Communication research methods in postmodern culture larry z leslie, routledge, 2011scan

i

COM M U N I CATI O N R E SE ARCH
METH O D S I N P O S T MO D E RN
C U LT U RE

The second edition of Communication Research Methods in Postmodern Culture
continues to explore research from a postmodern perspective.Typical qualitative
and quantitative research methods are adjusted to fit the needs of contemporary culture. Each chapter is updated with new information and fresh examples.
Included in the second edition is a new chapter on Internet and social media
research.
The author uses straightforward and easy-​
to-​
understand language. Both
individual and group projects are among the suggested activities. This book is
important for the study of communication in a changing political, social, economic, and technological environment.
Larry Z. Leslie is Associate Professor Emeritus of Mass Communications at
the University of South Florida, Tampa.


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C OM M U N I CAT ION
RESE A R C H M E T H ODS
IN P OS T M ODE R N
C U LT UR E
A Revisionist Approach

Second Edition

Larry Z. Leslie


iv

Second edition published 2018
by Routledge
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and by Routledge
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Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
The right of Larry Z. Leslie to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him
in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any
form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
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without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks,
and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
First published 2010 by Pearson Education Inc.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Names: Leslie, Larry Z. author.
Title: Communication research methods in postmodern culture :
a revisionist approach / Larry Z. Leslie.
Description: Second edition. | New York, NY : Routledge, 2017. |
Includes bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017016797| ISBN 9781138294202 (hardback) |

ISBN 9781138233911 (pbk.)
Subjects: LCSH: Communication–Research. | Postmodernism.
Classification: LCC P91.3 .L47 2017 | DDC 302.2/0721–dc23
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Visit the eResource: www.routledge.com/​9781138233911


v

For Madison and Matthew


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vii

C ONTENTS

Preface

xiii

SE C T I ON  I

Foundations

1

1 Welcome
A Backward Glance  5
A Postmodern Primer  7
What Is Communication?  10
Why Research?  11
Communication Research  12
Evaluating and Restructuring Our Research Practices  15
Postmodernism and Communication Research  16
Suggested Activities  18
References  19

3

2 Understanding Culture and Research
Some Important Philosophy  21
Some Essential History  22
Additional Factors to Consider  27
What About Communication Research?  28
A New Research Outlook  29
Postmodern Application of Research Results  32
The Communication Process  33
Research Ethics  34
Federal Regulations  37
Suggested Activities  37
References  38

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3 Getting Started
Basic Terminology  40
Research Guidelines  43
Suggested Activities  45
References  45

40

4 Designing a Research Study
The Flowchart Process  46
Discuss the Problem  47
Search the Literature  48
Revise the Research Question(s)  52
Select a Research Method  52
Develop a Detailed Plan  53
Handle the Logistics  53
Execute the Project  54
Organize and Analyze Study Results  55
Address the Research Question(s)  55
Evaluate the Study  56
Write the Report  56
Suggested Activities  57

Reference  57

46

SEC T I ON   I I

Methodologies

59

5 Focus Group Research
A Postmodern Perspective  62
Advantages and Disadvantages  63
Basics  64
Logistics  64
Conducting the Session  67
Solving Potential Problems  68
Analyzing the Data  68
Addressing the Research Questions  71
Evaluating the Study  71
Writing the Report  71
Interesting Alternatives  71
Suggested Activities  72
References  73

61

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ix

C ontents

6 Survey Research
Definition and Uses  74
A Postmodern Perspective  75
Issues and Problems  75
Basics  78
Some Sampling Techniques  81
Types of Surveys  83
Telephone Survey  83
Computer-​Assisted Telephone Interviewing  89
Mail Survey  90
Other Types of Surveys  92
Analyzing the Data  94
Additional Data Analysis Suggestions  97
Addressing the Research Questions  99
Evaluating the Study  99
Writing the Report  100
Suggested Activities  100
References  100
7 Historical Research
Part I Oral History by Kim Golombisky  103
A Postmodern Perspective on History  104
Oral History’s Definitions and Uses  105
Issues and Problems in Oral History Research  110
Oral History Research Design  116
Oral History Research Execution  121
Oral History Research Analysis and Presentation  122

Part II Conventional Historical Research by Larry Z. Leslie  124
Definition and Uses  124
A Postmodern Perspective  125
Basics  126
Using Quality Sources  126
Developing a Detailed Plan  131
Logistics  133
Data Gathering  136
Analyzing the Data  137
Addressing the Research Questions  138
Evaluating the Study  139
Writing the Report  139

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74

102


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C ontents

The Case-​Study Approach  139
A Brief Overview  139
The Case-​Study Process  140
Suggested Activities  141
References  142
8 Text Analysis

Part I Content Analysis by Timothy E. Bajkiewicz  146
Historical Development and Method Importance  146
Definition and Uses  147
A Postmodern Perspective  149
Advantages and Disadvantages  150
Basics  152
Unitizing  152
Sampling  153
Recording/​Coding  155
An Example  156
Analysis  157
Conclusion  159
Part II Deconstruction by Larry Z. Leslie  160
What Is Deconstruction?  160
Can Deconstruction Be a Research Method?  161
Deconstruction as Research Method  162
Deconstruction Assumptions  162
Deconstructing a Text  163
What About Logistics?  165
Addressing the Research Question  166
Evaluating the Study  166
Deconstruction in Action: an Example  166
The Example  166
Analysis  167
Discussion  168
Suggested Activities  169
References  169

145

9 Feminist Methodology by Kim Golombisky
A Postmodern Perspective  173
Definitions  174

172

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C ontents

Feminism  174
Feminist Methodology  174
Feminist Research Methods  177
Uses  182
Problems and Issues  183
Implementation  192
Suggested Activities  193
References  194
10 Internet and Social Media Research
A Postmodern Perspective  197
The Internet  198
Social Media  199
Some Important Issues  200
Privacy and Ethics  201
Human Subjects and Informed Consent  202
Sampling  203
Basics  205

Sample Internet Projects  205
Some Social Media Possibilities  206
A Reminder  208
The Big Three and a Different Approach  208
Facebook  209
Twitter  212
YouTube  216
An Alternative Data-​Gathering Idea  219
Finish the Work  220
Suggested Activities  220
References  220

196

SEC T I ON   I I I

Writing a Research Report

225

11 Writing Style
What Is Writing Style?  227
Scholarly Style  229
APA Style  234
MLA Style  238
Chicago Style  240

227

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C ontents

A Final Suggestion  242
References  243
12 Report Format
Why Write a Report?  244
Who Is the Audience?  245
The Traditional Format  246
A Specialized Format  246
A Section-​by-​Section Explanation  248
Some Likely Variations  251
References  252

244

SEC T I ON   I V

Applications

253

13 An Individual Research Proposal
The Individual Research Proposal  255
Your Research Proposal Topic  258
The Individual Research Project  259

255

14 A Group Research Project
Procedure  261
Group Evaluation  264

261

Index

266

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xiii

PREFAC E

In many schools of communication at universities all across the country, the
arrival of a new semester is an exciting time for students and faculty alike. A new
semester signals a new beginning, a chance for a fresh start, or at least a chance
to perform better than we did last semester! A  schedule of new classes often
invigorates even the most jaded student. However, this enthusiasm may be short-​
lived, especially if the student is enrolled in a research methods class. Professors
who teach the research methods course are not much surprised by the dejected
looks they encounter when they breeze into the room for that first class session. Students appear to be in pain and not a single word has yet been spoken.
A cheery greeting and a comforting comment that the course will not be as terrible as expected do little to disperse an atmosphere of despair which has settled
firmly over the room.
Nevertheless, a research methods course is more valuable than students realize.

In addition to learning how to do research, many learn how to critically evaluate the research of others, a fairly useful skill in a high-​tech, information-​r ich
culture. Also, studying research methods can help students become more
­disciplined thinkers and planners.These are valuable skills in today’s world. Some
students may come to use one or two of the methodologies (probably survey
or maybe focus groups) in their jobs a year or two down the road, and so the
course may eventually prove to be of use to them. There are doubtless other
ways research courses assist students and add to their growth and development
as they prepare for careers in communication.
This text is based on the assumption that today’s communication students
need to understand research in an information-​r ich environment and be able to
design and carry out a straightforward research project. I firmly believe research
can answer questions and concerns that arise in a media-​saturated, complex,
ever-​changing world. However, I also believe many research methods courses,
especially those using traditional social science methodologies, are culturally out
of date and ultimately do an injustice to students by failing to prepare them for
the sorts of research and critical thinking that will be demanded of them in the
years ahead.This textbook is designed for use in undergraduate research methods

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P reface

courses. It makes use of some traditional social science methodologies, albeit
with some modification. It offers new techniques students can use to answer
questions they have about media and communication. It presents research activity as a way to see and understand our present (postmodern) culture.
This book would not have been possible without the assistance of two colleagues: Dr. Kim Golombisky of the University of South Florida and Dr. Tim
Bajkiewicz of Virginia Commonwealth University. Their work significantly

enriched the book. Special thanks to Dr. Kelli Burns of the University of South
Florida for updating me on social media trends.
Larry Z. Leslie
Vero Beach, Florida
March 2017

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Section I
F O U N DATI ON S
This section of the text serves as an introduction to the world of communication and research. It provides an historical perspective on research, a picture of
how communication research began and where it is today, and why changes are
needed in our research practices.
You will also learn about postmodern culture and how it requires us to modify the way we do communication research. A communication model will be
presented, as will information on research ethics and federal research regulations.
Most importantly, this section contains information on designing a research
project.

1 Welcome

3

2 Understanding Culture and Research

21

3 Getting Started

40

4 Designing a Research Study

46

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3

1
WELC OME

If we value the pursuit of knowledge, we must be free to follow
wherever that search may lead us. The free mind is no barking dog,
to be tethered on a ten-​foot chain.
Adlai Stevenson

Have you used your cell phone today? Did you turn on a light at home this
morning? Have you checked your Facebook page? Did you pour milk on
your morning cereal? Ever taken a trip on one of America’s airlines? Have you
ever had an x-​ray for an injury you suffered? If you answered “Yes” to any of
these questions, you can thank researchers for making your life easier and more

enjoyable.
Using a phone, flipping on the lights, pouring milk on cereal, checking
Facebook, boarding a plane, and getting an x-​ray are among the routine actions
millions of people take each day.We do these things unconsciously, not thinking
much about the work that went into making them possible or even how difficult
life would be without them. So, yes, researchers have had (and continue to have)
a significant influence on daily life.
Let’s quickly look at how researchers contributed to each of the items noted
above. It is well known that Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone, but
less well known that Martin Cooper developed the first handheld cell phone
(www.encyclopedia.com). Louis Pasteur developed pasteurization, a process
used to remove bacteria from milk, making it safe to drink. Marie Curie discovered radium which Wilhelm Roentgen used to develop x-​rays (www.encyclopedia.com).Wilbur and Orville Wright invented the airplane. Mark Zuckerberg
and his colleagues developed Facebook. Thomas Edison invented the light bulb,
and although Benjamin Franklin is credited with discovering electricity, it was
Nikola Tesla who was instrumental in developing modern electricity (www.
encyclopedia.com).
These and countless others are responsible for many of the conveniences of
contemporary life. They were researchers, of course, but also often inventors,
scientists, even entrepreneurs. They studied the world around them and worked
to help us understand our world and enjoy our life in it. Figure 1.1 presents a
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F oundations

Researcher/​Scientist/​Inventor

Research Accomplishments

Aristotle

Contributed to knowledge of natural
sciences
Proved the earth revolved around the sun
Discovered gravity
Discovered penicillin
Discovered the structure of human DNA
Studied chimpanzee behavior
Invented Kevlar used in body armor
Father of modern rocketry
Led effort to develop the atomic bomb
Developed the modern computer
Advanced computer technology
Founded Instagram

Galileo
Sir Isaac Newton
Alexander Fleming
James Watson, Francis Crick
Jane Goodall
Stephanie Kwolak
Robert Goddard
J. Robert Oppenheimer
Alan Turing
Bill Gates, Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak
Kevin Systrom, Mike Krieger

Figure 1.1 Sixteen Researchers and Their Accomplishments

Sources: www.biography.com; www.encyclopedia.com; www.instagram.com.

few researchers who have added to our knowledge and our quality of life, but
there are thousands of others, past and present, who have taken up the important
work of studying and contributing to our world and our lives.
Welcome to the wonderful world of research. You will not be asked to
develop anything particularly earth-​shattering in this book. You will, however,
have the opportunity to study one specific area of life that is increasingly important: communication.You’ll learn what communication researchers do and why
they do it.You’ll also learn how to conduct your own research and make interesting and worthwhile discoveries. It won’t make you rich, but it will make you
smarter; after all, isn’t that what life (and college) is all about—​learning how to
live smarter?
Life in contemporary culture is not simple. It is, in fact, quite complex. Many
of our life activities involve social situations, that is, situations that involve other
people or situations which speak to us uniquely because we are human. At work,
at play, with family, even online, we are social beings. The relationships that arise
in these situations make life complicated.
In today’s multicultural society, a host of issues and problems compete for
our attention: the global economy, the continuing threat of terrorism, our politics and government, the poor and other marginalized groups, the influx of
immigrants—​both legal and illegal—​into the United States, rising income inequality, concerns about privacy, the changing nature of American public schools
and the influence of the Internet and social media, among others.
Life is made richer and more meaningful if we understand ourselves and
the complexities of our relationships with others. Understanding the actions,
reactions, motivations, and the consequences of our behavior can be useful in
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facilitating growth and development. Of particular interest here are the social
issues and concerns raised in life by our communicating behavior, especially our
interaction with contemporary media.
Science has given us some tools to use in investigating the questions we have.
Generally, these tools help us answer our questions in an organized, meaningful
way. Scientists, researchers, and scholars have been active throughout history, but
some cultural periods have been more important than others in helping answer
our questions, particularly in terms of thinking and systematic investigation.
Of course, the methods and materials of inquiry have changed substantially
over time.Today, for example, high-​technology machines assist those conducting
research in medicine. Technology has been quite useful in helping answer our
questions about biological life.
But assessing the social aspect of life cannot be done satisfactorily by machines.
Such inquiry still requires the human touch. Humans must frame and ask questions, record and analyze the responses, observe behaviors, and derive meaning
from what is said or done. Previous historical periods have given us several
methods for gathering information about the social aspects of life. These methods have been useful in revealing something of the human condition.

A Backward Glance
The cultural period that seems to have made an important contribution to current thinking is the modern period. The term modern as used here describes a
certain period in history, not the present day or what is happening now.
Human civilization has experienced many cultural periods. You don’t
have to be a student of history to be familiar with the Egyptian and
Greek cultures. And, although you may not know exactly what happened in the Middle Ages or Renaissance, you have at least heard these
terms applied to specific historical periods.
(Leslie, 2000, p. 2)
It is the nature of culture to ebb and flow, for one period to use and/​or change
the contributions of preceding periods.
The modern cultural period, which your author places between 1850 and
1965, owes much to the period immediately preceding it. The Enlightenment
(1650–​1850) awakened the human spirit and the human mind. Reason was

emphasized and the resulting development of science had a dramatic impact on
life and thinking. During the modern period, the Industrial Revolution took
hold and many political and social changes occurred.
Although your author dates the modern period from 1850, Berman (1988)
feels the modern period probably began in the sixteenth century and reflected
the culture’s groping for explanations, exploring new ideas, and developing new
technologies. During these years, Berman holds, “society moved from the rather
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primitive to the spectacular, from the first printing press to regular space travel,
for example” (Leslie, 1998, p. 113).
As the twentieth century arrived, a new organizing principle began to evolve.
The modern period was ending and a new cultural period was beginning. This
view was driven by the “notion that the modern period, while a time of enormous growth and progress, had failed to successfully deal with some important
cultural and social issues: poverty; social injustice; the corruption of language,
politics, and economics; among others.” The new period has been called postmodern, literally “after modern.” Those who believe we are now in this new cultural period acknowledge the contributions of the modern period, but believe
that it no longer has the power to explain contemporary culture or to motivate
positive change (Leslie, 1998, p. 113).
The new organizing principle, postmodernists say, is the discontinuity and
growing ambiguity of contemporary life. Even if you don’t realize it, “you will
encounter it in your daily life, no matter who you are” (“Postmodernism in daily
life,” 1996, p. 1).
For a while, this new historical culture period was highly controversial. Many
individuals were quite comfortable with the modern period and resisted the
idea that the culture had moved into a new historical era. Some individuals were

quite specific about their dislike of postmodernism. Two posts in the Urban
Dictionary—​a crowd-​sourced online dictionary of slang words and phrases—​
illustrate the feelings of many. Postmodernism, one person wrote, is a “pseudo-​
intellectual Trojan Horse of tyrants everywhere in the western world. Began in
Arts faculties in various universities … and spread like a cancer into at least the
‘soft’ sciences, if not further afield.” Another person felt that “all the people who
thought [postmodernism] up, and continue to promulgate it, and make people write essays about it, will be the first against the wall when the revolution
comes” (“Postmodernism,” 2015). These and similar reactions were not surprising. Members of the general public and Internet trolls could not be expected
to understand the historical, economic, political, social, and philosophical complexities inherent in a new culture period.
Nevertheless, some well-​known writers with clearly recognized talent and
insight were similarly critical, if only a little less insulting. Author and critic
Christopher Hitchens noted “The Postmodernists’ tyranny wears people down
by boredom and semi-​literate prose.” Philosopher and linguist Noam Chomsky
suggested that postmodernists were “amusing and perfectly self-​conscious charlatans” (“Quotes about postmodernism,” 2015). However, the public outcry
against postmodernism soon moderated. Additionally, many scholars began to
accept the notion that the culture had indeed passed into a new era. Tens of
thousands of books and articles about postmodernism, especially its relationship to a growing number of artistic, philosophical, and scientific fields, were
published in the last two decades of the twentieth century. Thus, as Sim (2010)
notes, “postmodernism has been part of the cultural landscape for quite some
time now” (p. 1).
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Although no formal list of characteristics has been developed, some scholars
feel that there are many aspects of contemporary life that promote discontinuity and ambiguity. For example, it could be argued that we have all been
affected by the breakdown of the traditional structure of society. Our churches,

families, and schools are no longer the institutions around which we organize our lives. In previous cultures, these institutions provided the venues that
created communities. People had common goals and purposes. Today, however, church attendance is declining, families are increasingly fragmented, and
schools seem to spend as much time coping with violence and administering
tests as teaching.
Our culture is bombarded with information.There is more information available, not only in libraries but also on the Internet, than anyone can possibly
fathom, much less read or even scan. Some of this is misinformation. Much of
the factual information available to us is presented without context. Raw information is not helpful unless we know what to do with it. As Postman (1999)
observes, “information is not the same thing as knowledge, and it is certainly not
anything close to … wisdom” (p. 91).
To further complicate matters, there is a general confusion about what is right
and wrong in contemporary culture. Ethics have become situational, relative to
the individual. Individuals often avoid taking responsibility for their actions, preferring instead to blame others for what happens to them. Our courts are quite
familiar with cases where individuals seek monetary damages from others for
their own lack of common sense. Yet some scholars still feel this is the modern
age; they are unable to see the many paradigm shifts which changed modernity at the edges rather than attacking its core. They see little or no validity in
concerning themselves with postmodern thinking and its possible influence on
the way one does research. Scholars who disagree with postmodernism are, of
course, entitled to their opinions. Nevertheless, it is the view of this text that the
modern period has passed and that we are in a new cultural era.
Accepting the notion that we are in the postmodern era, it follows that communication research should be at the forefront of posing new questions about
how and why we communicate in postmodern culture. New questions may
require new research methods, particularly methods which reflect contemporary
thinking and behavior. Beyond communication, we should be exploring other
issues suggested by a new historical era. Must all the research methods of the
modern period be discarded? No, but we will need to revise some methods and
add others in order to get satisfactory answers to the questions we have about
some of the issues and problems we face today.

A Postmodern Primer
The term postmodernism was probably first used in the 1870s by a British artist, presumably to describe his work. It surfaced again from time to time until

the 1960s, where it was applied not only to art and architecture, but also to
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“literature, social thought, economics, even religion” (Appignanesi & Garratt,
1995, p. 3). Connor (1989) notes that although a number of writers used the
term in the 1950s and 1960s, “the concept of postmodernism cannot be said to
have crystallized until about the mid-​1970s [when it] began to harden within
and across a number of different cultural areas and academic disciplines” (pp. 5–​
6). Today, the term is used in many areas of academic and political life, but in
each case it carries the same basic meaning: We have “gone beyond the world-​
view of modernism—​which is clearly inadequate—​without specifying where
we are going” (Jencks, quoted in Appignanesi & Garratt, 1995, p. 3).
Ironically, some of the philosophers whose ideas are now considered the “core
beliefs” of postmodernism seemed generally unaware of, or at least unconcerned with, it. For example, Michel Foucault is considered a postmodernist,
but not because he defined the term or tried to promote it as representing his
ideas, but because some of his ideas fit the broad definition of the term, a definition generally developed by others. Among other things, Foucault questioned
truth and power and their influence on knowledge. He was also concerned
with ideas relating to sexuality, language, and politics. But Foucault acknowledged that his ideas on power, for example, really derived from Nietzsche, who
“specified the power relation as a general focus … of philosophical discourse”
(Foucault, 1998).
In a 1983 interview, Foucault asked the interviewer to update him on postmodernism when the term came up in their discussion.The interviewer replied:
Mainly it is the idea of modernity, of reason, we find in Lyotard:  a
“grand narrative” from which we have finally been freed by a kind
of salutary awakening. Postmodernity is the breaking apart of reason.
Postmodernity reveals, at least, that reason has only been one narrative

among many others in history; a grand narrative, certainly, but one of
many, which can now be followed by other narratives.
Foucault’s question shows that he had not thought much about the term: “I
feel troubled here, because I do not grasp clearly what that might mean,” he said.
He noted that he was skeptical about the disappearance of reason. “I cannot see
any disappearance of that kind. I can see multiple transformations [but not] a
collapse of any kind” (Foucault, 1998, pp. 447–​449).Yet Foucault is still considered very much a part of the postmodernist movement.
In much the same way, Derrida did not consciously promote postmodernism,
but those who read and interpreted him felt that he was also very much a part of
it. Derrida probably would not have agreed. Postmodernists, for example, question truth and meaning. Derrida believed “it would be literally non-​sensical to
attempt, or even wish, to abandon truth or meaning” (Howells, 1999, pp. 2–​3).
Still, many scholars feel that Derrida is one of the proponents of postmodernism,
perhaps because he developed deconstruction as a way of understanding truth
and meaning, and deconstruction is often seen as destructive. Derrida, however,
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felt that deconstruction may set out to “read between the lines,” or “read against
the grain,” but it always attempts to read, and understand (Howells, 1999, p. 3).
Lyotard, on the other hand, does not hesitate to thrust himself to the forefront of postmodern thinking. He defines it as “the state of our culture following the transformations which, since the end of the nineteenth century,
have altered the game rules for science, literature, and the arts” (Lyotard,
1992, p. 138). Thus, when one combines the various perspectives, postmodernism takes shape as a series of ideas suggesting that “all epistemological
enterprises—​including those of science and philosophy—​are merely operative fictions” (Howells, 1999, p. 2).
What is postmodernism, exactly? The term resists precise definition “because
to define it would violate the postmodernists’ premise that no definite terms,
boundaries, or absolute truths exist” (“Postmodernism—​what is truth,” 2015).

Our attention might be better directed toward determining what it means for
life today, indeed perhaps whether it has any meaning for life today. Remember,
postmodernism “speaks in diverse voices, so we must be cautious in making blanket assertions about what it is or is not, what it does or does not do”
(Gubrium & Holstein, 1997, p. 75).
In general, postmodernism may be seen as “a descriptive term for all sorts of
… shifts and changes in contemporary culture” (Ward, 1997, p. 1). More specifically, postmodernism is said “to describe the emergence of a social order in
which the importance and power of the mass media and popular culture means
that they govern and shape all other forms of social relationships” (Strinati, 1995,
p.  224). Further, the patterns of thought and action resulting from this new
social order “pass unnoticed like glasses on the nose” (Smith, 1989, p. 3). The
structure of the family has changed, and so have our concepts of truth, success,
duty, right and wrong, among other things. Postmodernism is not “hell-​bent on
knocking down everything modernism took such a long time to build. Instead,
what is going on involves a more subtle and elusive cultural shift” (Berube,
1994, p. 123). In short, postmodernism refers to “a new form of society, one that
has been radically transformed by the invention of [media] into a visual, video
culture. This transformation introduces a series of new cultural formations that
impinge upon, shape, and redefine contemporary life” (Denzin, 1994, p. 184).
Of particular importance to many postmodern scholars is the loss of belief
in an objective world. For those living in the modern era, an absolute or objective reality provided the order which held life together. Through reason, they
were capable of discerning this order as it was revealed in nature. They derived
knowledge and a certain sense of satisfaction by discovering the laws of nature
and by utilizing or complying with them (Smith, 1989, p. 7). But in postmodern
culture, individuals no longer have confidence in an absolute reality. Reality may
not be ordered, and even if it is, we may not be able to grasp it.Thus, our “attention has turned from objective reality to the individual human personality struggling for self-​realization” (Smith, 1989, p. 15). All of this has, of course, important
implications for media. “The mass media were once thought of as holding up a
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mirror to, and thereby reflecting, a wider social reality. Now, reality can only be
defined by the surface reflection of this mirror” (Strinati, 1995, p. 224).
But the nature of reality is just one aspect of postmodern thinking. In terms of
things a typical person-​on-​the-​street might find today, if he or she were a careful
observer, the following list of characteristics can be useful in identifying some of
the challenges of contemporary culture.
Postmodern culture can be said to be characterized by:
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a lack of common sense and clear, logical thinking;
a breakdown of the traditional social institutions of marriage, family, church,
and school;
a general confusion about ethics and right and wrong behavior;
a decline in personal responsibility and an alarming tendency to blame
others for things that happen to us;
an information glut and a decreasing ability to separate factual information
from misinformation, particularly when it comes to discovering truth;
a loss of confidence in the ability of politics and government to solve problems and promote progress;
the rise of social media and the Internet and the decline of traditional news

outlets;
a general attitude of indifference or apathy to events, issues, or people outside ourselves; and
increased efforts to accumulate material wealth as a measure of accomplishment and success.

It is true that many of these characteristics can be seen in other cultural
periods. But they seem more troublesome now because they appear to be more
pervasive than ever before, largely because of the advance of technology, changing economic conditions, and an increasingly diverse society. We are much
more aware of the world today.Worldwide communication is instantaneous, not
everyone in the culture looks like us, and there are marked differences in our
economic and social well-​being.

What Is Communication?
For most people communication means talking:  sharing thoughts, beliefs,
opinions, and information. Two people having lunch together might talk
about their jobs, their personal lives, their goals, or perhaps sports or the
latest news story. An individual watching television, listening to the radio,
or reading a book is also involved in communication though he/​she is on
the receiving end of a message, and there is little opportunity for him/​her
to communicate directly with the television, radio, or book. In the postmodern era, however, communication means more than talking. It means
using technology to communicate in ways different from talking. Facebook,
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