi-structured interviews with 03
managers in nuclear field. Then a survey questionaire was delivered to 50 engineers at
VAEI. The results summarized and analyzed in quantitative statistics are the basis for
the first draft of course design.
Qualitative research method was further conducted by interviewing 03
experienced English teaching experts who are all specialists in the course development
Then the researcher analyzed the experts' opinion about the quality of the developed
course, their recommendations for adaptation and adjustment under the light of
Competence – Based Approach.
6. Design of study
This study is composed of three following parts:
Part A: Introduction presents the background, aims, research questions,
methods, scope, and the design of the study.
Part B: Literature Review is organized around two chapters as follows, which
conceptualize the framework of the study through the discussion of issues and ideas on
theories of developing a writing course using competence-based approach.
Chapter 1 – An overview of the Competence-Based Approach
Chapter 2 – Theoretical Issues on Writing Course

Part C: Methodology presents the context, the methodology used in this study
including the context, the subject, the data collection instruments, data collection
procedure, and data analysis.
Part D: Findings and Discussions consists of a comprehensive analysis of the
data and a discussion on the findings of this study.
Part E: Conclusion offers a summary of the findings, recommendations,
limitations, and future directions for further study.

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PART B: LITERATURE REVIEW
CHAPTER 1- AN OVERVIEW OF THE COMPETENCE-BASED APPROACH
This chapter is devoted to give a clear presentation of theoretical background
for the realization of the Competence – Based Approach (henceforth CBA). Firstly, it
would be better to include the conceptual basis about CBA as a new and dynamic topic
in Vietnam. It is clarified by defining the key terms named competence and
competency. Also, the various development approaches of language teaching
programs before and the features of CBA are described before the process of
developing a competence-based course in a variety of disciplines is mentioned.
1.1. Definition of Competence and Competency
The aim of CBA is to make students more competent through the acquisition of
competencies and the further development of the newly acquired or already held
competencies (Kouwenhoven, 2003). Therefore, “competence” and “competency” are
often considered as important concepts in this approach. Based on various definitions
and dimensions, these two concepts can be clarified in the literature.
1.1.1. Definition of Competence
Kouwenhaven (2003) defines this term as ''the capacity to accomplish „up to
standard‟ the key occupational tasks that characterize a profession''. In like manner,
Field and Drysdale (1991) refers to competence as output – the ability to perform in

work roles or jobs at a desired level or to a certain standard in employment. On the
other hand, Kirchner et al. (1997) claimed competence is the possession and use of
certain attributes such as knowledges, skills and attitudes or competence as input.
Accordingly, there is an unskeptical difference from one view to another. Some views
see it as a a broad and general concept which is doing with occupational tasks;
however, others consider it as a narrow concept which focuses on the routine work
activity. In spite of the varied definitions, all of them emphasize the fact that
competence is both a physical and an intellectual ability to reach satisfactory or
superior performance in key occupational tasks through repeated experiences.
1.1.2. Definition of Competency
Regarding competency, there is the shortage of definition in an integrated way,
leading to confusion between terms such as competence, competency, competencies,

5


and competences. For example, the New Oxford Advanced Learner‟s Dictionary
(2005) defines competence as “the ability to do something well‟‟ (p. 294). Oxford
further states that competence and competency are synonymous as competences and
competencies. This view is also shared by Burke (1989), who said that these terms are
often used interchangeably.
Attempts by researchers, such as Kouwenhoven (2003), a comprehensive
definition of competency can be further clarified in a model from which, competency
is seen as “the ability to process various inputs in an intentional way”. In other words,
Kouwenhoven, from his part, coined the term as the capability to choose and apply an
integrated combination of knowledge, skills and attitudes with the intention to realise a
specific task in a certain context. From this definition, it can be inferred that
competency consists of a set of components which are skills, abilities, and
knowledge and the competencies as a collection of competency. By the same token,
Blakemore (2008) described competency as the result from breaking down a job or

role into a particular and observable skills that are needed to do it well. All these
definitions enable us to have a clear idea about the concept 'competency' which
involves being good at doing something particular in specific conditions.
1.2. Approaches in course designing
The approaches in course designing, which have been characterized by the
pedagogical tendencies, have been profuse and varied. More and more different trends
have been evolved and formulated mainly in terms of diverse teaching methods, each
of which has attempted to find more effective and efficient ways of teaching and
learning. Hence, the aim of this part is precisely to review such merits and
shortcomings of recent approaches to general course designing. This effort will help to
shed the light into the core of each selected approach, then determine which aspects of
CBA can be considered to outweigh others when facing workplace settings or less
academic situations in this “post-communicative era” (Molina et al., 2005).
1.2.1. Skill-based approach
According to Reilly (1988), the skill-based approach (SBA) drew its theoretical
roots from behavioral psychology and structural linguistics. One of its principles is
“the whole is equal to the sum of all its parts”. In accordance with this, advocates

6


view the course content following SBA involves a collection of particular and
seperated skills that may play a role in bridging skill gaps. Each skill is divided into
subskills, which are gradually taught in a predetermined sequence through direct
explanation, modeling and repetition. Within it, specific subject matter teaching is
carried out through the focus on a concrete academic skill area. The mastery of these
skills are constantly measured using discrete – point tests before learning a new one.
Thus, it is claimed that this approach can not only be easily implemented but enable
the learners to acquire skills easier and satisfy their needs to some extent.
Nonetheless, Anderson (1984) warns against the course design in which

isolated skills are taught due to the fact that the brains can not store bits of information
for a long time. Additionally, the passive role of students and narrow skill – based
instructions are said to lead to underdevelopment of independent learning skills and
competences.
1.2.2. Content-based approach
The second noteworthy approach which is linked with the previously examined
model according to which it can be organised is content-based instruction (CBI). It
has been widely used in a variety of different settings such as ESP, EOP since the
1980s with the integration of targeted knowledge instruction and instruction in
the content areas. The focus is thus on the substance or meaning of the content that is
being taught. Its advocates claim that it leads to more successful program outcomes
than alternative language teaching approaches. Critics say that most language teachers
have been trained to teach language as a skill rather than a content subject. For the
student, they may feel confused, overwhelmed, or even frustrated. They may also have
limited time to achieve an adequate academic level. Also, assessment is made more
difficult, as both subject matter and language skills need to be taken into account. In
spite of these possible problems, all in all, CBI is currently considered “one of the
most promising present and future trends in language teaching and learning”
(Fernández and Sánchez, 2001, p.129). As Richards and Rodgers (2001, p. 220) put it,
“we can expect to see CBI continue as one of the leading curricular approaches in
language teaching”.

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1.2.3. Theme-based approach
Within the broader model, CBI is advocated by designing courses through
theme-based approach (TBA). In ELT, it differs from traditional language instruction
in that the language structures/items to be covered in a syllabus are determined by
the theme or topic. For learners, TBA teaches language use; creates a low anxiety

environment for using the language; provides a language-rich classroom environment
by focusing on many aspects of a particular topic; offers opportunities for students to
make connections between what they know and what they are learning; and finally,
presents a variety of content-related activities through which learning can be
accomplished (Enright, 1988). In line with this, the theme or topic runs through
everything that happens in the classroom and acts as a connecting thread for pupils and
teachers; hence, effective theme-based instruction is extremely demanding for course
designers in both planning and in implementation. Knowledge of a wide repertoire of
activity types and resources is needed to plan for learners of all abilities to be stretched
and learning all the time (Bahtiar, 2012). In short, according to TBA, there is a real
potential for effective language learning take place, because the pupils and teachers
open up the language classroom by bringing in the world outside and linking into
children‟s real interests and enthusiasms.
1.2.4. Functional-Notional approach
The next-to–last instructional approach which is spawned by Comunicative
Approach is the Functional-Notional approach (FNA). White (1988, p. 75) explains its
main focus is on the concepts such as “time, space, movement, cause and effect” and
“the intentional or purposive use of language” that learners need to communicate
about. However, it is argued by Widdowson (1979) that FNA provides limited
communication that could be achieved only in certain settings; consequently, learners
are incapable of interacting in different situations as they do not know how to use the
language. From my perspective it is an effective syllabus that could make a strong
contribution to learners communication ability. On the contrary, it seems that it is not
always feasible to utilise it in designing courses because of the varities in institutions,
societies, cultures, teachers and learners. Also, although teaching situation is suitable it
may be difficult to organise a fruitful content for a FNA syllabus as learner needs

8

vary. To sum up, the syllabus under FNA could be seen as an ideal way of teaching
purposeful communication as long as all suitable circumstances are implemented.
1.2.5. Competence-based Approach
It is high time to explore the last approach, competence-based approach (CBA)
which has gained growing interest from course developers. The term “backward
design” has been used to describe this approach in which the starting point is a
specification of learning outputs and to use these as the basis for developing
instructional processes and input (Richard, 2010).
1.2.3.1. The application and features of CBA in course designing
Many researchers shared the common thought that CBA focuses on the
outcome and competences acquired rather than on inputs to learning in the
development of training programs (Richards and Rodgers, 2001). Thereupon, the
competences that should be developed by the end of the education programme is the
criterion for arranging the course. More pariticularly, competences that are needed by
a competent professional are supposed to determine the underlying attributes in
terms of knowledges and skills included in designed courses using competence-based
approach.
In this sense, the competences or a set of competences must be clearly defined,
measurable, and related to the knowledge or skills needed for future endeavors, such
as additional education or employment. Also, according to Kouwenhoven (2003),
knowledges and skills determined by competences are “domain specific”. For each
domain, a set of subdomains elaborate the specific competences that a student must
demonstrate.
One more essential feature is CBA addresses what learners are expected to do
with what they learn. By all means, CBA is learner-centered and the individual
worker is central. Based on his “competence status” or already acquired competences,
the competences are defined that still have to be acquired and developed. Another key
point of a learner – centered approach in CBA is continuous feedback on the
formation and development of their competences and the use of appropriately
designed materials with competence (Chinh, 2012).

That is to say, the course arrangement and how to convey knowledge in CBA

9


support the development of competences. Moreover, the acquisition of knowledge
takes place in the context of professional application. Thus, the trend to competency –
based development became a policy strategy in many countries during the 1990s as
they strove to restructure their vocational education systems, including Australia, the
US, the UK and many European countries. Biemans et al. (2004). suggested that the
basis of this popularity lies in the belief that competence course design will help
bridge the gap between education and the labour market, facilitating the transition
from school to work. This preparation for work is also seen as having the benefit of
fostering learning to learn skills that will make employees and citizens more flexible
and change – responsive. (Lans et al. 2004; van der Klink and Boon 2002).
As a conclusion, the present society requires professionals to be able to face
condidently and expertly dynamics, knowledge intensity and new situations. Hence,
learning in a professional context become more important and general academic
course design is becoming more professional oriented. In this perspective, CBA could
be an appropriate choice.

This requires fundamental changes in course design,

including course designer’s recognition about working learners and industry
needs, the course context, the roles of students and teachers.
1.2.3.2. The application of CBA in English Language Teaching (ELT)
This final noteworthy approach has of late entered the language teaching
panorama. Wong (2008) stated that CBA emerged in the 1970s in the US. At that time,
teaching English as a second or foreign language became an important matter because
of the urgent need for practical English for people in many parts of the world rather

than academic English language acquired in school. All the circumstances led to the
widely adopted applications of the CBA principles into adult English as Second
Language (ESL) programs called Competence- Based Language Teaching (CBLT)
(Auerbach, 1986).
In the language area, according to Grognet & Crandall (1982, as cited in
Auerbach, 1986, p. 413), CBLT focuses on performance-based language tasks that
lead to a demonstrated mastery of the language associated with specific skills which
are necessary for individuals to function proficiently in the society. Likewise, Findley
and Nathan (1980, p. 223) indicated the emphasis of CBLT is not on what the students

10


know about a language anymore but more to what learners can do with language.
Whosoever, these scholars share the same view on the aspect CBA and its application
such as CBLT both see outputs very importantly rather than the learning process.
The priority of learning outcomes or successful functioning at work and in
society has led to designed language tasks and syllabi with performance
orientation and competencies identified with focus on the professional practice
rather than language ability only (Auerbach,1986). Field and Drysdale (1991) added
the language learning content is based directly on the skills needed to do a job.
As mentioned above, CBA is learner-centred in the use of individualised
materials, flexible learning time and a continuous feedback to the learner. Thereforth,
objectives of the lessons or competencies to be acquired are stated via individual
requirements. Objectives are broken into narrowly focused sub-objectives, so that
both teachers and students can get a clear sense of progress (Richards, 2001).
Equally important, assessment is the integrated part in implementing the CBA
in ELT which considered not only in exams but also in an ongoing instruction. Also,
it is implemented through criteria referenced assessment, which measure the
achievement of each individual in the compared relation to standards, criteria, not

by comparing learners with others (Chinh, 2012).
Last but not least, the role of the teacher in ELT under CBA is that of a
“cognitive guide” or a guiding role (Kouwenhoven, 2003). Teachers encourage
language learners to engage in active inquiry and make competencies visible. On the
other hand, he added that the involvement of a teacher in the learning process moves
students gradually to their self – regulation or gets them slowly used to independent
learning.
In a nutshell, CBA is indeed learner-centred, outcome-based and adaptive to
the changing needs of students, teachers and the community. It deals with the demand
to function or at least survive in society by using focus on the mastery of the
performance rather than theory. The course is broken down into very specified
objectives which are set based on the learner needs and the expected outcomes and
through on going assessment. One application of CBA is CBLT which focuses “on
language as a tool for communication rather than on language knowledge as an end in

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itself” (Nunan, 2007). Thus, CBLT learners‟ confidence is enhanced because they can
achieve language competencies required in the performance in real life.
No matter how good an approach is, some weaknesses are always found. With
regard to CBLT, there are several criticisms in Auerbach‟s article. He supposes that
CBLT openly put the objective of serving the industry as one of its aim thus preparing
students to fulfil employers' needs (Auerbach, 1986). Yet, the effect of this simplistic
objective is the teacher must eliminate any curriculum which does not relate
directly with the employment. Besides, he shared about the English Language
teaching material under CBA, the linguistics competence is taught in chunks in which
the language learnt is specific. Meanwhile, the fact is that a language is complex and
dynamic.
The story of CBESL has taken decades of scholarship for debate on whether

embracing or rejecting it. Critics of educational policy argue in various ways that
CBESL has not and probably will not “improve learning” in most of contexts where it
has been applied. They have called it a “theoretical and methodologically vacuous
strategy” for upgrading of the vocational education and training system (Hyland, 1992
p. 35). On the contrary, advocates of CBESL support a view point that CBESL
indicates “successful performance in life-role activity” (William, 1977 p. 10).
Regardless of a great deal of paradoxes and contradictions of CBLT, for the last
decades, it has become adopted in many countries, leading to series of changes at the
level of syllabus and language course development which will be mentioned below.
1.2.3.3. Course development process according to CBA
Gustafson & Branch (2002) states that course development is a “complex
process that, when appropriately applied, promotes creativity during development and
results in instruction that is both effective and appealing to learners”. In their book,
they present an instructional development model in which a variety of systematic
instructional design processes have been described (Dick & Carey, 1996; Gagné,
Briggs, & Wager, 1992; Kemp, Morrison, & Ross, 1998; Smith & Ragan, 1998). All
descriptions include the five core elements of Analysis, Design, Development,
Implementation, and Evaluation (ADDIE). Chart 1 illustrates the conceptual

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relationship among them where revision continues throughout the process at least until
the course is implemented.

Chart 1: Course development process according to CBA
According to ADDIE (Gustafson & Branch, 2002), Analysis often includes
conducting a needs assessment, which includes input from students as well as from
the various people connected to the course, such as teachers, funders, and employers
(Graves, 1996). In order to conduct this assessment, course designers may use a

variety of methods, including questionaires, tests and interview as common tools.
After that, the goals focused on learners’ needs are to be determined and stated.
The second stage is Design which needs to be specific with attention to details
and the attainment of the course‟s goals. It includes writing objectives in measurable
terms, classifying learning as to type, specifying learning activities, and specifying
media.
The third, Development consists of preparing student and instructor materials as
specified during design (Kemp, Morrison, & Ross, 1998). Then Implementation
includes delivering the instruction in the settings for which it was designed (Greer,
1996). The last stage, Evaluation includes both collecting data to identify needed
revisions to the instruction and to assess the overall worth of the instruction (Dick &
Carey, 1996).
As it can be obviously seen, the strengths found in ADDIE model are
compatible with CBA in course designing. Initially, ADDIE and CBA are learnercentered, which means that the learner and his or her performance are the focal point
of the instruction. In addition, employing ADDIE and CBA, course designers are
expected to establish well-defined goals and break them down into very specified
objectives which are set based on the learner needs and the real – world performance
and through continuous and on going assessment. Related to the issue of performance,

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ADDIE is believed to be geared toward reliable and valid measurement of the skills
and knowledge learners will be required to demonstrate in the real world. (Gustafson
& Branch, 2002). That is to say, ADDIE model should be made use of in course
designing according to CBA.
Within the framework of this study, four out of five ADDIE elements, including
Analysis-Design-Development-Evaluation, were applied into the process of writing
course development using CBA. Needs analysis was an initial step to gather data and
information about the foremost needs of VAEI working learners group as well as some

VAEI leaders‟ typical requirements and expectations for their staff‟s writing
competences in English. The data were then analysed to identify the essential and
context – dependent writing competences for the purpose of course development and
selection for Design and Development. Based on the specification, course designer
recognized and determined five domains in course development, including course
objectives, contents, activities, assessments and materials. Those domains are the most
important and highly required in the sample of outcome-based course guide of Hanoi
National University (Hướng dẫn xây dựng và hoàn thiện chương trình đào tạo theo
chuẩn đầu ra, 2010). The last stage is Evaluation which made exploration into a
group of teaching experts‟ opinions of the developed need-based writing course pilot
using CBA for appropriate modification. In the scope of the minor thesis, the fourth
stage of course Implementation was skipped and may be hopefully shed into light in
another further research.
Conclusion
Approaches and methods of language teaching have been changing over time.
With global developments in science, society and economy, the demand for more
practical English teaching emerged outstandingly. One answer to this is the new
approach, CBA - a stronger focus on the world of work with professional purposes. It
enables learners the substantial acquisition of knowledge and performance capacity
required for professional practice. The difference between vocational and
academic/general education is getting smaller. Therefore, the learner can construct and
create his own knowledge and understanding in order to be successful at work.

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CHAPTER 2 - THEORETICAL ISSUES ON WRITING COURSE
Writing well is the purpose for many learners of foreign languages. Therefore, a
great number of experts in foreign language writing focus their attention in their
papers, dissertations, books about issues related to writing. This chapter deals with

writing skill which is considered as an important issue for engineers in VAEI. After an
overview of the nature of writing and its components is given, English writing
competences in theory and practice are presented. Finally, how to design and select the
tasks is tackled. It also highlights assessment under the CBA with a particular attention
given to one of the most appropriate procedures.
2.1. Nature of writing
Writing as one of the four major language skills plays a vital role in the
teaching and learning process because of the several advantages it provides. Like the
other skills, it may be considered as a skill that can help learners to achieve proficiency
in the foreign language. Bashyal (2009) claimed in his paper that writing uses visual
symbols (or graphic symbols) to represent the sounds used in speaking or to express
what the author intends to tell. He added it is a productive skill which involves better
organisation of meaning and also more accuracy of form than speaking. Likewise,
Dornan & Dawe (2005, p. 1) defined ''writing is a concentrated form of thinking''. This
means that the writer requires a full concentration during his writing in order to
produce a readable and meaningful text.
From these definitions, it can be seen that writing effectively is a tough task that
even many native speakers of English never totally master. Thus, for non-native
learners, the ability to express their ideas in written form in a second language and to
do so with reasonable accuracy and coherence is “no mean achievement” (CelceMurcia & McMcintosh, 1979).
2.2. English writing competence in theory and in reality
2.2.1. English writing competences in theory
Because of the hard nature of writing, language scholars around the world have
dedicated great efforts to describe and categorise its relevant competences. Four
basically underpinned English writing competences defined by Hymes (1979) and
Canale & Swain (1980) is “grammatical competence”, “socio-linguistic competence‟;

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“discourse competence‟ and “strategic competence”.

The first one refers to the

knowledge of a finite system of rules that enables an ideal language user in a
homogenous speech community to generate and understand an infinite variety of
sentences (Fatemi, 2008). He said writing and grammar are “inextricably intertwined”
owing to good writing derives its excellence from faultless grammar.
Secondly, Bashyal (2009) claimed a good piece of writing is not only
grammatically accurate but logical and correct in word choice, spelling and
punctuation. A written text must also maintain cohesion and coherence by providing
good reasons and evidences for opinions to clarify or to persuade the readers. There is
quite often no physical presence of the readers – but only an assumed audience. The
readers cannot ask questions so the writer must anticipate possible questions and
explain them (Ur, 2008, pp. 160-161). What is more, having the awareness of the
social rules of a language, the formality, directness, politeness, non verbal behaviors
and cultural references is included in this competence, namely “socio-linguistic”.
Equally important, to be able to write in a second language (L2) effectively,
writers need to learn its orthography, morphology, lexicon, syntax, as well as the
discourse and rhetorical conventions. In other words, “discource competence” must
be taken into account. For instance, among the competencies that learners need to
attain to achieve proficiency in L2 writing are the ability to produce lengthy texts that
have appropriate metadiscourse features such as exemplifiers, connectives, hedges and
varied and sophisticated vocabulary and syntactic structures (Buckwalter & Lo, 2002;
Grant & Ginther, 2000), to employ different patterns of overall text organization, for
example, description, narration, argument, and to incorporate others‟ ideas and texts in
their own writing effectively (Cumming, 2001).
Last but not least, Cumming (2001) sees learning L2 writing as the acquisition
of successful writing strategies or attainment of “strategic competence”. From this
perspective, learning L2 writing is seen as the acquisition of both macro strategies

such as planning, drafting and revising, and micro strategies such as attending to
content and form concurrently and automatic searches for words and syntax. It should
be noted here that knowledge of L2 linguistic and discourse aspects, the type of
knowledge that tends to be above emphasized, affects these processes. Thus,

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