An introduction to translation studies

BANKING UNIVERSITY HO CHI MINH CITY
FACULTY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

AN INTRODUCTION TO
TRANSLATION STUDIES

Nguy n Quang Nh t
Nguy n Hoàn V
inh Th Thùy Trang
HO CHI MINH CITY, 09/2019
1


Translation has long been seen as a career-oriented discipline to accommodate various processes that
do not strictly belong to the linguistic realm. Hence, this book looks at translation not only as a
linguistic activity but also as a socio-cultural exchange. This coursebook is designed to meet the needs
of students at Faculty of Foreign Languages, Banking University of HCMC. Its fundamental purpose
aims to help students get access to some major concepts, principles, methods, and strategies to solve
a number of issues in translation theories and practices. It is hoped that learners will find the course
useful and practical.

The material presented here borrows from Peter Newmark's “A Textbook of Translation” and Luu Van
Tuan’s “An Introduction into Translation Theories”. It is meant to serve pedagogical purposes with
careful citation and acknowledgements. For reasons of space and consistency, the term “translation”
include both written translation and oral translation (the latter is commonly known as
interpretation), although the overlaps make a clear distinction impossible (cf. Gile 2004).

Good luck and best wishes!


Table of Contents

CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW OF TRANSLATION ..................................................................3
I.

Definitions of “Translation”............................................................................................... 3

II.

Scope of Translation – Science, art and skill ..................................................................... 4

III.

Translation typology .......................................................................................................... 5

IV.

Codes of ethics ................................................................................................................. 11

V.

Translation principles ....................................................................................................... 12

VI.

Requirements for a professional translator/interpreter..................................................... 13

VII. Further practice ................................................................................................................ 14
CHAPTER 2: TRANSLATION THEORIES ...............................................................................15
I.

Rationale for Translation studies ..................................................................................... 15

II.

Descriptive translation studies (DTS) of Holmes ............................................................ 16

III.

Historical background of Translation studies .................................................................. 19

IV.

Early theories of translation studies ................................................................................. 25

V.

Contemporary theories in translation studies ................................................................... 28

VI.

Further practice ................................................................................................................ 37

CHAPTER 3: TRANSLATION UNITS, METHODS AND TECHNIQUES ............................40
I.

Translation Units (UT) ..................................................................................................... 40

II.

Translation methods by Newmark ................................................................................... 42

III.

Translation techniques by Vinay and Darbelnet .............................................................. 48

IV.

Further practice ................................................................................................................ 55

CHAPTER 4: EQUIVALENCE .....................................................................................................58
I.

Untranslatability ............................................................................................................... 58

II.

Gain and Loss................................................................................................................... 59

III.

Equivalence ...................................................................................................................... 59

IV.

Further practice ................................................................................................................ 67

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CHAPTER 5: CULTURAL TERMS AND NON-EQUIVALENCE .........................................67
I.

Cultural elements in translation ....................................................................................... 68

II.

Non – equivalence at word-level ..................................................................................... 70

III.

Suggested strategies for dealing with non-equivalence at word level ............................. 72

IV.

Collocations and Non – equivalence above word-level ................................................... 74

V.

Suggested strategies for translating idiomatic collocations ............................................. 76

VI.

Further practice ................................................................................................................ 78

CHAPTER 6: TRANSLATION QUALITY ASSESSMENT ......................................................80
I.

Views for “A good translation” ....................................................................................... 80

II.

Main reasons for translation errors .................................................................................. 80

III.

Approaches to evaluating a translation ............................................................................ 81

IV.

House’s translation Quality Assessment Model .............................................................. 85

V.

Steps of House’s translation Quality Assessment Model ................................................ 89

VI.

Further practice ................................................................................................................ 91

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CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW OF TRANSLATION
I.

Definitions of “Translation”
The English term “Translation”, first attested in around 1340, derives from the Latin word

“translatus” which means “carried across” (Lewis, 2004, p.257).
Translation, by dictionary definition, means turning one‘s own language into another language
(The Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 1974).

In the field of Linguistics, “Translation” has several meanings:
It is a subject (môn d ch thu t). E.g.: I studied translation at university.
It is a product (b n d ch). E.g.: They published the Arabic translation of the report.
It is the process of producing the translation (d ch thu t). E.g.: translation service.

In the field of Translation studies, there are different definitions:
Translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the
source language message, first in terms of meaning and, second in terms of style.
(Nida & Tiber, 1969)
Translation is the replacement of a text in the source language by a semantically and pragmatically
equivalent text in the target language.

(House, 1982)

Translation is a craft consisting of the attempt to replace a written message and/or statement in
one language by the same message and/or statement in another language. (Peter Newmark, 1998)
Translation is to be understood as the process whereby a message expressed in a specific source
language is linguistically transformed in order to be understood by readers of the target language.
(Houbert, 1998)

As implied in the definitions above, translation in its overall meaning is basically a change of
form to reproduce in the receptor language the closest natural meaning of the source language
message. Only the form changes but the meaning stays the same. Moreover, translation not only
involves understanding the general meaning of the communication but calls upon the ability to
understand the pragmatic elements/culture of the communication as well.

3

Task 1: Work in groups and fill in the blanks with appropriate phrases given.
source language, cultural barriers, communicate interculturally, target language,
rendering, oral transfer, message receiver
a. Translation is the process of conveying messages across linguistic and ............... (Ian Tudor, 1987)
b. Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (.................................) by
equivalent textual material in another language (.................................)

(Catford, 2000)

c. Translation is ................................ the meaning of a text into into another language in the way that
the author intended the text.

(Newmark, 1998)

d. Interpreting is the ................................... of messages between speakers of different languages.
(Gentile et al,1996)
e. To interpret is to ................................. with the message sender and the .......................................
whose languages and cultures are unknown to each other.

II.

(Nguy n Qu c Hùng, 2010)

Scope of Translation – Science, art and skill
First, translation means more than substitution of words in one language with those from

another language. It is a scientific attempt to bring two cultures together since languages differ from
each other not just in grammatical structure but also the way in which they conceptualize abstractions.
The question of how to bridge these gaps is decided by the aim of the translators and the receivers,
requiring scientific methodology to bring about the most productive outcomes.

Second, translators

a. must be able to cope with the elegancy of expressions and language
b. have to artistically preserve and fit into a different linguistic and social contexts: neutral and
emotional words, archaic words and new coinages, metaphors and similes, foreign borrowings,
dialectal, jargon and slang expressions, stilted phrases and obscenities, proverbs and quotations,
illiterate or inaccurate speech, and so on.

c. have to sensitively tackle complicated specialized descriptions and terminology in specific fields
of study for which appropriate terms have not yet been invented.
Lastly, translation is the bridge into the world of academic, scientific and technical knowledge.
Today most of the scientific and technical literature is written in different languages. Both translation
and interpretation of such works into other languages become even more of a challenge and require
superior language ability in at least two languages. A scientific article in medicine, for example,
cannot be translated only by somebody who has proficiency in two languages as well as at least a

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working knowledge of medicine. Therefore, terms and words have to be chosen carefully for both
major and non-major receivers.
To sum up, it can be said that translation is a combination of science, art, and skill. It is a
science in the sense that it necessitates complete knowledge of the structure and make-up of the two
languages concerned. It is an art since it requires artistic talent to reconstruct the original text in the
form of a product that is presentable to the reader who is not supposed to be familiar with the original.
It is also a skill because it entails the ability to smooth over any difficulty in the translation, and the
ability to provide the translation of something that has no equal in the target language. As a result,
translation plays a very important part in the formation and shaping of any literature or culture, being
a window to the world, helping people to assimilate their sights and sounds while developing a culture
of their own.

III.

Translation typology
The process of translation between two different languages involves the changing of an

original text (the source text or ST) in the original verbal language (the source language or SL) into a
written text (the target text or TT) in a different verbal language (the target language or TL):
Source text (ST) v n b n ngu n

Target text (TT) v n b n đích

Source language (SL) ngôn ng ngu n

Target language (TL) ngôn ng đích

E.g.: When a translator renders a book from English into Vietnamese, the SL is English and the TL is
Vietnamese.

-

Source text-oriented translation (b n d ch thiên v b n g c) means rendering the message that is
as close as possible to that of the source text. It can be a “copy” of the original and it clearly
reflects the structure, tone and linguistic structures of the source text.

-

Target text oriented translation (b n d ch thiên v ng

i đ c/ng

i nghe) means conveying the

information contained by the source text to a target text so that is fully comprehensible to the
readers/listeners. This might be altering the original structure, merging two sentences into a single
one or even changing the style of the text.
One goal of an empirical translation theory is to establish a comprehensive translation
typology. There are many kinds of translation, some more typical and widespread than others, and we
need a system of classification both for theoretical and practical purposes. Many scholars have
different ways of classifications. Here are some prominent typology:
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1. Jakobson’s semiotic classification
In his essay “On Linguistic Aspects of Translation”, Jakobson (1896–1982) arrived at three
forms of translation:
1.

Intralingual translation / Rewording / Paraphrasing is the transference of verbal signs by

means of other signs of the same language. It occurs when we produce a summary, rephrase or rewrite
a text in the same language.
E.g.:

blockchain

a digital ledger that records transactions made in Bitcoin or another

cryptocurrency
2.

Interlingual translation / Translation proper is the transference from one language into

another linguistic code. This has been the traditional focus of translation studies.
3.

Intersemiotic translation /Transmutation is the transference of meaning from a verbal to a

non-verbal sign system. It occurs when a written text is translated into a different mode, such as music,
film or painting.
E.g.: The film Harry Potter was adapted from the same novel of J.K.Rowling.

Task 2: Choose the correct answer for each question.
1. ………… is the translation within the same language
A. Interlingual translation

C. Intralingual translation

B. Intersemiotic translation

D. Transmutation

2. Translation from one language to another is termed ………
A. Translation proper

C. Intralingual translation

B. Intersemiotic translation

D. Rewording

3. ……… is the conversion of text from one script to another.
A. Translation proper

C. Intralingual translation

B. Intersemiotic translation

D. Transmutation

4. The translation of ‘absolute monopoly” as “đ c quy n tuy t đ i” is termed …………
A. Translation proper

C. Intralingual translation

B. Intersemiotic Translation

D. Transmutation

5. The translation of “déjà vu” as “the strange feeling that in some way you have already experienced
what is happening now, but in reality you haven’t” is termed …………
A. Translation proper

C. Intralingual translation

B. Intersemiotic Translation

D. Transmutation

6

6. The translation of “t ng s n ph m qu c n i” as “Gross Domestic Product (GDP)” is termed ……..
A. Translation proper

C. Intralingual translation

B. Intersemiotic Translation

D. Transmutation

7. The adaptation of the book “Lords of the Ring” into movie is termed …………….
A. Interlingual translation

C. Intralingual translation

B. Intersemiotic Translation

D. Transmutation

8. Which of the following is an example of Transmutation?
A. “Monetary policy” is translated as “chính sách ti n t ”.
B. “Accountability” is translated as “responsibility”.
C. “Accountability” is translated as “trách nhi m (gi i trình)”.
D. “x is more than y” is translated as “x > y”.
9. Which of the following is NOT an example of Transmutation?
A. “ ABC = DEF” is translated as “triangle ABC is congruent to triangle DEF”.
B.

f x dx” is translated as “a function whose derivative is f”

C. “2 + 7 = 9” is translated as “two plus seven equals nine”.
D. “A is a subset of B” means “A là t p h p con c a B”.

10. Which of the following is an example of Translation proper?
A. “Spear phishing” is translated as “the fraudulent act of sending emails ostensibly from a different
person's account in order to obtain confidential information”.
B. “Fixed cost” is translated as “chi phí c đ nh”
C. “Aesthetic” is translated as “relating to beauty or refined taste”.
D. “f(x) = x/2” means “f of x equals x divided by 2”.
2. Binary classifications
a) Semantic vs. Communicative translation
-

Semantic translation gives highest priority to the meaning and form of the original, and is
appropriate to translations of source texts that have high status, such as religious texts, legal texts,
and ministerial speeches.

-

Communicative translation is freer, and gives priority to the effectiveness of the message to be
communicated. These are texts like advertisements, tourist brochures, product descriptions and
instructions, manuals.

7


E.g.: I do myself the honor of calling her as soon as after my arrival in Hanoi.
 Semantic translation: Tôi cho phép mình vinh d đ

c th m cô y ngay sau chuy n đáp đ n Hà N i.

 Communicative translation: Tôi ghé th m nàng ngay khi tôi đ n Hà N i.
Task 3: Decide if the following translations are Semantic or Communicative.
1. I would like to make a few comments.

Tôi mu n bình lu n đôi câu.

2. I have just returned from a visit to my landlord

Tôi v a m i tr v t chuy n ghé th m ng

i

ch nhà c a tôi.
3. I don’t want to talk to him whom I will be troubled with.

Mình ch mu n tôi chuy n v i h n

đâu dây d a r rà l m.
4. V n đ n y không th gi i quy t đ

c.

This problem cannot be solved.

Task 4: Translate these sentences semantically and communicatively.
1. Nh g i th cho mình nhé.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. Hàng hóa n y bán đ t nh tôm t

i.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. Oh my God! Oil price is rising again!
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. One day you’ll find someone who doesn’t care about your past because they want to be your future.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
b) Covert vs. Overt translation (House)
-

Covert translation is a translation intended not to be recognized by target readers as
translations. In other words, it is so natural that they do not seem distinguishable from nontranslated texts of the same kind in the target language.

E.g.: The translations of advertisements and newspaper articles.
-

Overt translation is a translation intended to be recognized as translations, because it is more
closely linked with the source culture.

E.g.: The translations of political speeches, songs, poems.
8


c) Documentary vs. Instrumental translation (Nord)
-

Instrumental translation (d ch công c ) is a translation which functions as an instrument of
communication. It works independently of a source text, and is judged on how well it expresses
its message. It is not to produce a maximally accurate representation of the original text.

E.g.: The translation of a refrigerator manual, the translation of “Cinderalla” for children.
-

Documentary translation (d ch t li u) serves as a document of a source culture communication
between the author and the source text recipient. Since the translated version can be used as a
document or reference, it is required to be faithful to the original text.

E.g.: business contract, certificate, Donald Trump’s speech.
d) Written translation vs. Oral translation/Interpretation
- Written translation: is a kind of translation in which a translator studies written material in the
source language and reproduces it in written form in the target language.
- Interpretation: is a kind of translation in which an interpreter listens to a spoken message in the
source language and renders it orally in the target language.

3. Back translation
It means translating a word, phrase, or sentence multiple times between two languages until
both translations yield the same phrase. It has 3 steps:
- Translate from Language 1 to Language 2
- Translate from Language 2 to Language 1
- Repeat until all discrepancies have been fixed
4. Machine translation
Machine translation is a sub-field of computational linguistics that investigates the use of
software to translate text or speech from one language to another.

Task 5: Choose some appropriate translation types for each kind of documents.

1.

Legal documents:

...................................................................................................

2.

A recipe

...................................................................................................

3.

Laptop manual

...................................................................................................

4.

Brochures

...................................................................................................

5.

Inauguration speech of Obama..................................................................................................

9

Task 6: Match the words with the correct definitions.
A. Intralingual translation

B. Interlingual translation

C. Semantic translation

D. Intersemiotic translation

E. Communicative translation

F. Covert translation

G. Documentary translation

H. Instrumental translation

I. Overt translation

1.

It is the transference of meaning from a verbal to a non-verbal sign system.

2.

It is a translation intended not to be recognized by target readers as translations.

3.

It is the transference of verbal signs by means of other signs of the same language.

4.

It gives priority to the effectiveness of the message, focusing on factors such as readability and

naturalness, and is appropriate to translations of “pragmatic” texts where the actual form of the
original is not closely bound to its intended meaning.
5.

It is the transference from one language into another or reinterpretation of the message in another

linguistic code.
6.

It functions as an instrument of communication, working independently of a source text, and is

judged on how well it expresses its message.
7.

It gives highest priority to the meaning and form of the original, and is appropriate to translations

of source texts that have high status.
8.

It is a translation intended to be recognized as translation, because it is more closely linked with

the source culture.
9.

It is a bit like reported speech, presenting itself as a report of something else.

Task 7: Each word below depicts a characteristic of translation or interpretation. Put them into
the correct column.
fluency, write, dictionaries, speak, real-time, note-taking, business meeting, delayed, verbal,
accuracy, highly aesthetic, time pressure, legal contract, refinement, microphone

……………………………
……………………………
……………………………
……………………………
……………………………
……………………………

……………………………
……………………………
……………………………
……………………………
……………………………
……………………………
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IV.
1.

Codes of ethics
Accuracy and completeness: Translators/Interpreters have to select the

language that most accurately conveys the content and spirit of the clients’

message. They cannot not alter, make additions to, or omit anything that can
influence the accuracy of the message.
2.

Confidentiality: Translators/Interpreters shall respect their clients’ right to privacy and

confidentiality. Confidential information shall not be disclosed without authorization.
3.

Impartiality of non-egotism: Translators/Interpreters shall be impartial and unbiased, maintain

professional detachment and refrain from inappropriate self-promotion.
4.

No conflict of interest: Translators/Interpreters shall disclose any conflict of interest.

5.

Professional development: Translators/Interpreters shall maintain and improve their skills and

knowledge through professional training/education and interactions with colleagues and specialists in
related fields. Translators/Interpreters will refrain from accepting assignments beyond their
professional skills, language fluency, or level of training.

Task 8: Find solutions for each following situation.
a. You have provided a wrong translation of important information in a contract and this might cause
disastrous consequences. What code of ethics is violated?
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
b. You have just found out that today you have to interpret for your love rival in a big conference.

You really don’t like him. Moreover, he is going with the girl you like. However, you still accept the
assignment. What code of ethics is violated?
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
c. Your employer wants you to translate part of the Qu’ran Holy Book. In fact, you have little
knowledge and interest in Muslim. What code of ethics is violated?
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
d. You have added some parts into the translation of a legal document and received some money for
this action. What code of ethics is violated?
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
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V.

Translation principles
An ideal translation should be:

1.

Accurate (Tín): Reproducing as exactly as possible the meaning of the source text.

2.

Beautiful (Nhã): Using natural forms in a way that is appropriate to the target language.

3.

Communicative/Natural (

t): Expressing all aspects of source text in a way that is

understandable to the intended audience.

Task 9: Identify what principle is violated in the following translations.
1. C m ng

i đi u khi n các lo i xe có mùi bia r

u.

It’s forbidden to drive car with alcoholic smell.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. S thi u v n đ ti n hành c nh tranh dài h n là nguyên nhân ch y u đ d n đ n s s p đ c a 80%
s công ty.

Cash flow problem for long-term competition is the main cause for the shutdown of

80% of all companies.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
3. Tuyên d

ng công tr ng c a

y ban Th

ng v Qu c H i. (Article heading).

Recognition for

achievements of National Assembly Standing Committee
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
4. Ng

i dân Hu v n gi đ

c phong cách tao nhã, v d u dàng và s tr m l ng c a đ t th n kinh.

Hue native people still keep the refined manners, the gentleness and quietness of the crazy land.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
5. Chúc quý khách th

ng l bình an. => Wish you the upper road of peace!

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
6. Justin Bieber re-stuck in a Nipplegate scandal (Article heading -Guardian). => Justine Bieber l i b
dính ch u vào m t v xì c ng đan l hàng.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
7. It is estimated that profits will increase sharply next year. => Nó đ

c

c tính r ng doanh thu s

t ng m nh n m t i.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
8. Cho tr em g p khó kh n đ c bi t! => For extremely difficult children!
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
12


VI.

Requirements for a professional translator/interpreter
1. Knowledge competence
Professional translators/interpreters must possess a wealth of general knowledge including:

-

Subject/Domain knowledge

- Contextual/Situational knowledge - Cultural knowledge

2. Linguistic competence
Linguistic proficiency means a fairly good command of the languages involved. Specifically,
it means acute reading and hearing, large vocabulary, precision and flexibility of expression, etc.
Constant exposure to different variety of English spoken and written texts is indisputably necessary.
3. Communication competence
Interpreters and translators must be skillful in using the right register for a given situation,
choosing the appropriate words to express different aspects of the same concepts, adopting suitable
non-verbal languages (intonation pitches, gestures, ..), recognizing intentional and unintentional
verbal language, as well as manipulating information mining, retrieval and management, etc.

Task 10: Choose the best answer for each question.

1. A translator should master a wide knowledge of nutrition and diseases if he has to translate in a
medical setting. What kind of criteria is it?
A. Knowledge competence

B. Linguistic competence

C. Interpreting competence

2. A translator misused the word “Negro” to indicate the Black people. What criteria did he violate?
A. Knowledge competence

B. Linguistic competence

C. Interpreting competence

3. An interpreter tries to add more information to the interpreting process, explaining what
mitochondria or metabolism is to a group ordinary listeners. What is the requirement of his
professional job and should he do it?
A. Knowledge competence – he shouldn’t do it

C. Linguistic competence – he should do it

B. Translating competence – he should and has to do it
4. An interpreter is always speaking with monotonous voice and slow speed. What criteria of
interpretation did he violate?
A. Knowledge competence

B. Linguistic competence

C. Interpreting competence

5. Lý Lan translated Harry Potter by using extensively and beautifully a wide variety of Vietnamese
synonyms to explain fantasy world, such as “T th n th c t ” for “the Death Eaters”. What criteria
of translation did she master?
A. Knowledge competence

B. Linguistic competence

13

C. Interpreting competence


VII.

Further practice
Task 11: Find 2 examples for each translation issues.

1. Intralingual translation:

…………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Intersemiotic translation: …………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. Covert translation:

…………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

4. Overt translation:

…………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. Instrumental translation: …………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
6. Documentary translation: …………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Task 12: Read the statements and decide if they are TRUE or FALSE.
1. If you have a good knowledge of two languages, you can translate well.
2. Translators cannot be replaced by computers.
3. Translators just need good dictionaries or reference documents.
4. Translation and interpreting are totally different.
5. I know Portuguese and Finnish, so I can translate those languages well.
6. Translation has existed longer than interpretation.
7. Semantic translation means rendering the message that is as close as possible to that of the target
text.
8. Translation means a change in form and meaning.
9. Translators/Interpreters don’t have to respect their clients’ right to privacy and confidentiality.
10. Criteria for a professional translator are knowledge competence and linguistic competence.
11. Translation is the process of conveying messages across linguistic barriers.
12. The adaptation of the book “Harry Potter” into movie is termed Translation proper.
13. Slogan is an example of covert translation.
14. Documentary translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as closely as possible to
that obtained on the readers of the original.

14

CHAPTER 2: TRANSLATION THEORIES
I.

Rationale for Translation studies
The study of translation as an academic subject began in the second half of the twentieth

century. In the English-speaking world, this discipline is now generally known as “translation
studies”, thanks to the Dutch-based scholar James S. Holmes (1924–1986). There are four reasons
explaining why translation studies has become more prominent.
First, there has been a vast expansion in specialized translating and interpreting programs at
both undergraduate and postgraduate levels. These programs are mainly oriented towards training
future professional commercial translators and interpreters and serve as highly valued entry-level
qualifications for the professions. Take the example of 2010, the keyword search “translation”
revealed over twenty institutions offering a combined total of 143 MA programs. These may include
MAs in applied translation studies, scientific and technical translation, conference and bilateral
interpreting, audiovisual translation, sign interpretation, etc.
Second, there have been various conferences, books and journals on translation in many
languages. Longer-standing international translation studies journals such as Babel (the Netherlands)
and Meta (Canada), The Translator (UK) in 1995, etc. can be accessed online freely. There are also
various professional publications dedicated to the practice of translation.
Third, the number of international publications has increased, so has the demand for general
and analytical instruments such as anthologies, databases, encyclopedias, and handbooks. Their
number is ever-growing. Among these are Translation Studies (Bassnett 1980), Contemporary
Translation Theories (Gentzler, 2001), Introducing Translation Studies (Munday, 2008), etc.
Fourth, international organizations have also prospered. In more recent years, translation
studies scholars have banded together nationally and internationally in bodies such as the Canadian
Association for Translation Studies (CATS, founded in Ottawa in 1987), the European Association
for Studies in Screen Translation (ESIST, Cardiff, 1995), the American Translation and Interpreting
Studies Association (ATISA, Kent, OH, 2002) and the International Association of Translation and
Intercultural Studies. As a result, international conferences on a wide variety of themes are held in an

increasing number of countries, leading to the development of translation studies.
To sum up, from being a relatively quiet backwater in the early 1980s, translation studies has
now become one of the most active and dynamic new areas of research encompassing an exciting mix
of approaches.
(Adapted from www.routledgetranslationstudiesportal.com)
15


II.

Descriptive translation studies (DTS) of Holmes
Holmes draws attention to the limitations imposed at the time for this translation studies, and

puts forward an overall framework describing what translation studies covers. This framework was
subsequently presented by the leading Israeli scholar Gideon Toury as in the Figure below.

Figure 2-1: Holme’s map of Translation studies

1. The descriptive branch of “Pure” research in Holmes‘s map is known as Descriptive translation
studies (DTS). It examines: (1) the product; (2) the function; and (3) the process.

-

Product-oriented DTS involves the description or analysis of a single ST–TT pair or a
comparative analysis of several TTs of the same ST. These smaller-scale studies can build up into
a larger body of translation analysis looking at a specific period, language or text/discourse type.
Examples would be translation in the twenty-first century, in the English-Vietnamese language
pair, or of scientific reports.

-

Function-oriented DTS means the description of the function of translations in the recipient
sociocultural situations. For example, the study of the translation and reception of Shakespeare
into European languages, or the subtitling of contemporary cartoon films into Arabic. Nowadays
it would probably be called the sociology and historiography of translation.

-

Process-oriented DTS is concerned with the psychology of translation, i.e. what happens in the
mind of a translator. Work from a cognitive perspective includes think-aloud protocols (where
recordings are made of translators‘verbalization of the translation process as they translate). More
recent research using new technologies such as eye-tracking shows how this area is now being
more systematically analyzed.

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2. As regards Partial theories of translation, there are some basic terms:
-

Medium-restricted DTS subdivide according to translation by medium. E.g.: automatic machine
translation, computer-assisted translation, consecutive or simultaneous interpretation.

-

Area-restricted DTS are restricted to specific languages, groups of languages, or cultures.
Language-restricted theories (e.g. for the Japanese-English pair) are closely related to work in
contrastive linguistics and stylistics.

-

Rank-restricted DTS have been restricted to a level of the words or sentences.

-

Text-type restricted DTS look at discourse types and genres. E.g.: literary, business and technical
translation.

-

Time-restricted DTS refer to theories and translations limited according to specific time frames
and periods. E.g.: The history of translation in Vietnam.

-

Problem-restricted DTS refer to certain problems. E.g.: Non-equivalence between Vietnamese
and English language.

3. The ”Applied‘ branch of Holmes‘s framework concerns applications to the practice of translation:
-

Translator training: teaching methods, testing techniques, curriculum design...

-

Translation aids: dictionaries, grammars, IT applications.

-

Translation criticism: the evaluation of translations, including the marking of student

translations and the reviews of published translations.

(Adapted from “The Name and Nature of Translation Studies” of James S. Holmes)
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Task 1: Answer the following questions

1. Who was the first person that raised the notion of “Translation studies as a discipline”?
.................................................................................................................................................................

2. List three reasons which make Translation studies more prominent in the contemporary time.
.................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................

3. List 3 famous translation works from other languages into Vietnamese.
.................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................

4. List three translational categories of James Holmes’ theory.
.................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................

5. What are the three branches of Applied translation studies (DTS) in Holmes‘framework? Give 2
examples of each.
.................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................

6. What are the five branches of Partial theories of translation studies in Holmes‘framework? Give 2
examples of each.
.................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................

7. Which of the following is an advantage of Descriptive translation studies?
A. It is systematic and allows different studies to be compared.
B. It provides a replicable framework for research.
C. It helps to evaluate the quality of a TT.
D. It is used to assess the quality of a translation

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III.

Historical background of Translation studies
1. Ancient time
Two of the first translation theorists were Cicero and Horace. Cicero was a Roman philosopher

who translated Greek philosophical works into Latin. He was of the view that translations should
capture the essence of the original (“sense for sense” rendition) rather than ‘word for word’
translation. The other major figure is Horace, the great Roman poet. He stated translation was a mean
of enriching language and literature. He, like Cicero, did not believe in exact rendering of words into
the other language.
It should be remembered that most of the educated Romans knew Greek, so translation from

Greek into Latin was for those who appreciated the beauty of Latin language. There was no need to
translate word for word. It was enough if they were able to reproduce the spirit of the original SL
work. It also worth noting that in this period a certain license in translation was acceptable.
2. The Medieval time
As Christianity flourished, it became necessary to translate the Bible which was originally in
Hebrew into other languages. For example, Wycliffe’s Bible was written in simple English so that it
could be understood by ordinary people. William Tyndale was another figure who translated the Bible
into Greek. These translations strengthened the English language and weakened the position of Latin
as a superior language. In fact, the Bible translations were considered a defiance of the clergy who
believed that the right to understand and interpret the Bible rested only with them. The clergy believed
it was a sin to interfere with the word of God. Consequently, John Wycliffe was the person who had
to face the extreme punishment of burning for his English translation of the Bible. Other translators
were also persecuted by the church.
Besides these religious exercises, secular translations helped in the formation and
standardization of the English language. One major figure was King Alfred the Great of Wessex.
Alfred is primarily remembered for upholding the pride of Anglo-Saxons and resisting the attacks of
the invading Viking tribes. After consolidating his triumphs and establishing a stable kingdom, Alfred
realized that his kingdom did not have much to boast about in terms of culture and literature.
Therefore, he launched a project of translations of classical works into Old English. These translations
had a specific mission

to educate ordinary people in morals and to familiarize them with the culture

of other languages. Alfred himself was a translator, and the chief of his works were the Roman
Christian philosopher Boethius’s Consolations of Philosophy and St. Augustine’s Soliloquies. These
works acted like handbooks in moral philosophy, contributing to the evolution of English. They also
instilled the pride of Englishness and the English language in his people.
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On the whole, the translation at this time had to be faithful to the original and the message
had to be accurate. Translations thus had moral and didactic purposes, as different from the classical
times when it was seen as part of the study of rhetoric and aesthetics.
3. The sixteenth century - Elizabethan age
The Elizabethan age played a significant role in the development of English. There were many
sea voyages being undertaken to parts of the globe and translations from other languages into English
became more popular. It should be noted that these translations were undertaken without much
concern about fidelity to the original. The translations were mostly from another translation of the
original, with the result that they were more of recreations of the original. One example is Sir Thomas
North’s translation of Plutarch’s Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans (1579). North did not know
Latin and translated Plutarch’s work from French. Plutarch was a Roman historian who had written
biographies of famous Greek and Roman men. This translation became an important source book for
Shakespeare when he wrote his historic plays like Julius Caesar.
One of the first person to come up with a theoretical framework for translation was a
Frenchman called Etienne Dolet. In 1540, he wrote a book called How to Translate Well from One
Language into Another with 5 principles on which the translator should operate:



1.

The translator should understand the SL text and be able to capture its sense

2.

The translator should be competent in both the SL and TL

3.

The translator should not be literal in translation

4.

The translator should use common idiomatic language

5.

The translator should reproduce the correct tone of the original by a careful use of words
Dolet’s principles reveal a change in attitude to translation. He emphasizes that the translator

should be able to capture the tone of the original text where the translator has to be sensitive to the
cultural differences too. Dolet’s views on translation were considered to be valid by his
contemporaries and are taken seriously by translation theorists today.

4. The seventeenth century
The 17th century emphasised on order and reasoning. The major translators of this age are John
Denham, Alexander Pope, and John Dryden. John Denham believed that the task of the translator was
to extract the essence of the SL text and reproduce it with maximum effect in the TL. He believed that
the translator could take a few liberties in the process. Alexander Pope asserted that translators had a
moral duty to the readers, namely of conveying the spirit of the original texts. Thus, he believed that
it is alright to add to a text if it does not harm its spirit.

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However, the main figure in this time is John Dryden who was an influential critic and poet.
He outlined three basic methods of translation:
1. Metaphrase: Word for word translation
2. Paraphrase: Sense for sense (figurative) translation
3. Imitation: This is like adaptation where the SL text is set aside and recreated in the TL

Dryden personally preferred the paraphrase method which was the middle path between the
other two. He also had a set of criteria to evaluate the skills of a translator/interpreter. The translator
had a moral duty both to his/her original and also to the reader to capture the spirit of the SL text. We
find the notion of the ‘master writer’ and ‘servant translator’ beginning to emerge at this time.
5. The eighteenth century
The concept of translation as a painting and the translator as an imitator are more important
in the 18th century, believing that a translator should be like a painter who depicted the original with
loyalty.
The 18th century also saw the first book on translation theory in English, Alexander Fraser
Tytler’s The Principles of Translation published in 1741. He believed that the translator should
capture “the soul and the body” of the original texts. By the 17th and 18th century translator/interpreter
was expected to be an expert in the SL and its culture. Translation was seen as secondary and expected
to convey the SL text fairly accurately.
6. The Romantic age - late eighteenth century
The Romantic Age, in which Imagination became important in creativity, saw a change in
attitudes to translation. Creativity was valued very much and translation that did not require that much
of creativity was seen as a secondary activity that derived from the primary act of writing poetry. The
poet Shelley was of this view. However, there was a lot of translation activity going on during this
period. German authors like Goethe were translated into English and English writers like Walter Scott
and Lord Byron were translated into French and Italian.
In this context we should remember the German philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768
1834) who was of the view that translations should use a language that retains the “foreignness” of
the original so that readers could get a taste of the original work. Schleiermacher’s model is a much
discussed one in translation theory today.
7. The early nineteenth century
The early nineteenth century believed that the purpose of translation was to bring the readers
close to the original, so the translators had to be completely faithful to the original and should not
allow themselves to be carried away by personal interpretations. For example, Longfellow who
21

translated Dante’s Divine Comedy and Rubaiyaat said: “The business of a translator is to report what
the author says, not to explain what he means; that is the work of the commentator”. Another example
is William Morris, a poet. He believed that translations should capture all the peculiarities and
‘foreignness’ of the original and pass them on to the readers. His translations of Homer, therefore, are
difficult to read because they attempted to convey the archaic nature of the texts that he was
translating. But they were very highly regarded by critics and readers of that time.
8. The late nineteenth century (colonial time) to the present
The spread of colonialism drew the world together and discovered unknown languages and
literatures. There were two opposite viewpoints on translation

one thought that it was alright to take

liberties and the other viewed that translators had to be faithful to the original work. On one hand,
many translations had a lot of archaisms in it, sometimes the effect was very far from that of the
original. For instance, the American poetic movement called Imagism drew inspiration from classical
Chinese and Japanese poetry

an example being the American poet Ezra Pound. His work Cathay

was a translation of Chinese poetry. Although these translations were like a ‘discovery’ of the east by
the west, it often presented a distorted version of the original. The Japanese poetic form of ‘haiku’
was also the source for many Imagists who emphasized images rather than drawn out poetic language.
On the other hands, there were many writers and translators who saw translation as a secondary
activity for scientific and economic purposes to penetrate into the multidimensional world, which does
not require much of creativity. These two viewpoints have still been in debate up to now, and the
major concerns about the autonomy of the text and translators have still existed.
Translation Studies as a discipline started emerging in the second half of the 20th century,
when Catford’s book published in 1965 set the stage for translation studies as a discipline in England.
Today Translation was no longer seen as a secondary activity but it is a discipline itself, drawing from

various fields of study. It should also be noted that the theoretical framework of translation studies is
connected to the practice of translation. The theory of translation studies is informed by the
experiences of translation and this makes the area vibrant and alive.
As for machine translation, efficient though they may be, computers can never really
understand language in all its nuances and subtle variations. Languages are the living expressions of
cultures, of social settings, traditions and the history of the peoples who speak them, a reflection of
the characters and moods of the writers/speakers, their social backgrounds, and their intentions. Only
the brain of a human translator is fit enough to fully grasp the multi-faceted manifestations of the
combinations of these characteristics in a foreign tongue in the respective context and render them
correctly. Hence, the use of machine translation is still limited to a certain extent.
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Task 2: Choose the best answer for each question.
1.

Who were the two outstanding representatives of translation in the Ancient Roman time?
A. Cicero & Horace
B. John Wycliffe & Cicero
C. John Wycliffe & William Tyndale

2.

What kind of translation was used in the Ancient Roman time?
A. Sense-for-sense

3.

B. Free translation

C. Word-for-word

Which statement is CORRECT about translation at Ancient Roman time?
A. They translated for aesthetic purpose only.
B. They translated into Latin from Greek.
C. Translators were highly appreciated.

4.

In translation theory, what was the contribution of Cicero?
A. He consolidated the word-for-word translation method popular in Ancient Rome.
B. He translated the speeches of Greek orators in a word-for-word fashion.
C. He translated the speeches of Greek orators through creative imitation.
D. He strictly followed the word-for-word translation.

5.

What kind of translation was mainly used for the Bible in the Medieval time?
A. Sense-for-sense

6.

B. Free translation

C. Word-for-word

What happened to those who tried to translate the Bible in the Medieval time?
A. They were respected by clergy.
B. They were punished and burnt to death.
C. They were free to do what they liked.

7.

What is another name of the sixteenth century?
A. The Medieval time

8.

B. The Romantic age

C. The Elizabethan age

What work was created in the Elizabethan age?
A. Odyssey and Iliad
B. Montaigne
C. How to Translate Well from One Language into Another.

9.

Who was the author of the “How to Translate Well from One Language into Another”?
A. George Chapman

10.

B. Sir Thomas North

C. Etienne Dolet

Who raised the idea that a “translator should be able to capture the tone of the original text

where the translator has to be sensitive to the cultural differences too”?
A. Etienne Dolet

B. Alexander Pope
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C. Alexander Fraser Tytler