Understanding research methods a guide for the pulic and nonprofit manager donijo robbins, routledge, 2019 scan

Understanding

Research

Methods

A Guide for the Public

and Nonprofit Manager



PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC POLICY
A Comprehensive Publication Program
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
EVAN M. BERMAN
Huey McElveen Distinguished Professor

Louisiana State University

Public Administration Institute

Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Founding Editor
JACK RABIN
Professor of Public Administration and Public Policy

The Pennsylvania State University—Harrisburg

School of Public Affairs

Middletown, Pennsylvania


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Available Electronically
Principles and Practices of Public Administration, edited by

Jack Rabin, Robert F. Munzenrider, and Sherrie M. Bartell

PublicADMINISTRATIONnetBASE



First published 2009 by CRC Press
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Contents

Preface........................................................................................................... xv

The Author ..................................................................................................xvii


1

Introduction to Research........................................................................1

1.1 Introduction .......................................................................................1

1.2 Research .............................................................................................1

1.3 Overview of Book...............................................................................2

1.4 Summary............................................................................................3

Exercises ......................................................................................................4

Recommended Reading...............................................................................4

Endnotes......................................................................................................5


2

The Research Process..............................................................................7

2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................7

2.2 The Purpose of Research.....................................................................9

2.3 Development of Research Focus .......................................................11

2.3.1 Concepts and Variables .........................................................12

2.3.2 Unit of Analysis and Dimension of Time ..............................13

2.3.3 Research Questions and Hypotheses .....................................16

2.3.4 The Literature........................................................................16

2.3.5 Logic .....................................................................................18

2.4 Summary..........................................................................................19

Key Terms..................................................................................................19

Exercises ....................................................................................................20

Recommended Reading.............................................................................20

Endnotes....................................................................................................21


3

Variable Construction ..........................................................................23

3.1 Introduction .....................................................................................23

ix


x

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Contents


3.2

Characteristics of Measurements ......................................................24

3.2.1 Discrete or Continuous .........................................................26

3.2.2 Mutually Exclusive and Exhaustive .......................................26

3.2.3 Levels of Measurement..........................................................27

3.3 The Development of Variables ..........................................................28

3.3.1 Summated Scales and Indexes ...............................................30

3.4 Reliability .........................................................................................32

3.5 Validity............................................................................................ 34

3.6 Summary..........................................................................................36

Key Terms..................................................................................................36

Exercises ....................................................................................................36

Recommended Reading.............................................................................37

Endnotes....................................................................................................37


4

Research Ethics ....................................................................................39

4.1 Introduction .....................................................................................39

4.2 Ethics in the Research Process ......................................................... 40

4.3 Protection of Human Subjects ......................................................... 42

4.3.1 Institutional Review Boards ..................................................43

4.3.2 The Belmont Report..............................................................45

4.3.2.1 Respect..................................................................45

4.3.2.2 Beneficence ...........................................................47

4.3.2.2 Justice....................................................................48

4.4 Summary..........................................................................................48

Key Terms..................................................................................................49

Exercises ....................................................................................................49

Recommended Reading.............................................................................50

Endnotes....................................................................................................50


5

Research Designs..................................................................................53

5.1 Introduction .....................................................................................53

5.2 Validity.............................................................................................53

5.3 Research Designs..............................................................................55

5.3.1 Case Studies ..........................................................................56

5.3.2 One-Group Comparison Studies...........................................57

5.3.3 Two-Group Comparison Studies...........................................59

5.3.4 Recap ....................................................................................61

5.4 Threats to Validity ............................................................................62

5.5 Summary..........................................................................................63

Key Terms................................................................................................. 64

Exercises ................................................................................................... 64

Recommended Reading............................................................................ 64

Endnotes................................................................................................... 64



Contents

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xi


6

Data Collection ....................................................................................65

6.1 Introduction .....................................................................................65

6.2 Primary Sources................................................................................65

6.2.1 Interviews............................................................................. 66

6.2.2 Self-Administered Surveys.....................................................70

6.3 Secondary Sources ............................................................................75

6.4 Summary..........................................................................................81

Key Terms..................................................................................................81

Exercises ....................................................................................................81

Recommended Reading.............................................................................82

Endnotes....................................................................................................82


7

Sampling ..............................................................................................83

7.1 Introduction .....................................................................................83

7.2 Some Definitions ............................................................................. 84

7.3 Sample Selection...............................................................................85

7.3.1 Probability Sampling.............................................................86

7.3.2 Nonprobability Sampling......................................................92

7.3.3 Recap ....................................................................................93

7.4 Sample Size.......................................................................................93

7.5 Error .................................................................................................99

7.6 Reaching Respondents and Improving Response Rates ..................103

7.7 Summary........................................................................................108

Key Terms................................................................................................ 110

Exercises .................................................................................................. 110

Recommended Reading........................................................................... 110

Appendix 7.1 Generating Random Numbers in Microsoft Excel:

An Illustration ................................................................................ 111

Appendix 7.2 Sample Size for Small Populations (50,000 or Less)

Using Proportionate Data and a 95% Confidence Level ................. 117

Appendix 7.3 Sample Size for Small Populations (50,000 or Less)

Using Proportionate Data and a 99% Confidence Level................. 118

Endnotes..................................................................................................120


8

Questionnaire Construction ..............................................................121

8.1 Introduction ...................................................................................121

8.2 Question Wording..........................................................................123

8.2.1 Simplicity ............................................................................123

8.2.2 Clarity.................................................................................124

8.2.3 Unbiased .............................................................................124

8.2.4 Realistic Time Frames.........................................................126

8.2.5 Specificity without Assumption Making .............................127

8.2.6 Negatives without Nots and Double Nots...........................128



xii O

Contents


8.2.7 One Concept, One Question ..............................................128

8.2.8 Recap ..................................................................................129

8.3 Question Structure .........................................................................130

8.3.1 Open-Ended Questions.......................................................130

8.3.2 Closed and Partially Closed Questions................................131

8.4 Response Formats for Closed Questions .........................................133

8.4.1 Measurement Levels ............................................................134

8.4.2 Ranking Responses .............................................................140

8.4.3 Don’t Know or Undecided ..................................................140

8.4.4 No Opinion or Neutral ....................................................... 141

8.4.5 One versus All.....................................................................143

8.4.6 Recap .................................................................................. 145

8.5 Questionnaire Layout .....................................................................146

8.5.1 Length and Appearance ......................................................146

8.5.2 Question Placement and Sequence ......................................150

8.5.3 Response Order and Layout ................................................ 152

8.5.4 Recap ..................................................................................156

8.6 Cover Letters ..................................................................................156

8.7 Final Stages..................................................................................... 158

8.8 Summary........................................................................................160

Key Terms................................................................................................ 161

Exercises .................................................................................................. 161

Recommended Readings..........................................................................162

Endnotes..................................................................................................162


9

Coding and Managing Data...............................................................165

9.1 Introduction ...................................................................................165

9.2 The Codebook ................................................................................165

9.3 Coding ...........................................................................................171

9.4 Database Management ...................................................................178

9.5 Summary........................................................................................183

Key Terms................................................................................................183

Exercises ..................................................................................................183

Recommended Reading...........................................................................184

Endnotes..................................................................................................184


10 Descriptive Data Analysis ..................................................................185

10.1 Introduction ...................................................................................185

10.2 Central Tendency: Finding the Most, Middle, or Average ..............186

10.2.1 Mode...................................................................................186

Contents

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xiii

10.2.2 Median................................................................................187

10.2.3 Mean...................................................................................188

10.3 Measures of Dispersion...................................................................189

10.3.1 Minimum, Maximum, and Range ......................................190

10.3.2 Quartiles and Percentiles.....................................................190

10.3.3 Frequency Distributions ...................................................... 191

10.3.4 Histograms..........................................................................194

10.3.5 Standard Deviation .............................................................197

10.4 Graphics .........................................................................................198

10.4.1 Pie Charts ...........................................................................199

10.4.2 Bar Graphs ..........................................................................201

10.4.3 Line Graphs ........................................................................205

10.5 Calculating Descriptive Statistics and Creating the Graphics ........ 206

10.5.1 Descriptive Statistics .......................................................... 206

10.5.2 Creating Graphics in Excel..................................................210

10.6 Summary........................................................................................212

Key Terms................................................................................................ 215

Exercises .................................................................................................. 215

Recommended Reading........................................................................... 217


11 Bivariate Statistics ..............................................................................219

11.1 Introduction ................................................................................... 219

11.2 Testing for Relationships ............................................................... 220

11.3 Cross Tabulations ...........................................................................225

11.4 Difference of Means........................................................................232

11.5 Analysis of Variance........................................................................241

11.6 Correlation .....................................................................................242

11.7 Summary....................................................................................... 246

Key Terms................................................................................................247

Exercises ..................................................................................................247

Recommended Reading...........................................................................249


12 Communicating Research Results......................................................251

12.1 Introduction ...................................................................................251

12.2 The Components of a Research Paper .............................................254

12.2.1 The Executive Summary......................................................254

12.2.2 The Introduction .................................................................256

12.2.3 The Findings .......................................................................259

12.2.4 The Conclusion .................................................................. 260

12.2.5 Other Components ............................................................ 260



xiv

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Contents


12.3 Presenting Tables and Graphics ......................................................263

12.4 Summary........................................................................................271

Key Terms................................................................................................271

Exercises ..................................................................................................271

Recommended Reading...........................................................................272

Endnotes..................................................................................................272

Epilogue ......................................................................................................273

Bibliography................................................................................................276

Index ...........................................................................................................279



Preface

Understanding research methods enables public and nonprofit managers to better
answer questions and analyze information, which improves their decision-making
capabilities. By understanding research methods, administrators become better con­

sumers and producers of research. This book equips managers, administrators, and
the like to understand research and development, and produce valid and reliable
information.
The completion of this book would have never been possible without so many
people, and for them, I am truly grateful. Thank you to my students; to the late
Jack Rabin for his encouragement and defense of the initial proposal; to RaJade
Berry-James, Jerry Miller, and Ken Nichols for their most valuable assistance and
helpful insight; to my family, especially my husband, for reading many drafts, for
his love of semicolons, and for putting up with me throughout the writing process;
to the production staff at Taylor and Francis; and to Drs. Whicker and Westen, to
whom I dedicate this book. They inspired my passion in a topic generally reviled
and rejected by so many students. I hope I can have the same impact on others as
they had on me. I welcome comments and feedback to improve future editions of
this text.
Donijo Robbins

xv



The Author

Donijo Robbins is an associate professor in the School of Public and Nonprofit
Administration at Grand Valley State University in Grand Rapids, Michigan. She
teaches graduate and undergraduate courses in public budgeting, financial manage­
ment, and research methods. Professor Robbins received a B.S. degree in economics
and political science from Central Michigan University, an M.A. degree in eco­
nomics, and her Ph.D. degree in public administration from Rutgers University,
Newark, New Jersey.

xvii



Chapter 1


Introduction to Research


1.1

Introduction

Becoming a master of administration and management rests on the ability of the
manager, director, administrator, or practitioner to think analytically. As such,
administrators ask and answer questions that will improve the organization’s per­
formance, customer service, financial position, and overall decision-making capa­
bilities. Research provides managers with the diagnostic capacity to accomplish
these mighty tasks. The veracity and pervasiveness of the information, facts, and
figures collected in the research process are the elements that ultimately influence
the decision-making process. As a result, the public and nonprofit administrators
and decision makers must understand research, its definition, process, importance,
and capabilities, and do so from the views of both the consumer and producer of
research. This book provides that understanding. More specifically, this book jour­
neys through the development of research such that the novice research begins to
appreciate research and understand its usefulness in the decision-making process.

1.2 Research
Research is information gathering through a variety of methods to describe a con­

cept and then explore or explain relationships between the concepts. This definition
encompasses two guiding questions of the research process: what does the researcher
want to know, and how will the researcher measure it?
1


2

O

Understanding Research Methods

To answer these questions, all researchers follow a similar process. They begin
with a question, develop a research plan, collect and analyze the data, and commu­
nicate their findings. Consider the following examples of research.
1. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration’s (FDA) Center for Veterinary
Medicine conducted a 4-year risk assessment of cloned animals to determine
if animals or humans are at risk. Using data from cloned animals provided by
two cloning companies and literature written by experts in the field, the FDA
concluded that cloning poses no risk to the cloned animals and that the food
from cloned animals is safe for human consumption.1
2. The San Joaquin Valley in Kern County, California, is home to a thriving
dairy industry as well as extreme ozone pollution. The pollution is thought
to come from bovines and the farms in which they live, but the amount and
source of pollution is debated. Some scientists blame fermented manure and
lagoons for the pollution, whereas others blame cow belching.2 In addition,
the science supporting the belching theory estimates the emissions to be half
of what the other scientists believe. Moreover, citizens of the Valley perceive
the quality of air to be worse than it was 10 years ago; however, pollution has
decreased 80% in the past 10 years.3

3. Twenty-seven different groups made 27 different recommendations regarding
children and exercise. To put an end to the conflicting information, a panel
funded by the Centers for Disease Control concluded that children should
get one hour of exercise over the course of each day.4
4. The federal government invested $150 million and established a task force
to combat human trafficking in the United States because expert testimony
suggested that an estimated 50,000 people were trafficked into the country
every year.5
The research and conclusions just described vary by researcher, but in all cases, the
researchers follow a similar path: he or she asks questions and seeks out informa­
tion to answer these questions, and in all instances, the findings could potentially
influence the decision-making process, particularly policy changes. Therefore, even
when the research might be incorrect, the decision maker must understand the
validity and reliability of all research.

1.3

Overview of Book

This book is short and to the point, and is the result of 10 years of classroom and ser­
vice learning experiences from teaching graduate and undergraduate students who
have little to no statistical or mathematical background and who work in hospitals,
nonprofits, and small government organizations. It supplies practical knowledge of
the most common research techniques used by practitioners. Therefore, this book


Introduction to Research

O

3

is more basic than advanced, and relies more on the administrator’s conceptual and
analytical skills rather than mathematical skills.
This book is divided into three sections, each organized according to the research
process that is most useful for public and nonprofit administrators. The first sec­
tion provides an overview of the research process, the construction of measures,
and research ethics. The second section, the research plan, presents the common
research designs practitioners use and the most popular ways to collect data. The
third section focuses on the tools available to practitioners to analyze and com­
municate the data collected. Specifically, univariate and bivariate analyses are dis­
cussed. In addition, directions to compute these analyses in Microsoft Excel 2003
and 2007 are included. Excel is used because it is available to almost everyone,
whereas other statistical programs require an expensive site license.
Research conducted by academicians is different from that produced by prac­
titioners. Both groups, however, follow the research process mentioned earlier. In
general, practitioner research is directly relevant to the practitioners’ field, whereas
academic research tends to be more theoretical, perhaps abstract, and less relevant
to what practitioners do on a daily basis. Practitioners argue that academic research
places too much emphasis on rigorous methodological approaches and focuses too
little on application and relevance.6 What practitioners need to understand and use
in their decision-making processes is much different from what academics think
practitioners need.
Consequently, this book serves two different but equally important, and per­
haps overlapping, groups: students studying to become administrators, and those
desiring to be practitioners. This text equips current and future decision makers
with the necessary tools to design, carry out, and communicate valid and reli­
able research projects. Moreover, these tools allow decision makers to evaluate the
research reports, studies, and projects produced by other researchers. However, this
book alone is not sufficient to train those students wishing to pursue advanced

graduate studies or write academic-type papers; these are not of practical signifi­
cance to the average administrator, and are therefore omitted.

1.4 Summary
If I have learned anything from the years of teaching research methods, it is that
a course in it, which is generally not taken by choice, is one of the more difficult
courses in the graduate program or undergraduate major. At least this is the belief
most students have upon entering the class, which results in their asking many
questions, including “Why is this class required?” “Why do I have to take this
course when my job duties do not include analyzing data or writing reports?”
This attitude produces poorer work habits in the course—doing just enough to
get by—and less understanding of the subject. All of these actions lead to bitterness
on the part of the students and the professor. So, lose this attitude right now. Take a


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Understanding Research Methods

deep breath, sit back, and relax. There is no binary code to memorize, no imaginary
numbers or derivatives to calculate; just basic math skills. Although the formulas
look intimidating, they are quite harmless; in fact, the book provides only a few.
Mathematical notations, plain English, and examples are used to illustrate the sta­
tistical procedures most useful to practitioners. In the end, you will see that research
rests more on your ability to think and ask questions than solving formulas.

Exercises
1. Think of the most recent decision you have made on the job. Did you look

for support or evidence for various alternative explanations? If so, how did
you go about it, what information did you use, how did you collect it, and
how did you apply it to what you wanted to know? What convinced you that
one alternative bested the others? Thinking back, do you believe you used the
information you gathered properly, that you should have searched for more
facts and figures? Explain.

Recommended Reading
Best, J. (2001). Damned Lies and Statistics: Untangling Numbers From the Media, Politicians,
and Activists. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Bolton, M. J. and Stolcis, G. B. (2003). Ties that do not bind: Musings on the specious
relevance of academic research. Public Administration Review, 63, 626–630.
Kraemer, K. L. and Perry, J. L. (1989). Institutional requirements for academic research in
public administration. Public Administration Review, 49, 9–16.
McCurdy, H. E. and Clearly, R. E. (1984). Why can’t we resolve the research issue in public
administration? Public Administration Review, 44, 49–55.
Meier, K. J. and Keiser, L. R. (1996). Public administration as a science of the artificial: A
methodology for prescription. Public Administration Review, 56, 459–466.
Penner, R. (2003). Congress and Statistics. Washington, DC: Urban Institute. Available
at />Rodgers, R. and Rodgers, N. (1999). The scared spark of academic research. Journal of
Public Administration Research and Theory, 9, 473–492.
Waugh, W. L., Hy, R. J., and Brudney, J. L. (1994). Quantitative analysis and skill build­
ing in public administration graduate education. Public Administration Quarterly,
18, 204–222.
Wright, B. E., Manigault, L. J., and Black, T. R. (2004). Quantitative research measure­
ment in public administration: An assessment of journal publications. Administration
and Society, 35, 747–764.


Introduction to Research

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Endnotes
1. U.S. Food and Drug Administration Center for Veterinary Medicine (2006). Animal clon­
ing: A draft risk assessment. Rockville, MD: Department of Health and Human Services.
Available at />2. Ruby, S. (2005, January 27). Holy cow! Study cuts emissions in half. Bakersfield
Californian.
3. Sadredin, S. (n.d.). New poll reveals strong feelings, commitments. San Joaquin Valley Air
Pollution Control District Commentary on the air quality. Posted on www.valleyair.org.
Accessed November 4, 2007.
4. Yee, D. (2005). Panel says children need an hour of exercise over the course of a day. NCTimes.
com. Accessed June 22, 2005, from: />_reports/science_technology/17_40_416_21_05.txt.
5. Markon, J. (2007, September 23). Human trafficking evokes outrage, little evidence. Wash­
ington Post, p. A01. Accessed from Washington Post.com hingtonpost.
com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/09/22/AR2007092201401.html?referrer=emailarticle.
6. Bolton, M. J. and Stolcis, G. B. (2003). Ties that do not bind: Musings on the specious
relevance of academic research. Public Administration Review, 63, 626–630.