F2 ACCA KAPLAN KẾ TOÁN QUẢN TRỊ
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ACCA
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FIA
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Paper F2
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Diploma in Accounting and
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Business
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Management Accounting (MA/FMA)
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Study Notes
*SNF2J15*
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ACCA Study Notes F2 MA June
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British library cataloguinginpublication data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
© Kaplan Financial Limited, 2013
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Published by:
Kaplan Publishing UK
Unit 2 The Business Centre
Molly Millars Lane
Wokingham
Berkshire
RG41 2QZ
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The text in this material and others made available by any Kaplan Group company does not amount to
advice on a particular matter and should not be taken as such. No reliance should be placed on the
content as the basis for any investment or other decision or in connection with any advice given to
third parties. Please consult your appropriate professional adviser as necessary. Kaplan Publishing
Limited and all other Kaplan Group companies expressly disclaim all liability to any person in respect
of any losses or other claims, whether direct, indirect, incidental, consequential or otherwise arising in
relation to the use of such materials.
Printed and bound in Great Britain.
Acknowledgements
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We are grateful to the Association of Chartered Certified Accountants and the Chartered Institute of
Management Accountants for permission to reproduce past examination questions. The answers
have been prepared by Kaplan Publishing.
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All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without the prior written permission of Kaplan Publishing.
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Contents
Page
The nature and purpose of management
accounting
Chapter 2
Sources of data
Chapter 3
Presenting information
Chapter 4
Types of cost and cost behaviour
Chapter 5
Accounting for inventory
Chapter 6
Accounting for labour
Chapter 7
Accounting for overheads
Chapter 8
Marginal and absorption costing
163
Chapter 9
Job, batch and process costing
179
Chapter 10
Service and operation costing
213
Chapter 11
Alternative costing principles
225
Chapter 12
Forecasting techniques
241
Chapter 13
Budgeting
281
Chapter 14
Capital budgeting
323
Chapter 15
Standard costing
357
Chapter 16
Performance measurement techniques
399
Chapter 17
Performance measurement in specific situations 429
Chapter 18
Spreadsheets
455
Chapter 19
Questions
465
Chapter 20
Answers
505
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Chapter 1
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chapter
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Intro
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Paper Introduction
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How to Use the Materials
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These Kaplan Publishing learning materials have been
carefully designed to make your learning experience as easy
as possible and to give you the best chances of success in
your examinations.
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The product range contains a number of features to help you
in the study process. They include:
(1) Detailed study guide and syllabus objectives
(2) Description of the examination
(3) Study skills and revision guidance
(5) Question practice
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(4) Complete text or essential text
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The sections on the study guide, the syllabus objectives, the
examination and study skills should all be read before you
commence your studies. They are designed to familiarise
you with the nature and content of the examination and give
you tips on how to best to approach your learning.
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The complete text or essential text comprises the main
learning materials and gives guidance as to the importance
of topics and where other related resources can be found.
Each chapter includes:
•
The learning objectives contained in each chapter,
which have been carefully mapped to the examining
body's own syllabus learning objectives or outcomes.
You should use these to check you have a clear
understanding of all the topics on which you might be
assessed in the examination.
•
The chapter diagram provides a visual reference for
the content in the chapter, giving an overview of the
topics and how they link together.
•
The content for each topic area commences with a
brief explanation or definition to put the topic into context
before covering the topic in detail. You should follow
your studying of the content with a review of the
illustration/s. These are worked examples which will help
you to understand better how to apply the content for the
topic.
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Test your understanding sections provide an
opportunity to assess your understanding of the key
topics by applying what you have learned to short
questions. Answers can be found at the back of each
chapter.
•
Summary diagrams complete each chapter to show
the important links between topics and the overall
content of the paper. These diagrams should be used to
check that you have covered and understood the core
topics before moving on.
•
Question practice is provided at the back of each
chapter. A Question Bank is also included at the back
of the book. Appropriate question practice is
fundamental – to increase your chances of passing the
Exam, you must make sure that you have practised
these questions before entering the Exam hall.
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Icon Explanations
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Definition – Key definitions that you will need to learn from
the core content.
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Key Point – Identifies topics that are key to success and
are often examined.
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Expandable Text – Expandable text provides you with
additional information about a topic area and may help you
gain a better understanding of the core content. Essential
text users can access this additional content online (read it
where you need further guidance or skip over when you are
happy with the topic)
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Illustration – Worked examples help you understand the
core content better.
Test Your Understanding – Exercises for you to complete
to ensure that you have understood the topics just learned.
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Tricky topic – When reviewing these areas care should be
taken and all illustrations and test your understanding
exercises should be completed to ensure that the topic is
understood.
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Paper introduction
Paper background
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Syllabus objectives
The examination
Paperbased examination tips
Computerbased examination (CBE) tips
Preparing to study
Effective studying
Three ways of taking notes
Further reading
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Revison
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Study skills and revision guidance
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Examination format
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You can find further reading and technical articles under the
student section of ACCA's website.
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The nature and purpose of
management accounting
Chapter learning objectives
Upon completion of this chapter you will be able to:
distinguish between data and information
•
explain the difference between strategic, tactical and operational
planning
•
•
distinguish between cost, profit, investment and revenue centres
•
describe the purpose and role of cost and management
accounting within an organisation’s management information
system
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•
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identify and explain the attributes of good information
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outline the managerial processes of planning, decision making
and control
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describe the differing needs for information of cost, profit,
investment and revenue centres managers
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compare and contrast financial accounting with cost and
management accounting
•
explain the limitations of management information in providing
guidance for managerial decisionmaking.
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Data and information
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1 The nature of good information
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The nature and purpose of management accounting
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‘Data’ means facts. Data consists of numbers, letters, symbols, raw facts,
events and transactions which have been recorded but not yet processed
into a form suitable for use.
The terms data and information are often used interchangeably in
everyday language. Make sure that you can distinguish between the
two.
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Information is data which has been processed in such a way that it is
meaningful to the person who receives it (for making decisions).
As data is converted into information, some of the detail of the data is
eliminated and replaced by summaries which are easier to understand.
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Test your understanding 1
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What, if any, is the difference between data and information?
They are the same
B
Data can only be figures, whereas information can be facts or
figures
C
Information results from sorting and analysing data
D
Data results from obtaining many individual pieces of information
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A
Attributes of good information
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Information is provided to management to assist them with planning,
controlling operations and making decisions. Management decisions are
likely to be better when they are provided with better quality information.
The attributes of good information can be identified by the ‘ACCURATE’
acronym as shown below:
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A Accurate
The degree of accuracy depends on the reason why the information is
needed.
•
For example, reports may show figures to the nearest dollar, or nearest
thousand dollars for a report on the performance of different divisions.
•
Alternatively, when calculating the cost of a unit of output, managers
may want the cost to be accurate to the nearest cent.
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C Complete
Managers should be given all the information they need, but information
should not be excessive
•
For example, a complete control report on variances should include all
standard and actual costs necessary to understand the variance
calculations.
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C Costeffective
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The nature and purpose of management accounting
•
•
The value of information should exceed the cost of producing it.
•
If a decision backed by information is different from what it would have
been without the information, the value of information equates to the
amount of money saved as a result.
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Management information is valuable, because it assists decision
making.
•
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U Understandable
Use of technical language or jargon must be limited. Accountants must
always be careful about the way in which they present financial
information to nonfinancial managers.
R Relevant
The information contained within a report should be relevant to its
purpose.
•
Redundant parts should be removed. For example, the sales team may
need to know the total cost of producing a unit to calculate the selling
price but will not need to know the breakdown into material, labour and
overhead costs.
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A Accessible
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Information should be accessible via the appropriate channels of
communication (verbally, via a report, a memo, an email etc.)
•
In the context of responsibility accounting, information about costs and
revenues should be reported to the manager who is in a position to
control them.
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T Timely
Information should be provided to a manager in time for decisions to be
made based on that information.
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E Easy to use!
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The main functions that management are involved with are planning,
decision making and control.
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2 The managerial processes of decision making and control
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The difference between information and data
Planning
Planning involves establishing the objectives of an organisation and
formulating relevant strategies that can be used to achieve those
objectives. In order to make plans, it helps to know what has happened
in the past so that decisions about what is achievable in the future can
be made. For example, if a manager is planning future sales volumes,
he or she needs to know what sales volumes have been in the past.
•
Planning can be either shortterm (tactical planning) or longterm
(strategic planning).
•
Planning is looked at in more detail in the next section of this chapter.
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Decision making
Decision making involves considering information that has been provided
and making an informed decision.
In most situations, decision making involves making a choice between
two or more alternatives. Managers need reliable information to
compare the different courses of action available and understand what
the consequences might be of choosing each of them.
•
The first part of the decisionmaking process is planning, the second
part is control.
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The nature and purpose of management accounting
Control
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Information relating to the actual results of an organisation is reported to
managers.
Managers use the information relating to actual results to take control
measures and to reassess and amend their original budgets or plans.
•
Internallysourced information, produced largely for control purposes, is
called feedback.
•
The ‘feedback loop’ is demonstrated in the following illustration.
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Illustration 1 – The managerial processes of planning, decision
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Here, management prepare a plan, which is put into action by the
managers with control over the input resources (labour, money,
materials, equipment and so on). Output from operations is measured
and reported (‘fed back’) to management, and actual results are
compared against the plan in control reports. Managers take corrective
action where appropriate, especially in the case of exceptionally bad or
good performance. Feedback can also be used to revise plans or
prepare the plan for the next period.
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Required:
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Test your understanding 2
Complete the table identifying each function as either planning, decision
making or control.
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Implement decisions
based on information
provided
Decision
making
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Preparation of the annual
budget for a cost centre
Revise budgets for next
period for a cost centre
Control
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Planning
Set organisation’s
objectives for next period
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Compare actual and
expected results for a
period
3 Mission statements
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Before any planning can take place the mission of the business needs to
be established.
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The mission statement is a statement in writing that describes the overall
aims of an organisation, that is, what it is trying to accomplish. In other
words it sets out the whole purpose of the business.
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There are four key elements to a mission statement:
•
•
Purpose – why does the business exist and who does it exist for?
Strategy – what does the business provide and how is it provided?
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Policies and culture – how does the business expect its staff to
act/behave?
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Values – What are the core principles of the business?
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Examples of mission statements
4 Levels of planning
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Characteristics of mission statements
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The mission should express what the business wants to achieve overall and
the aims and objectives managers produce should all work towards
achieving this.
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During the planning process the mission statement of a business is used to
produce effective aims and objectives for employees and the company as a
whole. Aims and objectives should be SMART:
•
•
Specific – are the objectives well defined and understandable?
•
Attainable – sometime referred to as achievable. Can the objectives
set be achieved with the resources and skills available?
•
Relevant are the objectives relevant for the people involved and to the
mission of the business?
•
Timed – are deadlines being set for the objectives that are achievable?
Are there are stage reviews planned to monitor progress towards the
objective?
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Measurable – can achievement of the objectives be measured so that
completion can be confirmed?
By following the SMART hierarchy a business should be able to produce
plans that lead to goal congruence throughout the departments, centres
and/or regional offices (the whole business).
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There are three different levels of planning (known as ‘planning
horizons’).These three levels differ according to their time span and the
seniority of the manager responsible for the tasks involved.
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Strategic planning
'Strategic planning' can also be known as 'longterm planning' or 'corporate
planning'. It considers:
•
•
the longer term (five years plus)
the whole organisation
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Tactical planning takes the strategic plan and breaks it down into
manageable chunks i.e. shorter term plans for individual areas of the
business to enable the strategic plan to be achieved.
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Tactical planning
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Senior managers formulate longterm objectives (goals) and plans
(strategies) for an organisation as a whole. These objectives and plans
should all be aiming to achieving the companies mission.
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Senior and middle managers make short to medium term plans for the next
year.
Operational planning
Operational planning involves making daytoday decisions about what to do
next and how to deal with problems as they arise.
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All managers are involved in day to day decisions.
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A simple hierarchy of management tasks can be presented as follows:
Strategic, tactical and operational planning
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5 Cost centres, profit centres, investment centres and revenue
centres
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Responsibility accounting
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Responsibility accounting is based on identifying individual parts of a
business which are the responsibility of a single manager.
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The nature and purpose of management accounting
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cost centre
revenue centre
profit centre
investment centre.
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A responsibility centre is an individual part of a business whose manager
has personal responsibility for its performance. The main responsibility
centres are:
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Cost centres
A cost centre is a production or service location, function, activity or item of
equipment whose costs are identified and recorded.
For a paint manufacturer cost centres might be: mixing department;
packaging department; administration; or selling and marketing
departments.
•
For an accountancy firm, the cost centres might be: audit; taxation;
accountancy; word processing; administration; canteen. Alternatively,
they might be the various geographical locations, e.g. the London office,
the Cardiff office, the Plymouth office.
•
Cost centre managers need to have information about costs that are
incurred and charged to their cost centres.
•
The performance of a cost centre manager is judged on the extent to
which cost targets have been achieved.
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Revenue centres
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A revenue centre is a part of the organisation that earns sales revenue. It
is similar to a cost centre, but only accountable for revenues, and not costs.
Revenue centres are generally associated with selling activities, for
example, a regional sales managers may have responsibility for the
regional sales revenues generated.
•
Each regional manager would probably have sales targets to reach and
would be held responsible for reaching these targets.
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•
Sales revenues earned must be able to be traced back to individual
(regional) revenue centres so that the performance of individual revenue
centre managers can be assessed.
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Profit centres
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A profit centre is a part of the business for which both the costs incurred
and the revenues earned are identified.
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Profit centres are often found in large organisations with a
divisionalised structure, and each division is treated as a profit centre.
•
Within each profit centre, there could be several costs centres and
revenue centres.
•
The performance of a profit centre manager is measured in terms of the
profit made by the centre.
•
The manager must therefore be responsible for both costs and
revenues and in a position to plan and control both.
•
Data and information relating to both costs and revenues must be
collected and allocated to the relevant profit centres.
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Investment centres
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Managers of investment centres are responsible for investment decisions
as well as decisions affecting costs and revenues.
Investment centre managers are therefore accountable for the
performance of capital employed as well as profits (costs and
revenues).
•
The performance of investment centres is measured in terms of the
profit earned relative to the capital invested (employed). This is known
as the return on capital employed (ROCE)
•
ROCE = Profit/Capital employed. This calculation will be met in more
detail in a later chapter.
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Overview of responsibility centres
6 Financial, cost and management accounting
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Financial accounting
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Financial accounting involves recording the financial transactions of an
organisation and summarising them in periodic financial statements for
external users who wish to analyse and interpret the financial position of the
organisation.
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The nature and purpose of management accounting
The main duties of the financial accountant include: maintaining the
bookkeeping system of the nominal ledger, payables control account,
receivables control account and so on and to prepare financial
statements as required by law and accounting standards.
•
Information produced by the financial accounting system is usually
insufficient for the needs of management for decision making.
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Cost accounting
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Managers usually want to know about the costs and the profits of individual
products and services. In order to obtain this information, details are
needed for each cost, revenue, profit and investment centre. Such
information is provided by cost accounting and management accounting
systems.
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Cost accounting is a system for recording data and producing information
about costs for the products produced by an organisation and/or the
services it provides. It is also used to establish costs for particular activities
or responsibility centres.
Cost accounting involves a careful evaluation of the resources used
within the enterprise.
•
The techniques employed in cost accounting are designed to provide
financial information about the performance of the enterprise and
possibly the direction that future operations should take.
•
The terms ‘cost accounting’ and ‘management accounting’ are often
used to mean the same thing.
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Management accounting
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Management accounting has cost accounting at its essential foundation.
Nonfinancial information
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Differences between management accounting and financial
accounting
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The following illustration compares management accounting with financial
accounting.
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Illustration 2 – Management versus financial accounting
Management
accounting
Financial accounting
Information
mainly
produced for
Internal use e.g.
managers and
employees.
External use e.g.
shareholders, payables,
lenders, banks, government.
Purpose of
information
To aid planning,
controlling and
decision making.
To record the financial
performance in a period and
the financial position at the
end of that period.
Legal
requirements
None.
Limited companies must
produce financial accounts.
Formats
Management
decide on the
information they
require and the
most useful way of
presenting it.
Format and content of
financial accounts intending to
give a true and fair view
should follow accounting
standards and company law.
Nature of
information
Financial and non
financial.
Time period
Historical and
forwardlooking.
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Mostly financial.
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Mainly a historical record.
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The role of management accounting within an organisation’s
management information system
The management information system of an organisation is likely to be able
to prepare the following:
annual statutory accounts
budgets and forecasts
product profitability reports
cash flow reports
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•
•
•
•
•
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capital investment appraisal reports
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standard cost and variance analysis reports
returns to government departments, e.g. Sales Tax returns.
Management information is generally supplied to management in the form of
reports. Reports may be routine reports prepared on a regular basis (e.g.
monthly) or they may be prepared for a special purpose (e.g. ad hoc report).
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The nature and purpose of management accounting
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Test your understanding 3
ot.
The following assertions relate to financial accounting:
(i) The main purpose of financial information is to provide a true and
fair view of the financial position of an organisation at the end of an
accounting period.
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Which of the following statements are true?
Assertions (i) and (ii) are both correct.
B
Only assertion (i) is correct.
C
Only assertion (ii) is correct.
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A
Test your understanding 4
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(ii) Financial information may be presented in any format deemed
suitable by management.
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The Management Accountant has communicated a detailed budget to
ensure that cost savings targets are achieved in the forthcoming period.
This is an example of:
(a) Operational Planning
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(b) Tactical Planning
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(c) Strategic Planning
7 The limitations of management information
There are a number of respects in which management accounting
information may fail to meet its objective of assisting management in the
decision making process.
•
•
•
•
failure to meet the requirements of useful information
the problem of relevant costs and revenues
nonfinancial information
external information.
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These can be summarised as follows:
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Failure to comply with the qualities of useful information
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If information supplied to managers is deficient in any of these respects then
inappropriate management decisions may be made. Consider the following:
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Accuracy – overestimating costs may result in a decision not to
produce a product which in fact is profitable; on the other hand,
overestimating the price at which the output can be sold may result in
the organisation producing output which cannot be sold profitably
•
Timeliness – in connection with a decision to close a division or
department if the information is presented to management after a
decision had been made to lay off staff that could have been profitably
employed in other divisions or activities, the company has incurred
unnecessary redundancy costs, lost possible future revenues and
demotivated the remaining employees when they learn of the
redundancies.
•
Understandable – excessive focus by management accountants on
more complex techniques of which general management have little or
no knowledge or understanding may mean that the accountant’s advice
will be ignored. There is significant attention being given to the role of
the management accountant as an educator within the organisation –
explaining the information and training general management to help
them to understand the information better.
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Relevant costs and revenues
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Not all information produced by an accounting system is relevant to the
decisions made by management. In particular, information produced mainly
for financial reporting purposes and then taken as the basis for
management decisions will often need significant modification to be useful
to management. The principle here is that the figures presented to assist in
management decisionmaking are those that will be affected by the
decision, i.e. they should be:
Future – costs and revenues that are going to be incurred some time in
the future. Costs and revenues that have already been incurred are
known as sunk costs and are not relevant to the decision to be made.
•
Incremental – the extra cost or revenue that is created as a result of a
decision taken
•
Cash flows – actual cash being spent or received not monetary items
that are produced via accounting convention e.g. book or carrying
values, depreciation charges.
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•
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The nature and purpose of management accounting
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Nonfinancial information
Illustration 3 – Nonfinancial factors
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ot.
Managers will not always be guided by the sort of financial and other (hard)
information supplied by the management accounting system. They will also
look at qualitative, behavioural, motivational, even environmental factors.
These nonfinancial factors can be just as important in relation to a decision
as financial information – but they are often more difficult to estimate and
quantify.
l.b
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A processing company needs to increase its output in order to take
advantage of an increase in the total market for its product. The
company has identified alternative ways of achieving this increase in
output.
Alternative A
Alternative B
ate
ria
The cheapest (in financial terms) method of providing additional
production capacity is to erect a new factory extension. However, there
is a danger that the extension will be seen by the local council and by
residents as an eyesore. Some landscaping and redesign work may be
carried out at extra cost to company to make the extension more
environmentally acceptable.
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This entails keeping the factory at its current size but increasing the
working hours per week for all production staff by 20%. The latter may be
a cheaper solution in financial terms but may have an adverse impact on
staff morale and result in a significant increase in staff turnover.
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as
tud
It is not easy for the company to build the nonfinancial costs into it's
decision making process as they are often difficult to quantify.
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