Research methods in sport studies and sport managemenr a practical guide a j veal, simon darcy, routledge, 2014 scan

nn-


RESEARCH METHODS IN
SPORT STUDIES AND SPORT
MANAGEMENT
A Practical Guide


This page intentionally left blank


Research Methods in
Sport Studies and Sport
Management
A Practical Guide

A. J. Veal and Simon Darcy


This edition first published 2014
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2014 Anthony J. Veal and Simon Darcy
The right of Tony Veal and Simon Darcy to be identified as authors of this work has
been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs
and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised

in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to
infringe.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Veal, Anthony James.
Research methods in sport studies and sport management : a practical guide /
A. J. Veal and Simon Darcy.
pages cm.
ISBN 978-0-273-73669-1
1. Sports--Research--Methodology. 2. Sports--Management. I. Title.
GV706.8.V43 2013
796.07–dc23
2013030695
ISBN13: 978-0-415-73385-4 (hbk)
ISBN13: 978-0-273-73669-1 (pbk)
ISBN13 978-1-315-77666-8 (ebk)

Typeset in Palatino and Helvetica Neue
by
Servis Filmsetting Ltd, Stockport, Cheshire


Summary contents

List of figures
List of tables
List of case studies
Preface

I

xxi
xxvii
xxviii
xxx

Introduction

1

1.

Introduction to research: what, why and who?

3

2.

Approaches to research in sport

31

3.

Starting out – research plans and proposals

57

4.

Research ethics

105

5.

The range of research methods

127

6.

Reviewing the literature

167

II Data collection

197

7.

Secondary data sources

199

8.

Observation

225

9.

Qualitative methods: introduction and data collection

251

10.

Questionnaire surveys: typology, design and coding

277

11.

Experimental research

343

12.

The case study method

369

13.

Sampling: quantitative and qualitative

387

III Data analysis

407

14.

Analysing secondary data

409

15.

Analysing qualitative data

425


vi

Summary contents

16.

Analysing quantitative and survey data

455

17.

Statistical analysis

497

IV Communicating results
18.

547

Research reports and presentations

549

Index

571


Detailed chapter contents

List of figures
List of tables
List of case studies

Preface

xxi
xxvii
xxviii
xxx

I

Introduction and Preparation

1

1

Introduction to research: what, why and who?

3

Introduction

3

What is research?

5

Research defined
Scientific research
Social science research

Descriptive, explanatory and evaluative research

Why study research?
In general
Research in policy-making, planning and management
processes

Who does research?
Academics
Students
Government, commercial and non-profit organisations
Managers
Consultants

Who pays?
Research outputs
Academic journal articles
Professional journal articles
Conference papers/presentations
Books
Policy/planning/management reports

5
5
5
6

8
8
9

14
15
16
16
17
18

18
19
20
21
21
21
21


viii

Detailed chapter contents

2

Terminology

24

Using this book

25

Summary

25

Test questions

26

Exercises

26

Resources

27

References

27

Approaches to research in sport

31

Introduction

31

Disciplinary traditions

31

Approaches, dimensions, issues, terminology

34

Ontology, epistemology, methodology
Positivist, post-positivist, interpretive and critical
approaches/paradigms
Descriptive, explanatory and evaluative research
Qualitative and quantitative research
Pragmatism
Participatory research
Theoretical and applied research
Reflexivity
Empirical and non-empirical research
Induction and deduction
Experimental and naturalistic methods
Objectivity and subjectivity
Primary and secondary data
Self-reported and observed data
Validity, reliability and trustworthiness

35

Summary

3

36
37
38
40
41
41
41
42
43
46
48
48
48
49

51

Test questions

51

Exercises

52

Resources

52

References

53

Starting out – research plans and proposals

57

Introduction

57

Planning a research project

57

Select a topic
Review the literature
Devise conceptual framework
Decide research question(s)
List information requirements
Decide research strategy
Obtain ethics clearance

59
65
67
76
79
80
82

Detailed chapter contents

Conduct research
Communicate findings
Store data

85

Research proposals

86
86
87

Responsive proposals – briefs and tenders

91

Summary

97

Test questions

97

Exercises

98

Resources

98

References

99

Research ethics

105

Introduction

105

Institutional oversight of research ethics

106

Ethics in the research process

107

Ethical issues in research

110

Social benefit
Researcher competence
Free choice
Informed consent
Risk of harm to the subject
Honesty/rigour in analysis, interpretation and reporting
Authorship and acknowledgements

5

84
84
85

The research process in the real world
Introduction
Self-generated research proposals

4

ix

110
111
111
113
116
120
121

Access to research information

122

Summary

123

Test questions

123

Exercises

124

Resources

124

References

125

The range of research methods

127

Introduction – horses for courses

127

The range of major research methods

128

Scholarship
Just thinking
Existing sources 1: using the literature/systematic reviews
Existing sources 2: secondary data
Observation
Qualitative methods
Questionnaire-based surveys

128
129
129
130
130
131
132


x

Detailed chapter contents

Experimental method
Case study method

134
134

Subsidiary/cross-cutting techniques

135

Action research
Big data
Conjoint analysis
Content analysis
Coupon surveys/conversion studies
Delphi technique
Discourse analysis
En route/intercept/cordon surveys
Epidemiology
Experience sampling method (ESM)
Historical research
Longitudinal studies
Mapping techniques
Media reader/viewer/listener surveys
Meta-analysis
Netnography
Network analysis
Panel studies
Projective techniques
Psychographic/lifestyle research
Q methodology
Quantitative modelling
Repertory grid

Scales
Time-use surveys
Web-based research

135
137
137
138
138
139
139
139
140
140
141
141
141
142
142
143
143
144
144
144
146
146
146
147
148
148

Multiple/mixed methods

149

Triangulation
Counting heads
Mixed methods

149
150
151

Choosing methods

151

The research question or hypothesis
Previous research
Data availability/access
Resources
Time and timing
Validity, reliability, trustworthiness and generalisability
Ethics
Uses/users of the findings

Summary

151
152

152
152
152
153
153
153

154

Test questions

155

Exercises

156

Resources

156

References

159


Detailed chapter contents

6

Reviewing the literature

xi

167

Introduction – an essential task

167

The value of bibliographies

168

Searching: sources of information

169

Library catalogues
Specialist indexes and databases
Searching on the Internet
Google Scholar
Published bibliographies
General sport publications
Reference lists
Beyond sport
Unpublished research

169
170

171
171
171
172
172
172
173

Obtaining copies of material

173

Compiling and maintaining a bibliography

174

Reviewing the literature

174

Types of literature review
Reading critically and creatively
Summarising
Meta-analysis/interpretation/evaluation/review

Referencing the literature
The purpose of referencing
Recording references

175

176
178
179

181
181
181

Referencing and referencing systems

182

The author/date or Harvard system
Footnote or endnote system
Comparing two systems

184
186
188

Referencing issues
Second-hand references
Excessive referencing
Latin abbreviations

189
189
190
190

Summary

190

Test questions

191

Exercises

191

Resources

192

References

193

II

Data collection

197

7

Secondary data sources

199

Introduction

199

Measuring sport activity
Types of engagement
Counting heads

199
200
202


xii

Detailed chapter contents

Introduction to secondary sources
Advantages and disadvantages of using secondary data
Types of secondary data

Administrative/management data
Management data

National sport participation surveys
The national sport participationsurvey phenomenon
Validity and reliability of national sport participation surveys
Sample size

Main question – participation reference period and duration
Age range
Social/demographic characteristics
The importance of sport participation surveys
National time-use surveys

205
206

206
206

207
207
210
211
211
213
214
214
214

Elite sport performance

215

Economic data

216

Household expenditure

The population census
The modern population census
Uses of census data

8

204

216

216
217
217

Documentary sources

218

Opportunism

219

Summary

219

Test questions

220

Exercises

220

Resources

220

References

222

Observation

225

Introduction

225

Types of observational research: quantitative and qualitative

Possibilities
Children’s play/physical activity
Sport activity patterns
Informal sport areas
Visitor profiles
Deviant behaviour

Mystery shopping
Complementary research
Everyday life
Social behaviour

Main elements of observational research
Step
Step
Step
Step

1: Choice of site(s)
2: Choice of observation point(s)
3: Choice of observation time-period(s)
4: Continuous observation or sampling?

226

226
227
228
228
230
230
232
232
233
233

233

234
234
235
235


Detailed chapter contents

Step
Step
Step
Step
Step
Step

5: Count frequency
6: What to observe
7: Division of site into zones
8: Recording information
9: Conducting the observation
10: Analysing data

Use of technology
Automatic counters
GPS
Aerial photography
Still photography and video: visual research
Time-lapse photography
Just looking

Summary

9

xiii

236
236
237
238
238
239

241
241
242
243
243
243
244

244

Test questions

245

Exercises

245

Resources

246

References

247

Qualitative methods: introduction and
data collection

251

Introduction

251

The nature of qualitative methods

251

Merits, functions, limitations

252

The qualitative research process

254

The range of qualitative methods – introduction

255

In-depth interviews

256

Nature
Purposes and situations
Checklist
The interviewing process
Recording

256
257
258
258
261

Focus groups

262

Nature
Purposes
Methods

262
262

262

Participant observation
Nature
Purposes
Methods

Analysing texts
Nature
Novels and other literature
Mass media coverage
Film
Internet

263
263
263
263

264
264
264
265
265
265


xiv

Detailed chapter contents

Biographical research
Nature
Biography/autobiography/personal narrative
Oral history
Memory work
Personal domain histories

10

265
265
266
266
266
266

Ethnography and mixed methods

267

Validity and reliability, trustworthiness

267

Summary

268

Test questions

269

Exercises

269

Resources

270

References

271

Questionnaire surveys: typology, design and coding

277

Introduction

277

Definitions and terminology
Roles
Merits
Limitations

Interviewer-completion or respondent-completion?
Types of questionnaire survey

The household questionnaire survey
Nature
Conduct
Omnibus surveys
Time-use surveys
National surveys

The street survey
Nature
Conduct
Quota sampling

The telephone survey
Nature
Conduct
Representativeness and response levels
National surveys

The mail survey
Nature
The problem of low response rates
Mail and user/site/visitor survey combos
Discussing/analysing non-response

E-surveys
Nature and conduct
Advantages and disadvantages

User/on-site/visitor surveys

Nature

278
278
279
280

282
283

283
283
284
285
286
286

286
286
287
287

288
288
288
289
290

290
290

290
295
295

295
295
296

296
296


Detailed chapter contents

Conduct
The uses of user surveys
User/site/visitor and mail/e-survey combo

Captive group surveys
Nature
Conduct

Questionnaire design
Introduction – research problems and information
requirements
Example questionnaires
General design issues
Types of information
Respondent characteristics
Attitude/opinion questions

Market segments
Ordering of questions and layout of questionnaires

Coding
Pre-coded questions
Open-ended questions
Recording coded information

Validity of questionnaire-based data
Threats to validity
Checking validity

11

xv

297
298
300

300
300
300

301
301
302
303
308
314

320
322
322

325
325
325
326

328
328
330

Conducting questionnaire surveys

332

Planning fieldwork arrangements
Conducting a pilot survey

332
335

Summary

336

Test questions

337

Exercises

337

Resources

338

References

339

Experimental research

343

Introduction

343

Principles of experimental research

344

Components
The classic experimental design

Validity
Threats to validity

Field experiments versus laboratory experiments

Quasi-experimental designs
Types of quasi-experimental design
Experiments and projects

Experimental methods in sport research
Training/coaching
Sport policy/management experimental projects
Psychological/perceptual studies

344
344

345
346
347

347
347
348

349
349
352
355


xvi

Detailed chapter contents

Equipment
Experimenting with research methods
Children’s play
Other examples of use of experimental methods

12

Summary

362

Test questions

363

Exercises

363

Resources

364

References

365

The case study method

369

Introduction

369

Definitions

370

What is the case study method?
What the case study method is not
Scale

370
370
371

Validity and reliability

372

Merits of the case study approach

374

Design of case studies

374

Defining the unit of analysis
Selecting the case(s)
Data gathering

13

356
357
359
360

374
375
375

Analysis

376

Case studies in practice

377

Test questions

382

Exercises

382

Summary

382

Resources

383

References

384

Sampling: quantitative and qualitative

387

Introduction

387

The idea of sampling

387

Samples and populations

388

Representativeness

389

Random sampling
Sampling for household surveys
Sampling for telephone surveys
Sampling for site/user/visitor surveys
Sampling for street surveys and quota sampling
Sampling for mail surveys
Sampling for complex events
Sampling and random assignment in experimental research

389
389
390
391
392
393
393
394


Detailed chapter contents

Sample size
1. Level of precision – confidence intervals
2. Level of detail of proposed analysis
Budget
Reporting sample size issues

Confidence intervals applied to population estimates
Sample size and small populations

Appendix 13.1

xvii

394
395
398
399
399
400
400

Weighting

401

Sampling for qualitative research

403

Test questions

404

Summary

404

Resources

405

References

405

Exercises

405

Suggested appendix on sample size and
confidence intervals

406

III

Data analysis

407

14

Analysing secondary data

409

Introduction

409

Examples of secondary data analysis

409

Summary

422

Resources

423

Exercises

423

References

424

Analysing qualitative data

425

Introduction

425

15

Data collection and analysis
Data storage and confidentiality
Case study example

Manual methods of analysis
Introduction
Reading
Emergent themes
Mechanics
Analysis

425
426
427

430
430
430
430
432
432

Qualitative analysis using computer software – introduction 434
Interview transcripts

NVivo

Introduction
Starting up
Creating a new project

435

435
435
435
436


xviii

Detailed chapter contents

Saving
Attributes
Cases and their attributes
Importing documents
Linking cases and documents
Setting up a coding system
Modelling
Coding text
Project summary
Analysis
Case study

16

436
436
436
439
439
439
441
441
441
441
447

Summary

451

Test questions

452

Exercises

452

Resources

453

References

453

Analysing quantitative and survey data

455

Introduction

455

Survey data analysis and types of research

456

Descriptive research
Explanatory research
Evaluative research
Overlaps
Reliability

456
456
457
458
458

Spreadsheet analysis

458

Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS)

460

Preparation

462

Cases and variables
Specifying variables
Starting up
Entering information about variables – Variable View window
Saving work
Entering data – Data View window

SPSS Statistics procedures
Starting an analysis session
Descriptives
Frequencies
Checking for errors
Multiple response
Recode
Mean, median and mode – measures of central tendency
Presenting the results: statistical summary
Crosstabulation
Weighting
Graphics

462
463

468
468
470
470

471
471
472
474
475
476
476
478
481
481
483
485


Detailed chapter contents

Appendix 16.1

17

The analysis process

489

Summary

489

Test questions

490

Exercises

490

Resources

490

References

491

Frequencies Output File

492

Statistical analysis

497

Introduction

497

The statistics approach

498

Probabilistic statements
The normal distribution
Probabilistic statement formats
Significance
The null hypothesis
Dependent and independent variables

Statistical tests
Types of data and appropriate tests
Chi-square
Comparing two means: the t-test
A number of means: one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)
A table of means: factorial analysis of variance (ANOVA)
Correlation
Linear regression
Multiple regression
Multivariate analysis

In conclusion

Appendix 17.1
Appendix 17.2

xix

498
498
499
501
502
502

503
503
504
509
513
517
518
524
529
532

534

Summary

535

Test questions

536

Exercises

536

Resources

536

References

537

Details of example data file used – questionnaire, variable
details and data

539

Statistical formulae

545

IV

Communicating results

547

18

Research reports and presentations

549

Introduction

549

Written research reports

549

Getting started

550


xx

Detailed chapter contents

Report components
Main body of the report – technical aspects
Main body of the report – structure and content
Research reports: conclusion

Other media
Oral presentations
Use of ‘PowerPoint’-type software

550
555
560

565

566
566
567

Summary

568

A final comment

568

Resources

569

References

569

Test questions/exercises

569

Index

569

List of figures

1.1

Physical exercise and sport

4

1.2

Types of research

6

1.3

Why study research?

1.4

Examples of policies, plans and management

10

1.5

The rational-comprehensive planning/management process

11

1.6

Example of planning/management tasks and associated research

12

1.7

Who does research?

15

1.8

Managers and research

17

1.9

Who pays?

18

1.10

Research report formats

19

1.11

9

Refereed journals in sport

20

2.1

Disciplines and examples of research questions

33

2.2

Terminology: approaches/dimensions/issues

34

2.3

Circular model of the research process

43

3.1

Elements in the research process

58

3.2

Examples of research topics from different sources

59

3.3

Reasons for revisiting theories/propositions/observations
from the literature

61

3.4

Purposes of research

64

3.5

Roles of the literature in research

66

3.6

Development of a conceptual framework

69

3.7

Exploration of relationships between concepts – example

70

3.8

Concept map example

71

3.9

Examples of concepts – definition and operationalisation

72

3.10

Conceptual framework as quantifiable model

73

3.11

Exercise – fitness – stress – hardiness and health

74


xxii

List of figures

3.12

Conceptual framework: performance evaluation

74

3.13

Conceptual framework: market research study

75

3.14

Conceptual framework: customer service quality study

76

3.15

The research question vs. the hypothesis

77

3.16

Information needs

79

3.17

Research strategy components

80

3.18

Example research budget

82

3.19

Example of research programme diagrammatic
representation

83

3.20

Example of research project timetable

83

3.21

The research process in the real world

86

3.22

Research proposal checklist: self-generated research

88

3.23

Research proposal checklist: responsive research

93

4.1

Ethics in the research process

108

4.2

Information for research participants: checklist

114

4.3

Example of a consent form

115

4.4

Ethics guidelines for anonymous questionnaire-based surveys

116

4.5

Personally identifiable data

119

5.1

The range of major methods

128

5.2

Qualitative data collection methods

132

5.3

Types of questionnaire-based survey

134

5.4

Subsidiary, cross-cutting and multiple techniques/methods

136

5.5

Action research process

137

5.6

A simple network

143

5.7

Examples of psychographic/lifestyle categories

145

5.8

Repertory grid – example

147

5.9

Scales for sport-related topics

148

5.10

Triangulation

150

5.11

Considerations in selecting a research method

151

6.1

The roles of the literature in research

168

6.2

Sources of information

169

6.3

Types of literature review

175

6.4

Questions to ask when reviewing the literature

177

6.5

Making sense of the literature

179

6.6

Standard/generic reference formats

182

6.7

Examples of reference formats

183

6.8

Reference systems: features, advantages, disadvantages

189

7.1

Typology of individual engagement with sport

200


List of figures

xxiii

7.2

Measuring sport/physical activity

201

7.3

Local/non-local participants

202

7.4

Counting heads in sport: sources and methods

203

7.5

Advantages and disadvantages of using secondary data

205

7.6

Types of secondary data

206

7.7

Management data

207

7.8

National sport participation surveys: composite publications
coverage

208

National sport participation survey details

209

7.10

7.9

Participation rates in sports by reference period, persons
aged 16+, England

212

7.11

Time use, Britain and Australia

215

7.12

Measures of national performance in multi-sport international
sport events

216

7.13

Census data: levels of availability

217

7.14

Census data available

218

7.15

Documentary sources

219

8.1

Types of observational research

226

8.2

Situations for observational research

227

8.3

Pattern of conflict at the Bathurst ‘Bike Races’, 1985

231

8.4

Steps in an observation project

234

8.5

Counts of site use

236

8.6

Observed use of a sports centre

237

8.7

Observation recording sheet: counts

238

8.8

Park usage pattern

240

9.1

Sequential and recursive approaches

255

9.2

Qualitative methods: summary

256

9.3

Questions, responses and interview types

257

9.4

Example of a checklist for in-depth interviewing

259

9.5

Interviewing interventions – Whyte (1982)

261

The use of questionnaire surveys compared with other
methods – examples

280

10.2

Interviewer-completion compared with respondent-completion

282

10.3

Types of questionnaire survey – characteristics

284

10.4

Factors affecting mail survey response

291

10.5

Mail survey follow-ups

293

10.6

Mail survey response pattern

293

10.7

Types of e-survey

296

10.1


xxiv

List of figures

10.8

Questionnaire design process

302

10.9

Question wording: examples of good and bad practice

307

10.10

Open-ended vs. pre-coded questions – example

307

10.11

Example of range of replies resulting from an open-ended
question

309

10.12

Range of information in sport questionnaires

310

10.13

Economic status/occupational/socio-economic groupings

315

10.14

Household type and visitor group type

317

10.15

Life-cycle stages

318

10.16

Housing information

319

10.17

Opinion/attitude question formats

321

10.19

Coding open-ended questions – example

326

10.20

Completed questionnaire

327

10.21

Data from 15 completed questionnaires

329

10.22

Questionnaire surveys: threats to validity

330

10.23

Fieldwork planning tasks

333

10.24

Pilot survey purposes

336

11.1

Classic experimental design

345

11.2

Threats to validity of experiments

346

11.3

Quasi-experimental research designs

348

11.4

Types and contexts of experiments in sport research

349

11.5

Experimental model of policy projects

353

11.6

Survey respondent groups – Hammitt and McDonald

358

12.1

The case study method: demographic and geographic levels

371

12.2

Case-study research: theory and policy

373

12.3

Trends in swimming participation, Australia, 2001–10

378

13.1

The normal curve and confidence intervals

396

13.2

Selected qualitative sampling methods

403

14.1

Income inequality and sport participation, European
countries, 2009

411

14.2

Estimating likely demand for a sport facility: approach

413

14.3

Facility utilisation

416

14.4

Catchment/market area

417

15.1

Circular model of research in qualitative and quantitative
contexts

426

Outline conceptual framework for a qualitative study of
activity choice

427

Interview transcript extracts

428

15.2
15.3