Organizational communication: Approaches and processes

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Organizational Communication


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Organizational Communication:
Approaches and Processes
SIXTH EDITION

Katherine Miller
Texas A&M University

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Organizational Communication:
Approaches and Processes, Sixth Edition
Katherine Miller
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Brief Contents
Preface xv
CHAPTER 1

The Challenge of Organizational Communication 1

CHAPTER 2

Classical Approaches 17

CHAPTER 3

Human Relations and Human Resources Approaches 37

CHAPTER 4

Systems Approaches 59

CHAPTER 5

Cultural Approaches 81

CHAPTER 6

Critical Approaches 100

CHAPTER 7

Socialization Processes 122

CHAPTER 8

Decision-Making Processes 142

CHAPTER 9

Conflict Management Processes 161

CHAPTER 10 Organizational Change and Leadership Processes
CHAPTER 11 Processes of Emotion in the Workplace
CHAPTER 12 Organizational Diversity Processes
CHAPTER 13 Technological Processes

179

198

218

237

CHAPTER 14 The Changing Landscape of Organizations

256

References 273
Name Index 295
Subject Index 303

v


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Contents
Preface xv
CHAPTER 1

The Challenge of Organizational Communication 1
Our Complicated World

2

Globalization 3
Terrorism 4
CASE IN POINT: A Bungled Bombing in Times Square 6
Climate Change 7
Changing Demographics 8
CASE IN POINT: 400 Million People 10
Complicating Our Thinking About Organizations 11
Complicating Our Thinking About Communication 12

Looking Ahead
CHAPTER 2

13

Classical Approaches 17
The Machine Metaphor 18
Henri Fayol’s Theory of Classical Management
Elements of Management 19
Principles of Management 20

Principles of Organizational Structure

19

20

Principles of Organizational Power 21
Principles of Organizational Reward 22
Principles of Organizational Attitude 22

Summary of Fayol’s Theory 22
CASE IN POINT: Are There Limits to Rewards?

23

Max Weber’s Theory of Bureaucracy 23
Frederick Taylor’s Theory of Scientific Management
Impetus for the Theory of Scientific Management
Components of Scientific Management 26
CASE IN POINT: Systematic Surgery 27

Communication in Classical Approaches

25

25

28

Spotlight on Scholarship 29

Content of Communication 29
vii


viii

Contents

Direction of Communication Flow
Channel of Communication 31
Style of Communication 31

30

Classical Management in Organizations Today

32

Classical Structure in Today’s Organizations 32
Classical Job Design and Rewards in Today’s Organizations

Summary

34

CASE STUDY: The Creamy Creations Takeover
CHAPTER 3

33

35

Human Relations and Human Resources Approaches 37
The Human Relations Approach

38

From Classical Theory to Human Relations: The Hawthorne Studies
The Illumination Studies 38
The Relay Assembly Test Room Studies 38
The Interview Program 39
The Bank Wiring Room Studies 39
Explanations of Findings in the Hawthorne Studies

39

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory 40
CASE IN POINT: Satisfying Higher Order Needs by Satisfying Lower
Order Needs 42
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y 42
Spotlight on Scholarship 44

The Human Resources Approach

45

Impetus for the Human Resources Approach

45

Do Human Relations Principles Work? 46
Misuse of Human Relations Principles 47

Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid 48
CASE IN POINT: Slashing ER Waiting Times 48
Likert’s System IV 50

Communication in Human Relations and Human Resources
Organizations 51
Content of Communication 51
Direction of Communication Flow
Channel of Communication 52
Style of Communication 53

52

Human Relations and Human Resources Organizations Today
The “What” of Human Resources Programs 54
The “How” of Human Resources Programs 54

Summary

56

CASE STUDY: Teamwork at Marshall’s Processing Plant
CHAPTER 4

Systems Approaches 59
The Systems Metaphor and Systems Concepts
System Components

Hierarchical Ordering

61
61

60

57

53

38


Contents

Interdependence 61
Permeability 62

System Processes 62
System Properties 64
Holism 64
Equifinality 64
Negative Entropy
Requisite Variety

64
65

Three Systems Theories

65

Cybernetic Systems Theory 66
Karl Weick’s Theory of Organizing 68
CASE IN POINT: Making Sense of My Money
Spotlight on Scholarship 71
“New Science” Systems Theory 72

69

Methods for Studying Organizational Systems
Network Analysis

73

73

Properties of Networks 73
Properties of Network Links
Network Roles 74

74

CASE IN POINT: Nowhere to Hide Connectedness
Modeling Techniques 76
Case Analysis 77

Summary

77

CASE STUDY: Sensemaking after the Acquisition
CHAPTER 5

76

78

Cultural Approaches 81
Prescriptive Views of Culture

82

Deal and Kennedy’s “Strong Cultures” 83
Peters and Waterman’s “Excellent Cultures”
CASE IN POINT: Red Sox Nation 84

Alternative Approaches to Culture

83

85

Organizational Cultures Are Complicated 86
Organizational Cultures Are Emergent 86
Organizational Cultures Are Not Unitary 87
Spotlight on Scholarship 88
Organizational Cultures Are Often Ambiguous

Schein’s Model of Organizational Culture

88

89

A Definition of Culture 89
A Model of Culture 90
Level 1: Artifacts 90
Level 2: Espoused Values 91
Level 3: Basic Assumptions 92

CASE

IN

POINT: Googling Cultural Values

94

Methods for Studying Organizational Culture
Summary 96

94

CASE STUDY: The Cultural Tale of Two Shuttles

97

ix

x

Contents

CHAPTER 6

Critical Approaches 100
Critical Approaches

101

The Pervasiveness of Power

102

Control of Modes and Means of Production
Control of Organizational Discourse 105

Ideology and Hegemony 106
Emancipation 107
CASE IN POINT: Power of the Pretty
Resistance 109

104

108

Two Critical Approaches in Communication

A Theory of Concertive Control
Spotlight on Scholarship 111

110

110

Control 112
Identification 112
Discipline 112

Feminist Theories of Organizational Communication
The “Framing” of Sexual Harassment

CASE

IN

POINT: Using the F Word

115

Discourse at a Woman-Owned Business
Disciplined Bodies 116

116

Research Methodology in the Critical Approach
Summary 119
CASE STUDY: Talking Turkey

CHAPTER 7

117

120

Socialization Processes 122
Models of Organizational Socialization
Phases of Socialization

CASE

IN

124

POINT: Hustling Cookies

Metamorphosis

123

123

Anticipatory Socialization
Encounter 125

125

126

Content of Socialization 126
Spotlight on Scholarship 127
Summary of Socialization Models

128

Communication Processes During Socialization
The Employment Interview

113

114

129

129

The Interview as a Recruiting and Screening Tool 129
The Interview as an Information-Gathering Tool 130
The Interview as a Tool for Socialization 130

Newcomer Information-Seeking Tactics
Role-Development Processes 132
Role-Taking Phase 133
Role-Making Phase 133
Role-Routinization Phase 133
Beyond the Leadership Dyad 135

131

Contents

Technology and Socialization 135
CASE IN POINT: The Economics of Exit and Entry

Organizational Exit
Summary 138

136

CASE STUDY: The Church Search
CHAPTER 8

136

139

Decision-Making Processes 142
Models of the Decision-Making Process

143

Rational Models of Decision Making 143
Alternatives to Rational Models 143
CASE IN POINT: Personal Finance Decisions 144
CASE IN POINT: Crunching the Data 146

Small-Group Decision Making

146

Descriptive Models of Small-Group Decision Making
Effective Small-Group Decision Making 147
Beyond Rational Group Processes 150

Participation in Decision Making

146

150

Effects of Participation in Decision-Making
Models of the Participation Process 151
The Affective Model 151
The Cognitive Model 152
Evidence for Models of Participation

150

152

Participative Applications in Organizations and Workplace Democracy
Spotlight on Scholarship 154
Beyond Decisions: Knowledge Management Systems 155

Summary

156

CASE STUDY: Too Many Majors
CHAPTER 9

158

Conflict Management Processes 161
Conceptualizing the Conflict Process

162

Defining Conflict 162
Levels of Organizational Conflict 163
Phases of Organizational Conflict 163

Managing Organizational Conflict
Conflict Styles

164

165

Description 165
Critique of Conflict Styles Construct
New Directions 167

CASE IN POINT: Working with Jerks
Bargaining and Negotiation 168
Third-Party Conflict Resolution

CASE

IN

166

168

170

POINT: Conflict in the Courts

171

Factors Influencing the Conflict Management Process
Personal Factors

171

171

153

xi


xii

Contents

Relational Factors 172
Spotlight on Scholarship 173
Cultural Factors 174
An Alternative View of Conflict

Summary

174

175

CASE STUDY: The Problem with Teamwork
CHAPTER 10

177

Organizational Change and Leadership Processes 179
Organizational Change Processes

180

Models of Organizational Change 180
Reactions to Organizational Change 181
Communication in the Change Process 184
“Unplanned” Change: Organizational Crisis 186
Spotlight on Scholarship 187

Organizational Leadership

188

Models of Leadership 188
CASE IN POINT: Looking for Global Leaders
CASE IN POINT: Leaderless Music 191

Communication and Leadership
Summary 194

189

191

CASE STUDY: Leading Nurses through Hospital Change
CHAPTER 11

196

Processes of Emotion in the Workplace 198
Emotion in the Workplace

199

Emotion as Part of the Job 200
Emotion as Part of Workplace Relationships 201
CASE IN POINT: Reserves of Emotion 202
Spotlight on Scholarship 203
Emotion Rules and Emotional Intelligence 204

Stress, Burnout, and Social Support in the Workplace
Burnout 206

Stressors That Lead to Burnout 207
Outcomes of Burnout 208
Communication as a Cause of Burnout

206

208

Emotional Labor as a Contributor to Burnout 209
Empathy, Communication, and Burnout 209

Coping with Burnout

210

Individual and Organizational Coping Strategies 211
Communicative Coping: Participation in Decision Making
Communicative Coping: Social Support 212

CASE

IN

Summary

POINT: Stretched Thin in the ER

214

CASE STUDY: Inexplicable Events

216

213

211


Contents

CHAPTER 12

xiii

Organizational Diversity Processes 218
Women and Minorities in Today’s Organizations
CASE IN POINT: Judging Women 220
Stereotyping and Discrimination 221
Relational Barriers in Organizational Systems
Beyond Women and Minorities 223

The Multicultural Organization

219

222

224

CASE IN POINT: Military Diversity 225

The Diverse Organization: Opportunities 226
The Diverse Organization: Challenges 228
Avoiding Negative Effects of Diversity Management Programs

Spotlight on Scholarship

Sexual Harassment 230
Balancing Work and Home

231

Managing (and Celebrating) Cultural Diversity

Summary

228

229

232

233

CASE STUDY: “How Do You Solve a Problem Like Maria?”: The Challenge of
Encouraging Diversity 235
CHAPTER 13

Technological Processes 237
Types of Organizational Communication Technology
CASE

IN

POINT: Caring at a Distance

Theories of Communication Media Usage
The Media Richness Model 242
The Social Information Processing Model
Additional Models of Media Usage 244
Spotlight on Scholarship 246

242
244

Effects of Organizational Communication Technology
Effects on Communication Content 248
Effects on Communication Patterns 248
Effects on Organizational Structure 250
CASE IN POINT: Newspapers on the Way Out?

Summary

CHAPTER 14

251

252

CASE STUDY: High-Tech Gardening

254

The Changing Landscape of Organizations 256
Communication in the Global Workplace
Effects of Globalization

257

259

Communication in an Era of Shifting Identity
CASE

IN

POINT: What’s in a Name?

263

Communication in a Service Economy
Spotlight on Scholarship

265

238

241

264

262

247


xiv

Contents

Communication in the Age of the Disposable Worker
CASE

IN

Summary

POINT: Generation Y in the Workplace

268

270

270

CASE STUDY: Charting the Changing Nature of Work

References 273
Name Index 295
Subject Index 303

271


Preface
Although the “ages” of scholarly fields are notoriously hard to pinpoint, most
would agree that organizational communication has been around for more than
six decades. The infancy of the discipline was marked by struggles for survival
and nurturance from other disciplines. The teenage years saw a questioning of
identity and fights for autonomy. Today, most would agree that organizational
communication has reached a maturity few would have envisioned half a century
ago, and the field now encompasses a healthy eclecticism in that a variety of theoretical approaches provide contrasting accounts of the ways in which communicating and organizing intersect. And this is definitely a good thing, for few would
have predicted the changes that have occurred in our world—changes in politics,
business, technology, values, the environment—during that time period. We need
a solid but dynamic understanding of organizational communication to cope with
this complex and changing world.
This book attempts to reflect the eclectic maturity of the field of organizational
communication. When I began writing the first edition of this text almost twenty
years ago, my first conceptual decision was not to advocate a particular approach
to the field. Instead, I tried to show that both traditional and contemporary perspectives provide potentially illuminating views of organizational communication
processes.
For example, a critical theorist, an ethnographer, and a systems researcher
may all look at a particular organizational communication phenomenon—say,
socialization practices—and see very different things. A systems theorist might see
a cybernetic system in which the goal of organizational assimilation is enhanced
through a variety of structural and individual communication mechanisms. A cultural researcher might see socialization as a process through which the values and
practices of an organizational culture are revealed to—and created by—individuals
during organizational entry. A critical theorist might see socialization as a process
through which individuals are drawn into hegemonic relationships that reinforce
the traditional power structure of the organization.
All these views of the organizational socialization process are partial in that

each obscures some aspects of organizational entry. But each view is also illuminating. Thus, early chapters of this text cover a gamut of academic approaches—
from classical through human relations and human resources to systems, cultural,
and critical—as lenses through which organizational communication can be viewed.
xv


xvi

Preface

The strengths and weaknesses of each approach are considered, but no particular
approach is presented as an inherently superior theoretical approach.
My second important choice in writing this book was deciding how to organize the voluminous research literature on organizational communication. At the
time I started this book, most textbooks had taken a “levels” approach, considering in turn organizational communication at the individual, dyadic, group, and
organizational levels. I find this approach frustrating both because there are some
things that happen at multiple levels (for example, we make decisions alone, in
dyads, and in groups) and because there are processes that are not easily linked to
any of these levels. (For example, where does communication technology fit in? At
what level do we consider emotion in the workplace?) Thus, the chapters in the
second half of this textbook involve a consideration of organizational communication processes.
My goals in the “processes” portion of the book are fourfold. First, I want the
processes considered to be up to date in reflecting current concerns of both organizational communication scholars and practitioners. Thus, in addition to looking at
traditional concerns such as decision-making and conflict, this textbook highlights
communication processes related to cultural and gender diversity, communication
technology, organizational change, and emotional approaches to organizational
communication. Second, I want to be as comprehensive as possible in describing
relevant theory and research on each topic. Thus, each “process” chapter highlights both foundational and current research on organizational communication
processes from the fields, including communication, management, industrial
psychology, and sociology. Third, I want students to understand that each of these
communication processes can be viewed through a variety of theoretical lenses, so

I conclude each chapter with a section on the insights of the approaches considered
in the first half of the book. Finally, I want readers to realize that organizational
communication is a concern to individuals beyond the ivory towers of academia.
Thus, I have included many real-world examples both in the discussion of each
process and in pedagogical features.

ORGANIZATION OF THE TEXT
This textbook explores the world of organizational communication in terms of
both scholarship and application. The majority of chapters consider either
approaches that have shaped our beliefs about organizational communication
practice and study (Chapters 2–6) or chapters that consider specific organizational
communication processes (Chapters 7–13). The first two chapters on “approaches”
(Chapters 2–3) both consider prescriptive approaches on how organizational communication should operate (Classical Approaches, Human Relations and Human
Resources Approaches), while the following three approaches chapters (Chapters
4–6) consider contemporary approaches regarding how we can best describe,
understand, explain, and critique organizational communication (Systems
Approaches, Cultural Approaches, and Critical Approaches). When we move on
to the “processes” chapters, we first consider enduring processes that have always
characterized communication in organizations in Chapters 7–Chapters 10 (Assimilation Processes, Decision-Making Processes, Conflict Management Processes, and


Preface

xvii

Change and Leadership Processes). Then, in Chapters 11–13, we look at emerging
processes that have come into play in recent decades (Processes of Emotion in the
Workplace, Organizational Diversity Processes, and Technological Processes).
These chapters are sandwiched by an introductory chapter (Chapter 1) and a concluding chapter (Chapter 14) that put these approaches and processes into context
by considering specific challenges in today’s world and the ways in which the

study of organizational communication can help us deal with these challenges.
Those familiar with this textbook will note a number of changes from the fifth
edition, which will enhance student understanding of organizational communication. All the chapters have been updated to include current research and theory,
leading to the addition of more than one hundred new references (and, thankfully,
the elimination of a few!). These changes can be seen throughout the textbook but
especially in coverage of diversity (e.g., consideration of disability and GLBT concerns), technological processes (e.g., consideration of social networking), leadership
(e.g., consideration of discursive approaches to leadership), and organizational
crisis.The sixth edition of Organizational Communication: Approaches and Processes continues from the first five editions many features that are designed to
enhance students’ abilities to integrate and apply the material. The sixth edition
continues to include the “Spotlight on Scholarship” features, highlighting specific
research that illustrates concepts considered in the chapter. In an effort to stay
abreast of current research, however, almost half the spotlights are new to this edition. Other pedagogical features are maintained from earlier editions, including
explicit links among the “approach” and “process” chapters, learning objectives
at the beginning of each chapter, tables and figures to illustrate key concepts, and
case studies at the end of each chapter to apply conceptual material to real-life
organizational communication situations. One of my favorite features of this
textbook—the “Case in Point” feature that began in the fourth edition—continues
in the sixth edition. One of the most fun tasks during this process of revising the
textbook has been discovering and writing about current events that reflect a variety of concerns about organizational communication. There are fifteen new “Case
in Point” features as well as some from the previous editions with which I couldn’t
part. Finally, the sixth edition adds one feature: a list of “key concepts” at the end
of each chapter to provide students with a tool to find and review important
issues.
Like earlier editions, this sixth edition is accompanied by an Instructor’s
Manual, revised by Zachary Hart, Northern Kentucky University, that includes
sample syllabi; paper assignments; key terms; chapter outlines; true/false, multiple
choice, fill-in-the-blank, and essay test items; suggestions for effective use of the
case studies; and helpful websites. The Instructor’s Manual also includes “Case
Study,” “Spotlight on Scholarship,” and “Case in Point” features from previous
editions. New to this edition are predesigned Microsoft PowerPoint presentations,

created by Pamela Hayward, Augusta State University. These are available on the
PowerLecture CD-ROM, which also contains an electronic version of the Instructor’s Manual and Examview Computerized Testing.


xviii Preface

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
When you are asked to write a textbook, you don’t realize the work that will be
involved in writing subsequent editions of that textbook. It is challenging to maintain the focus of earlier editions and keep what is foundational yet also provide the
needed updates, restructuring, and “sprucing up” necessary for new groups of students. However, the daunting task of revision can be made relatively painless
through the efforts of a great support system. First, the team at Cengage Learning
has been helpful throughout the process of revision. I am especially grateful for the
support and assistance of Monica Eckman, Rebekah Matthews, and Nicole
Zuckerman.
The comments of a number of organizational communication scholars were
instrumental in shaping the direction, content, and presentation of this textbook.
These include colleagues around the country who commented on the revision project at various stages: Michele Bresso, Bakersfield College; Mary Helen Brown,
Auburn University; Bethany Goodier, College of Charleston; Todd Kelshaw,
Montclair State University; Melissa Kemp, Bauder College; Kathy Krone, University
of Nebraska-Lincoln; David Lapakko, Augsburg College; Kurt Lindemann, San
Diego State University; William Mariani, D’youville College; Brian Richardson, University of North Texas; Mary-Angie Salva-Ramirez, Florida Memorial University;
and Lidwien van de Wijngaert, University of Twente.
I am also grateful for the comments of both undergraduate and graduate students at Texas A&M University and for the occasional colleague from around the
globe who pops into my e-mail inbox with helpful suggestions and comments.
Finally, my most heartfelt thanks go to my family for providing an environment in which writing this textbook was a pleasurable challenge. My daughter,
Kalena Margaret Miller, was born while I was writing the first edition of this textbook. I’m amazed that she is now about to graduate from high school—a young
woman who continues to love learning and increasingly challenges my ideas with
her own experiences and insights. She is a delight and an inspiration. Finally, my
husband, Jim Stiff, provided the inspiration to get started, the motivation to follow
through, and—now more than ever—a wealth of examples of organizational communication in action. Both Jim and Kalena have kept me sane and grounded in

recent years, and this book is dedicated to them.
Katherine Miller
College Station, Texas


The Challenge of
Organizational
Communication

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CHAPTER
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1

After Reading This Chapter, You Should …
•
•
•
•
•

Be able to describe how today’s world is complicated by globalization, terrorism,
climate change, and changing demographics.
Understand the concept of “requisite variety” and appreciate the need for complex
thinking to cope with complex situations.
See ways in which we can complicate our thinking about organizations both by considering a variety of organizational forms and by viewing organizations that are often
paradoxical and contradictory.
Understand the distinction between a “transmission model” of communication and a
“constitutive model” of communication.
Be familiar with the seven conceptualizations of communication and the ways in
which these domains of understanding can change our view of organizational
communication.

During the last few years, social networking sites—such as Facebook, MySpace,
LinkedIn, and others—have caught the attention of college and high school students, professionals looking to connect with others, family members who are trying
to keep in touch, and a wide range of commentators. One option for individuals
creating Facebook profiles is to note that in explaining the nature of a relationship,
“It’s complicated.” That simple statement could be seen as defining much of our
twenty-first-century world and our lives within that world. Our relationships are
complicated. Our families are complicated. Our work is complicated. Our politics
and government are complicated. Our global economy is complicated. Our connections with other nation-states are complicated. Our beliefs about ourselves are
complicated.

1

2

Chapter 1

Nowhere is this complexity more apparent than in a consideration of communication processes or in a consideration of organizations, institutions, and social
groupings. There is little doubt that our organizational world is much more complicated than the world of one hundred years ago (think of agriculture, increasing
industrialization, and the birth of the assembly line) or the world of fifty years ago
(think of moving to the suburbs, long-term employment, and Father Knows Best)
or even twenty years ago (think of cross-functional work teams, the early years
of the Internet, and the fracturing of the proverbial glass ceiling). Mark Penn
(2007) contends that we have moved from the age of Ford, in which you could
have a car in “any color, as long as it’s black,” to the age of Starbucks, in which
the variety of beverages available is truly staggering. As the Starbucks website
bragged in a campaign from the spring months of 2010, “now there are thousands
of ways to customize your Frappuccino blended beverage” (“Frappuccino Beverage,” Starbucks Coffee Company, 2010). However, this is not to say that past time
periods have not taught us a great deal about ways to understand the complexity of
our world today or provided us with strategies for coping with the high levels of
complexity that confront us. Indeed, on a daily basis, we as individuals, families,
organizations, and societies find ways to live productively in this complicated world.
This textbook takes you on a journey of understanding into the complex world
of organizational communication and the role of interacting individuals and groups
within that world. This journey will involve trips to the past to consider how scholars and practitioners have historically approached issues relevant to organizational
communication. It will also involve the consideration of a wide range of processes
that make organizations complicated and that help us cope with that complexity.
These include processes of socialization, decision-making, conflict management,
technology, emotion, and diversity.
In this first chapter, however, we will take an initial look at ways in which
today’s organizational world is complicated. This initial look will be a brief and

partial one, but it will introduce some of the ways in which participants
in twenty-first-century organizations are confronted with confounding and challenging problems. We will then consider strategies for thinking about the concepts
of “organization” and “communication” that will assist us on our journey as
we explore approaches and processes in the understanding of organizational
communication.

OUR COMPLICATED WORLD
There are myriad ways we could illustrate the complexity of today’s world, and as
we work our way through this textbook, we will discuss many of the “complicated”
issues that confront us. In the last chapter, we will look at how the landscape of
organizational communication has changed in recent years and will continue to
change in the future. In this chapter, however, we consider four aspects of our
world that were barely on the radar several decades ago but that today dominate
much of our thinking—and our news coverage. They are globalization, terrorism,
climate change, and changing demographics.


The Challenge of Organizational Communication

3

Globalization
It has become a truism to state that we now live in a global economy and participate in a global marketplace. As transportation and telecommunication systems
improve, our world becomes ever more connected—both on a personal and an
organizational level. The emergence of a global economy was facilitated by key
political changes, such as the end of the cold war and the development of the
European Union, and has included the emergence of a variety of institutions to
help regulate the global economy, such as the World Trade Organization and the
International Monetary Fund. The globalization movement has led to practices
such as outsourcing, in which businesses move manufacturing and service centers

to countries where labor is cheap. In a global economy, many organizations have
a multinational or international presence, with employees of a single organization
found in many locations worldwide. Furthermore, in a global economy, businesses
are no longer centered in a few Western nations but are also spread among nations
throughout the developing world. The complexity of these global interconnections
became especially clear during the global recession that began in 2007. As one
analytical website summarized: “A collapse of the US sub-prime mortgage market
and the reversal of the housing boom in other industrialized economies have had a
ripple effect around the world” (“Global Financial Crisis,” 2009). Given the interconnected nature of economies throughout the world, these ripples can turn into
huge waves, as happened in 2010 when the collapse of the Greek economy affected
first other members of the European Union and then countries all over the globe
(Palmer, 2010).
Some commentators see globalization as a largely positive—and clearly
unstoppable—development. For example, in The World Is Flat (2005), Thomas
Friedman argues that the global economy offers exciting opportunities for entrepreneurs with the requisite skills. However, many others argue that globalization
can lead to problems such as domestic job loss, the exploitation of workers in
third-world nations, and environmental problems. Indeed, some scholars have
raised important questions about the extent to which models of capitalism developed in the United States should be exported to nations with very different governmental and cultural systems (e.g., Whitley, 2009). David Held and others consider
these issues in Debating Globalization (2005). Held et al. consider the complex
issues of trade, economic development, security, and environmental protection that
come into play as we consider global economic and industrial systems. What
becomes clear from all sides of the debate is that our new world involves complex
interconnections between business, political, and cultural systems, and these interconnections make it difficult to fully understand the ramifications of both globalization systems and the proposed means for making globalization “work”
effectively. Joseph Stiglitz, who critiques economic institutions associated with
globalization in his 2002 book Globalization and Its Discontents, has noted
more recently that there is at least hope for dealing with these complex problems.
He argues that “while globalization’s critics are correct in saying it has been used
to push a particular set of values, this need not be so. Globalization does
not have to be bad for the environment, increase inequality, weaken cultural

4

Chapter 1

diversity, and advance corporate interests at the expense of the well-being of ordinary citizens” (Stiglitz, 2006, p. xv).
The field of organizational communication can contribute a great deal to these
debates about globalization. The challenges of globalization are not just economic—
they also concern messages, relationships, and systems of understanding. Some of
the questions that organizational communication scholars now consider in the area
of globalization include:
•
•
•
•
•

How can organizational members communicate effectively in the contracted
time and space of global markets?
How can communication be used to enhance understanding in the multicultural
workplaces that are a crucial feature of our global economy?
How can communication processes in business, government, and nongovernmental
organizations be used to protect the rights of workers in the United States and
abroad?
How does “organizing” occur in the realm of the political and economic policy
debates that are critical to the long-term direction of the global economy?
How do corporations communicate about the balance between providing
goods and services at a price preferred by consumers and providing a safe and
economically secure workplace for their employees?

Terrorism
The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, changed the world in profound ways.
Subsequent attacks in London, Madrid, Bali, India, and elsewhere—combined with
frequent news stories about attacks that have been thwarted and individuals
arrested for planning more attacks—make it clear that “terrorism” will be a watchword in our lives for many years to come. As Oliver (2007, p. 19) notes, “in the
wake of the attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon on 9/11, the conventional wisdom was that ‘everything has changed.’” However, as Rosemary
O’Kane (2007) points out in her book Terrorism: A Short History of a Big Idea,
terrorists have been around for many centuries, and terrorism can be perpetrated
by individuals, groups, nation-states, and regimes. She notes that terrorism is not
a particular ideology but is a set of strategies that involves the use of unpredictable violence against individuals and thus creates ongoing fear and suspicion
among large groups of people. The effectiveness of terrorism today can be
enhanced both by the wide range of technological tools available to terrorists
and by contemporary urban environments that have high concentrations of residents
and mass transportation.
For individuals and organizations in the post-9/11 world, the implications of
terrorism are everywhere but can be especially seen in two widespread areas: the
war on terror and homeland security. Perhaps the most basic concern is for an
understanding of how terrorist networks and terrorist organizations operate and
grow (Stohl & Stohl, 2007). Such an understanding would involve a consideration
of how terrorist organizations recruit and socialize their members, how terrorist


The Challenge of Organizational Communication

5

cells make decisions and develop leadership, and how terrorist networks form
interconnections through technology and interpersonal contact. But a consideration
of the war on terror has also come to encompass military interventions, such as the
wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. Thus, organizational communication scholars must

also be cognizant of the complex communication processes involved in military
actions and bureaucracy and the complexities of dealing with military personnel
and their families during and after their service. The implications of the war on
terror for organizational communication also include complex political negotiations with a wide range of government entities and the creation and dissemination
of organizational rhetoric to connect institutional goals with public opinion.
For example, a recent book edited by communication scholars, Weapons of Mass
Persuasion: Strategic Communication to Combat Violent Extremism (Corman,
Trethewey & Goodall, 2008), considers ways in which the United States has
mishandled the war of ideas around the world since 9/11 and suggests strategies for
moving forward in diplomatic efforts in the future.
Organizational communication scholars can also respond to the complexities
of terrorism through a consideration of homeland security. When Brian Michael
Jenkins of the RAND Corporation testified before the Homeland Security Subcommittee of the U.S. House of Representatives on January 30, 2007, he made it clear
that homeland security is, at its heart, a problem of organizational communication.
He notes:
Homeland security is not a television show about mysterious government agencies,
covert military units, or heroes with fantastic cell phones that summon F-16s. It is
an ongoing construction project that builds upon philosophy and strategy to ensure
effective organization, establish rules and procedures, deploy new technology, and
educate a vast army of federal agents, local police, part-time soldiers, private security
guards, first responders, medical personnel, public health officials, and individual citizens.
(Jenkins, 2007, p. 1)

For organizational communication scholars, then, critical questions revolve
around how to develop communication systems to enhance border security, improve
tracking of possible terrorist activities, and develop the ability of first-response
organizations—police departments, fire departments, hospitals, military—to act
quickly and appropriately in case of terrorist threats or attacks. But organizational
communication scholars can go beyond this mandate to consider the role of the
individual citizen as he or she encounters this organized effort of homeland security.

At times, these questions will concern public relations and crisis communication, as
we consider ways in which homeland security issues can be best framed and conveyed to a wide range of people. At other times, these questions will involve how
organizations can manage the daily operations of homeland security, such as airport
security or the passport application process, in a way that conveys understanding
for the frustrations of ordinary citizens. At still other times, organizational communication scholars can contribute by enhancing our understanding of high-level policy
debates in which conflicts arise between the need for security and the preservation
of civil liberties.