Developing test-taking strategies for TOEIC Reading Comprehension Tests: A study on non-major English students at University of Economic – Technical Industries

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST – GRADUATE STUDIES
*****************

LÊ ANH THƯ

Developing test-taking strategies for TOEIC
Reading Comprehension Tests: A study on nonEnglish major students at University of Economic –
Technical Industries.

(Phát triển các chiến lược làm bài thi Đọc hiểu của kỳ thi TOEIC
cho sinh viên không chuyên tiếng Anh tại trường Đại học Kinh tế
- Kỹ thuật Công nghiệp)

M.A. Minor Programme Thesis

Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60140111

HANOI, 2014


VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST – GRADUATE STUDIES
*****************

LÊ ANH THƯ

Developing test-taking strategies for TOEIC

Reading Comprehension Tests: A study on nonEnglish major students at University of Economic –
Technical Industries.

(Phát triển các chiến lược làm bài thi Đọc hiểu của kỳ thi TOEIC
cho sinh viên không chuyên tiếng Anh tại trường Đại học Kinh tế
- Kỹ thuật Công nghiệp)

M.A. Minor Programme Thesis

Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60140111
Supervisor: Dr. Ngô Hữu Hoàng

HANOI, 2014


DECLARATION

I, Le Anh Thu, hereby state that, this minor thesis is the result of my own research
and all the material in this study which is not my own work has been identified and
acknowledged. I also state that the substance of the thesis has not, wholly or in part, been
submitted for any degree to any other universities institutions.
Dated: 25/ 12/ 2013

Lê Anh Thư

i


Acknowledgements

First and foremost, I would like to express my most sincere thanks to my respected
supervisor, Dr. Ngo Huu Hoang for his generous assistance, invaluable advice, guidance,
constructive comments. Without his help, this study would not have possibly been
completed.
I would like to take this opportunity to express my thankfulness to the Post- Grade
Department for their enthusiastic help during the time of studying and writing my thesis.
I also wish to acknowledge the cooperation of my colleagues and my students,
especially the students at University of Economic – Technical Industries who have helped
me to collect data for the study.
Hereby, I also would like to thank all the readers for their attention and I highly
appreciate any comments and opinions on this study.

ii


ABSTRACT
So far, most Vietnamese universities have tended to choose TOEIC as a measure unit to
assess input English level and graduation for students. TOEIC score reports provide
accurate, meaningful feedback about a test taker‟s strengths and weaknesses, along with a
description of the English language strengths typical of test takers performing at various
score levels. However, when taking the TOEIC test, especially the TOEIC reading
comprehension section, many students do meet a lot of difficulties in reading, and
therefore fail to be efficient readers and get high scores. One of the primary causes is that
students seem unskilled or unaware of the use of test-taking strategies for TOEIC reading
comprehension tests. Then, which strategies should students be used while taking the
TOEIC reading comprehension tests?
A number of studies and books have already been released in the area of application of
test-taking strategies to TOEIC reading comprehension part. This study is concerned with
developing test-taking strategies to help non-major English students at UNETI reduce
reading difficulties, improve their skills and take the TOEIC reading comprehension tests

with higher scores.
The result of the study show that non-major English students at UNETI often have
difficulties, to different extent, in many areas of the language such as difficulties with
vocabulary, with grammar, discourse, and reading strategies. Moreover, the data collected
in the study also revealed that the students‟ inefficient use of reading strategies is a great
source of reading problems. Through the students‟ low frequency of strategy use to deal
with question kinds in TOEIC reading comprehension tests, it is shown that students fail to
apply reading strategies effectively in responding to questions during tests. Therefore, the
study suggests that to enable to successfully take the TOEIC reading comprehension test,
students should actively use strategies involved as skimming and scanning skills, utilize
context clues to understand difficult words and find out the synonym or paraphrase for the
word. In some cases, if test-takers have no idea about a question, the application of
techniques to guess should be needed. Besides, the study also recommends several testtaking strategies for each kind of questions in TOEIC reading comprehension test.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

DECLARATION .................................................................................................................. i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................ ii
ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................... iv
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ vii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .......................................................................................... viii
PART I: INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale of the study ...................................................................................................... 1

2. Aims of the study............................................................................................................. 2
3. Research questions .......................................................................................................... 2
4. Scope of the study ........................................................................................................... 2
5. Methods of the study ....................................................................................................... 2
5. Significance of the study ................................................................................................. 2
6. Design of the study .......................................................................................................... 3
PART II: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1- THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
1. Reading Comprehension ................................................................................................. 4
1.1. Reading and Reading comprehension .......................................................................... 4
1.1.1. Definitions of reading ................................................................................................ 4
1.1.2. Definitions of reading comprehension ...................................................................... 4
1.2. Models of reading process ............................................................................................ 5
1.3. Reading comprehension approaches ............................................................................ 5
1.3.1. Skimming ................................................................................................................... 6
1.3.2. Scanning .................................................................................................................... 6
1.3.3. Extensive reading ...................................................................................................... 6
1.3.4. Intensive reading ....................................................................................................... 7
1.4. Reading Comprehension Skills and Strategies ............................................................. 7
1.4.1. Reading Strategies ..................................................................................................... 7
1.4.1.1. Reading for specific information ............................................................................ 7
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1.4.2.2. Finding the main ideas ........................................................................................... 8
1.4.2.3. Guessing vocabulary from the context ................................................................... 9
1.4.2.4. Making inferences................................................................................................... 9
1.4.2. Reading Comprehension Skills ............................................................................... 10
2. TOEIC reading comprehension tests ............................................................................. 12
2.1. What is the TOEIC test? ............................................................................................. 12

2.2. TOEIC Test Area ........................................................................................................ 12
2.3. Structure of the Test ................................................................................................... 13
2.4. Test Scoring ................................................................................................................ 13
2.5. Who takes the test? ..................................................................................................... 15
2.6. Test formats: SP and IP .............................................................................................. 15
2.7. TOEIC Reading Comprehension Section ................................................................... 16
CHAPTER 2- METHODOLOGY
2.1. The context of the study ............................................................................................. 17
2.2. Participants ................................................................................................................. 18
2.3. Data Collection Instruments ....................................................................................... 19
2.4. Data collection procedures ......................................................................................... 19
2.5. Data analysis ............................................................................................................... 20
CHAPTER 3 – FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Students‟ attitude towards TOEIC tests at UNETI..................................................... 21
3.2. Students‟ perception of their difficulties in taking TOEIC reading
comprehension tests at UNETI .......................................................................................... 21
3.2.1. In the area of Vocabulary ........................................................................................ 21
3.2.2. In the area of Grammar ........................................................................................... 22
3.2.3. In the area of Discourse .......................................................................................... 23
3.2.4. In the area of Reading Strategies ............................................................................ 24
3.2.5. Causes of Reading Difficulties ................................................................................ 24
3.2.6. Summary .................................................................................................................. 26
3.3. Students‟ frequency of strategy use across four main kinds of questions in
TOEIC reading comprehension test. ................................................................................. 26
3.3.1. Vocabulary questions .............................................................................................. 26
3.3.2. Inference Questions ................................................................................................. 28
v


3.4. Recommendations on developing test-taking strategies in TOEIC reading

comprehension test ............................................................................................................ 29
3.4.1. General test-taking reading strategies ..................................................................... 29
3.4.1.2. Read the questions carefully ................................................................................. 29
3.4.1.3. Answer every question .......................................................................................... 30
3.4.1.4. Read the questions before reading the passage ................................................... 31
3.4.1.5. Skimming .............................................................................................................. 31
3.4.1.6. Scanning ............................................................................................................... 32
3.4.1.7. Use Context Clues to understand difficult words ................................................. 33
3.4.1.8. Guessing ............................................................................................................... 34
3.4.2. Specific test-taking reading strategies for common question types ........................ 35
3.4.2.1. Test-taking reading strategies for vocabulary questions ..................................... 35
3.4.2.2. Test-taking reading strategies for factual questions ............................................ 37
3.4.2.3. Test-taking reading strategies for inference questions......................................... 37
PART III – CONCLUSION
1. Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 39
2. Limitations and of Recommendations for further Research .......................................... 40
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................. 41
AppendiX ....................................................................................................................... ...I

vi


LIST OF TABLES
1. Table 1. Student‟s perception about the importance of the TOEIC test at UNETI ...21
2. Table 2. Difficulties in the area of vocabulary...........................................................22
3. Table 3. Difficulties in the area of Grammar .............................................................23
4. Table 4. Difficulties in the area of Discourse ............................................................23
5. Table 5. Difficulties in the area of Reading Strategies ..............................................24
6. Table 6. Students‟ personal views of the sources of difficulties ................................25
7. Table 7: Frequency of Strategy Use for Vocabulary Questions ................................27

8. Table 8: Frequency of Strategy Use for Inference Question......................................29

vii


LIST OF ABBREVIATION
UNETI

University of Economic Technical Industries

ELT

English language teaching

TOEIC

Test of English for International Communication

ETS

Educational Testing System

TOEIC RC test

TOEIC Reading Comprehension test

TOEIC LC test

TOEIC Listening Comprehension test

viii


PART I – INTRODUCTION

1. Rationale
Reading as an active, receptive, and decoding language skill is the main source of
meaningful input in the process of learning a foreign language. Besides, according to Kim
and Anderson (2011, p. 30), “reading is essential for successfully completing all collegelevel courses. In other words, college students who are more proficient readers are most
likely to experience more success in their courses”. Meantime, tests are the most common
evaluating method in nearly all educational systems and academic institutions worldwide.
Generally, tests express the most students‟ total grades, particularly at the college level.
Whether the goal is college admission, certification, detection of specific behavior, or
personal selection, a decision about an individual‟s ability is usually made based on his or
her scores in specific tests. Therefore, it is certain that test takers have developed
numerous techniques for finding correct answers to reading tests without fully or even
partially understanding the text. However, in a test, to evaluate academic reading ability,
the primary needs for test takers is to actually use academic reading skills in responding to
items, rather than to rely on test-wiseness tricks. The Test of English for International
Communication (TOEIC) has made great efforts to evaluate the reading comprehension
abilities of test takers dealing with academic-like texts. It is clear that the reading tasks in
TOEIC are able to discriminate better readers from poorer readers. However, how exactly
do test-takers try to complete the tasks? What reading and test-taking strategies do students
use to complete the tasks?
For ages of applying TOEIC tests as the standard to assess the level of English
proficiency in the workplace and everyday communication of non- major English students
at University of Economic and Technical Industries (UNETI), I realize that many students
do not know how to utilize multiple test-taking strategies to enhance their performance in
successfully taking TOEIC tests in general, and TOEIC reading comprehension tests in
particular. In details, when approaching the TOEIC reading comprehension part, they

frequently read the questions and carelessly scan the passage, merely guessing answers in
the end, due to insufficient knowledge about text types and task design. Some can not
complete the whole reading test because they lack the fast reading skill and active
application of scanning or skimming strategies. Some seem unaware of the test-taking
strategies. Hence, the significance of a study on developing test-taking strategies for

1


TOEIC reading comprehension tests as a way of helping non- major English students at
UNETI do well in their tests seems undeniable.
2. Aims of the Study
This study was carried out with following specific purposes:
1) To investigate difficulties and causes of difficulties which non- major English
students at UNETI encounter in taking TOEIC reading comprehension tests.
2) To investigate the frequency use of test-taking strategies which non- major English
students at UNETI deal with question kinds in TOEIC reading comprehension tests.
3) To develop test-taking strategies to help learners reduce difficulties, improve their
reading skills and take the TOEIC reading comprehension tests with higher scores.
3. Research questions
The study was carried out in order to find out the answers to two research questions:
1) What are the difficulties and causes of difficulties encountered by non- English
major students at UNETI in taking TOEIC reading comprehension tests?
2) What is the frequency use of the test-taking strategies which non- major English
students at UNETI deal with question kinds in TOEIC reading comprehension
tests?
3) How to develop students‟ test-taking strategies for TOEIC reading comprehension
tests?
4. Scope of study
As the title of the study has indicated, the author only focuses on developing test-taking

strategies via TOEIC reading comprehension part. Besides, because of limited time and
scope of the minor thesis, the researcher can only conduct a survey on non- English major
students at UNETI.
5. Methods of study
In order to fulfill the aims of the study, the study has been carried out using both
quantitative and qualitative methods. The data were collected from survey on 120 nonEnglish major students at the UNETI. The survey questionnaire included both closed and
open-ended questions to ensure data.
6. Significance of the study
Results of the study will help provide a better understanding of test-taking strategies for
the TOEIC reading comprehension test placed on non- major English students at UNETI
and they are expected to successfully perform in their tests.
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7. Design of the study
This study consists of three parts:
Part I: Introduction. This part supplies an overview of the study with specific reference
to the rationale, the aims, the methodology and the design.
Part II: Development. In this part, four chapters are presented.
Chapter 1 – Literature Review deals with an exploration of the theoretical background of
the research. It is concerned with the issues relevant to the topic of the research: reading
and reading comprehension, and an overview of TOEIC reading comprehension tests.
Chapter 2 – Methodology presents the background information of the subjects of the study,
the instrument used to collect the data, the procedure of data collection.
Chapter 3 – Findings and Discussion is aimed at describing data analysis in detail and a
thorough discussion of the findings of the study. Some explanations and interpretations of
the findings are also presented in this chapter.
Part III: Conclusion. In this part, the limitations and some recommendations for further
research are also explored.
The Appendices lie on the last part of the study, following the References.

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PART II: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1 – THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
1. Reading Comprehension
1.1. Reading and Reading comprehension
1.1.1. Definitions of reading
So far, there are numerous definitions of reading by many perspectives – linguists,
psychologists, educators and second language researchers. Each author defines in a
different way as seen from his own point of view.
According to Goodman (1975, p.135), reading is “a psycholinguistics process by which the
reader, a language user, reconstructs, as best as he can, a message which has been
encoded by a writer as a graphic display”. This act of reconstruction is viewed as “a
cyclical process of sampling, predicting, testing, and confirming”.
Harmer (1989, p.153) considers reading as a mechanical process that “eyes receive the
message and the brain then has to work out the significance of the message”. Harmer
focuses on not only two actions dominated by the eyes and the brain but also the speed of
the process: “a reading text moves at a speed of the reader”, which means it is the reader
who decides how fast he wants to read the text.
Sharing the same opinion, Smith (1985, p.102) defined: “reading is understanding the
author‟s thought”. It means that the readers “read the author‟s mind not the author‟s
words”.
To sum up, it is obvious that attempts to define reading have been various but no
definitions can reveal all the features and ideas of what reading is. However, the
definitions all focus on the nature of reading that is the interaction between readers and
authors.
1.1.2. Definitions of reading comprehension
Reading comprehension takes an important role in teaching and learning reading. It is the

ability to get information from the text as efficiently as possible. There are three elements
involving in the reading process: the text being read, the background knowledge of the
reader and the contextual aspects relevant for interpreting the text.
According to Grellet (1990, p.3), “reading comprehension or understanding a written text
means extracting the required information from it as efficiently as possible”. Richard and
Thomas (1987, p.9) also stated: “reading comprehension is best described as an
understanding between the author and the reader”.
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As mentioned by Swan (1975, p.1), “a student is good at comprehension” if “he can read
accurately and efficiently, so as to get the maximum information of a text with the
minimum understanding”. After reading, readers can master the grammatical structures,
words pronunciation, understanding the context of the texts and use it in real life as
effective as possible.
In short, reading is to comprehend the ideas in the material. Without comprehension,
reading would be empty and meaningless.
1.2. Models of reading process
As can be seen, there have been a great number of discussions and arguments among
methodologists about the reading process. According to Nuttall (2005), this process is
shown such some ways as bottom-up approach, top-down approach and the interaction of
top-down and bottom-up processing.
In the bottom-up reading process, Nuttall (2005, p. 17) points out that the reader
constructs meaning from a written text such as recognizing letters and words, working out
sentence structure. This model pays special attention to grammatical skills and vocabulary
development. Alderson (2000, p. 16), sharing with Nuttall‟s idea, states that “the reader
experiences an automatic process in which he begins with the printed words, recognizes
graphic stimuli, decodes them to sounds, recognizes words and decodes meanings”.
Comprehension at this process results in a relatively shallow understanding of what the
text stated directly. As a result, this process underestimated the contribution of the reader.

Top-down processing emphasizes the importance of the reader‟s background knowledge,
or the schemata. This theory argues that when reading a text, a reader has his own
knowledge, expectations, and questions, which he matches with the text. Silberstein (1994,
p. 7) presents that “readers use prior knowledge to make predictions about the data they
will find in a text”. According to Nuttall (2005, p. 16), this process helps readers see the
overall purpose of the text as well as enables them to predict the writer‟s purpose.
Goodman (1982, cited in Alderson, 2000, p. 17) calls reading “a psycholinguistic guessing
game” in which the reader has an active role. This approach, therefore, emphasizes the
importance of building and activating the reader‟s background knowledge in enhancing his
reading skill.
However, reading process is not full understanding without the combination of these
approaches. Only with a combination of those two approaches can the process of reading
be adequately characterized. This combination is referred to as the interactive processing
whose advocates argue that “top-down and bottom-up processes are occurring, either
alternatively or simultaneously” (Alderson, 2000, p. 18). With the share of Alderson‟s
5


point of view, Nuttall (2005, p. 17) suggests that “bottom-up and top-down approaches are
used to complement each other”.
In short, the abilities to approach a text both top-down and bottom-up are of equal
importance as these processes cannot be separated. And the interactive processing can
maximize the strengths and minimizes the weaknesses of the bottom-up and top-down
processing.
1.3. Reading comprehension approaches
Efficient reading comprehension consists of clearly identifying the purposes in reading
something. By doing so, the readers know what they are looking for and can weed out
potential distracting information. Certainly, different purposes require different kinds of
reading. Therefore, according to the purposes of reading, Wood (1985), Williams (1986)
and Grellet (1990) categorize reading into intensive, extensive, skimming, and scanning.

1.3.1. Skimming
Skimming differs from general rapid reading in that the readers go through the text
extremely quickly, merely dipping into it or sampling it at various points. Skimming is the
technique that is used widely in reading comprehension. Grellet (1981, p. 19) states that
the purpose of skimming is simply to see what a text is about. Because of its nature, the
key to skimming is to know where to find the main idea of different paragraph and to be
able to synthesize them by way of generalization.
1.3.2. Scanning
Like skimming, scanning is also one of the two most valuable reading strategies. It is a
useful skill worth cultivating for its own sake, if it has been cultivated systematically from
the earliest point in the course at which it can be attempted, co-operative work on the study
of texts can be greatly expected and made easy. Francois (1981, p. 19) understands that
“when scanning, we only try to locate specific information and often we do not even follow
the linearity of the passage to do so. We simply let our eyes wander over the text until we
find what we are looking for, whether it is a name, a date, or a less specific piece of
information”. The key to scanning is to decide exactly what kind of information we can
look for and where to find it. The purpose of scanning is to extract certain specific
information without reading through the whole text.
1.3.3. Extensive reading
Extensive reading is a fluency activity, mainly involving general understanding. It
provides valuable reinforcement of the language already presented and practiced in the
class as well as giving students useful practice in interring meaning from the context of the
text. Basing on the importance of extensive reading, Nuttal (1982, p.168) shows that “the
best way to improve one‟s knowledge of a foreign learner in is to go and live among its
6


speakers: the next best way is to read extensively in it”. Lewis and Hill (1985, p.109) state
that “extensive reading means students have a general understanding of the text without
necessarily understanding every word”. It is obvious that when reading extensively,

readers do not need to have intense concentration on the content of a long text and total
comprehension because the objective of extensive reading is to cover the greatest possible
amount of text in the shortest time. Extensive reading promotes reading out the class and
gives them opportunity to use their own knowledge of the language for their own purposes.
1.3.4. Intensive reading
The remaining two kinds of reading activity, content study reading and linguistic study
reading are also often grouped together and called intensive reading. Different form
extensive reading – reading for fluency, readers can read without the aid of the teacher and
without understanding the text in detail – intensive reading is regarded as reading for
accuracy. It “involves approaching the text under the close guidance of the teacher or
under the guidance of a task which forces the students to pay great attention to the text in
order to arrive at a profound to detailed understanding of the text not only of what it
means, but also of how the meaning is produced. The “How” is as important as the
“What”, for the intensive reading lesson is intended primarily to train students in reading
strategies”, (Nutall, 1982, p.23)
Sharing this opinion, Lewis (1985, p.109) states that intensive reading means students
understand everything they read and be able to answer detailed vocabulary and
comprehension questions. In other words, the aim of intensive reading is to obtain the
fullest possible response in the students‟ head to the black mark in his book. Response
cannot be achieved by instruction about what he ought to see and feel, or by repetition of
what others see and feel, although knowledge of what can be seen by others sometimes
helps us to see for ourselves.
In sum, there are different ways of reading and they are determined not by the texts but by
the reader‟s reasons for reading. In order to understand a text effectively, the readers
should not use these ways independently. They must know how to use suitable ways to
achieve their reading purpose.
1.4. Reading Comprehension Strategies and Skills
1.4.1. Reading Strategies
1.4.1.1. Reading for specific information
Reading for specific information is the way we read the passage and only pay attention to

the relevant parts or information needed, we don‟t need to take care of all printed words on
the page. We are suggested to skip unnecessary information or irrelevant parts in the
passage. With respect to reading for specific information, readers are advised to run their
7


eyes very quickly and only stop reading when they found the information wanted. Hence,
the reading sub-skill is close to scanning. In other words, scanning is reading strategies for
locating specific information. Brown (1994, p. 293) refers to reading for specific
information is the way of “quickly searching for some particular pieces of information in a
text”. Grellet (1981, p. 19) also claims that when locating specific information, we do not
even follow the linearity of the passage to do so, the way we should do is to “let our eyes
wander over the text until we find what we are looking for”. Clearly, the skill has strong
relationship with scanning. If a reader doesn‟t recognize this relationship, he/she will take
a lot of time to deal with the task on locating specific information.
1.4.1.2. Finding the main ideas
Finding the main ideas requires readers to gain their reading comprehension at both literal
and inferential level. If the main information is directly stated in the paragraph or in the
passage, readers only understand the text at their literal reading comprehension level, if not,
they have to infer the main ideas and readers must gain their reading comprehension at
inferential level.
Finding the main ideas is the ability to find the most important thing an author is trying to
say. It is perhaps the most important of all reading comprehension skills. Harris (1962, p.
240-241) expresses “without it, the reader gets lost in a mass of detail”. As a result, he/she
will become confused about the principal topic that is discussed. Therefore, grasping main
points from the text is crucial for mastering content information.
Finding the main ideas in a passage is more complicated than that in a paragraph because
readers have to find the main ideas of different paragraphs and then to synthesize them into
an organic whole. The main idea of a paragraph or a passage refers to the central points or
thought being expressed in the paragraph or in the passage. In order to grasp the main idea,

a reader should ask himself/herself the question “what is this paragraph or this passage
about?” If he/she answers this question perfectly, he/she will succeed in recognizing the
main idea.
In a paragraph, the main idea usually lies in the first or in the last sentence, and the main
idea of the text is usually in the introductory or in the concluding paragraph. On occasion,
the main ideas of paragraphs are not states explicitly but have to be inferred. In this case,
readers should decide what the topic is and determine the main ideas from the details.
Finding the main ideas is related closely to skimming because “skimming gives readers the
advantage of being able to predict the purpose of the passage, the main topic or message,
and possibly some of the developing or supporting ideas. This gives them “head start” as
they embark on more focused reading” (Brown 1994, p. 293). It means that, in skimming,
8


readers have to find the general and overall ideas of the whole text in order to catch the
gist of it.
1.4.1.3. Guessing vocabulary from the context
It cannot be denied that vocabulary plays an essential role in reading. Wilkin (1972, p.
110) states its role in reading comprehension that “without grammar, very little can be
conveyed, without vocabulary nothing conveyed”. Studies by different investigators show
that knowledge of word meaning is the most important single factor that accounts for
variability in reading comprehension. Hence, the more number of vocabularies a reader
knows, the better he/she can gain reading comprehension. However, it is the fact that no
readers can know all English words while dealing with reading materials. They can cope
with unknown words but the matter is that they know a small number of words or a large
number of words. In the case they deal with unfamiliar words, they are suggested to make
a guess at the meaning of the words they do not know rather than look them up in a
dictionary. When readers guess meaning of an unknown word, they must gain their
reading comprehension at inferential level.
In order to guess meaning of an unknown word, we should put it in its context. The

meaning of a word in context is its meaning in the particular sentence and paragraph in
which it is used. A single English word can gave many different meanings, its precise
meaning always depends on the context it is used. Contextual clues are used to make a
good guess at the word‟s meaning. Learning how to use context clues to figure out the
meaning of unknown words is an essential reading strategy and vocabulary builder.
1.4.1.4. Making inferences
An inference is making meaning out of an idea suggested in a text that is not stated
directly by the writer. It is sometimes called “reading between the lines”. Making inference
in reading is a crucial skill that must be mastered for a reader to have real comprehension.
Making inferences helps readers recognize the author‟s purpose to see whether the author
offers any personal messages without actually stating them. When inferring, on one side,
readers use clues from the text to figure out something that the author doesn‟t tell them,
another side, they draw upon prior knowledge to make judgments about upcoming events
in the passage. From that they can draw a logical conclusion about what might happen next.
Hence, reading for inference involves reading the text and recalling prior experience. Once
readers make inferences from the text, it means they gain their reading comprehension at
inferential level.

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There are different types of inference one can draw from written discourse. They are
explained below in terms of bridging inference, contextual inference and structural
inference.
-

Bridging Inference: Bridging Inference is drawn to establish coherence between a
present piece of information and a preceding piece of information. Here, we have to
infer the relationship or link between these two pieces of information.

-

Contextual Inference: Contextual Inference is drawn to infer the implied idea or
suggestion in a text. It concerns expectations about what events will take place in the
world described by the text, not about what events will actually be stated explicitly in
the text. In order to infer the implied idea, the reader has to use several types of
information in the text.

-

Structural inference: It refers to the reader using his implicit knowledge of text
structures to facilitate his comprehension of texts. Text structure refers to how the
ideas in the text are organized by the writer.

1.4.2. Reading Comprehension Skills
Duffy (1993, p. 232) reveals that “reading strategies are plans for solving problems
encountered in constructing meaning”. The two terms “reading skills” and “reading
strategies” are often used interchangeably. According to Karlin, R and Karlin, A.R. (1988,
p. 43-44), they make a list of reading comprehension skills which are categorized into five
groups:
 Word recognition skills:
-

use of contextual clues: Context is associated with meaning, and it is meaning, as
well as visual elements, that aids readers in recognizing words or identifying
unknown words. Contextual clues are related to syntactical clues.

-

phonic analysis: studying letter-sound relationships as a means of analyzing

words

-

structural analysis: breaking word apart, it involves the recognition of prefixes,
suffixes, root words, syllables, and accents in analyzing words. Structural
components within familiar words would consider structural clues in identifying
unknown words.

-

use of dictionary: learning how to locate entry words. This involves knowledge
of alphabetical order and of the use of guidewords, and the ability to recognize
root words.

-

acquisition of sight vocabulary: the ability of recognizing words without having
to examine them carefully.
10


 Word meaning skills:
-

use of contextual clues

-

structural analysis

-

use of dictionary

-

recognition of multiple meanings

-

recognition of figurative language: the ability of distinguishing between the
literal and the figurative meanings of words

 Comprehension skills:
-

recognition of literal meaning

-

recognition of inferred meaning

-

critical evaluation of material

-

assimilation of material

 Study skills:
-

location of information: How to use sources of information from the table of
content, the index, the encyclopedia

-

selection of information: Making decisions about what ideas and facts are
important. It consists of recognizing subjects, recognizing topics, recognizing
main ideas, key sentences, noting important details.

-

organization and retention of information: seeing relationships among ideas and
thinking about them in an organized way furthers understanding and facilities
recall. They include preparing outlines, preparing summaries, taking notes.

-

use of graphic and typographical aids: Illustrations to make abstract ideas clearer
and concrete such as: maps, diagrams, charts, and pictures.

-

ability to preview: taking a quick look at a reading before trying to understand
the whole thing.

-

flexibility: when to read slowly and carefully and when to read quickly, and how
to vary their reading styles according to their purposes and the nature of the
material. It deals with scanning for specific information, skimming for general
ideas.

 Appreciation skills:
-

recognition of the language literature

-

recognition of the form of literature

It can be seen that there are various sub-skills of reading comprehension by different
authors. However, such sub-skills of reading comprehension as reading for specific
information, finding the main ideas, guessing vocabulary from the context, and making
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inferences are considered basic reading skills to understand the author‟s thought. Therefore,
the study would focus on the four reading sub-skills.
2. TOEIC reading comprehension tests
2.1. What is the TOEIC test?
TOEIC, which stands for Test of English for International Communication, measures
English proficiency in a work related environment at advanced and intermediate levels. It
is designed to give an accurate measurement of the English capabilities of people who do
not use English as their mother tongue. The first TOEIC test was administrated in
December 1979 and was taken by 2,773 people. The average score was 578. Since those

early days the test has seen a dramatic increase in test taker numbers. It is currently used in
over 60 countries and taken by more than 4.5 million people per year.
Every year, a great deal of investment goes into test item creation, piloting, and analysis.
The results of each test sitting are statistically analyzed and adjusted to ensure consistent
scores between sittings.
Beginning in May 2006, the New TOEIC has been designed to better address the real
demand of workplace communication English. Tasks are “more authentic” and “more
closely resemble what a person using the language in the real world would have to do”.
According to Educational Testing Service (ETS), the new TOEIC test emphasizes
authentic language contexts which require learners to use multiple strategies and abilities
to comprehend and connect information. While the number of test items and the basic test
format remain unchanged, several major changed are introduced, which reflects the test
designers‟ commitment to continuous reevaluation and improvement of the test while
addressing the need to ensure high TOEIC scores actually correlate with real ability to
communicate in English.
2.2. TOEIC Test Area
As TOEIC measures the candidate‟s proficiency in the workplace and everyday
communication, the test questions are based on real life work setting in an international
environment (meeting, travel, telephone conversation, etc.). To ensure that the test
measures what it is supposed to in a fair, valid and reliable way, these characteristics are
common of the test items:
-

Vocabulary, grammar and idioms are not specifically American English

-

Culture specific and job/profession specific situations are avoided

-

Names from different countries are included.

-

Different English accents are used throughout the test – mainly American, British,
Canadian and Australian accents.
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2.3. Structure of the Test
The New TOEIC test is a two-hour, paper-and-pencil, multiple-choice test that consists of
200 questions divided into separated-timed sections:
Section

Part

Number of

Task

Questions

1

Photographs

10

Listening

2

Question-Response

30

Section

3

Short Conversations

30

4

Short Talks

30

5

Incomplete Sentences

40

6

Text Complete

12

Reading
Section

Total

Reading

7

Maximum

Time

Score

45 minutes

495

75 minutes

495

120 minutes

990

48

Comprehension

200

7 Parts

Questions

2.4. Test Scoring
The test is scored from 10 to 990 and there is no pass or fail mark. The following chart
showing the approximate correlation between TOEIC scores and levels of ability is based
on ETS research. It is intended to help organizations set their own standards.
TOEIC
Score

Level

Evaluation Guidelines
Can usually communicate Within

his/her

own

realm

of

adequately as a non-native experience, the individual is capable
speaker.

of sufficient understanding and can
typically respond with appropriate
expressions
outside

A

even
his/her

about
field

topics
of

specialization.
Although speech is not equivalent to
that of a native speaker, the
individual has a strong grasp of
vocabulary, grammar, and structure
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and the ability to use the language
relatively fluently.
860

Is capable of communicating Understands ordinary conversation
appropriately in most

well and can respond naturally. The

situations.

individual also has the ability to
respond in some fashion, even when
the topic relates to specialized
fields. There are typically no great
barriers to communicating in usual

B

business situations.
While grammatical and structural
mistakes sometimes occur and some
isolated disparities exist in terms of
correctness and fluency, they are
not so frequent that speech is
misunderstood.

730

Has sufficient knowledge Can understand the gist of ordinary
for daily activities and conversation and has no trouble
conducting business within forming responses. However, the
certain limits.

individual shows some disparities in
the ability to respond correctly and
making himself/ herself understood
in more complicated situations.

C

The individual has acquired a
fundamental knowledge of grammar
and structure and has the vocabulary
to

communicate

essential

information, even when lacking
expressive power.

470

Is capable of the minimal Can

understand

simple

communication in ordinary conversations when the other party
D

conversation.

speaks

slowly

and

repeats

or

rephrases what is said. Is capable of
responding to familiar topics.
14


Knowledge

of

vocabulary,

grammar, and structure is generally
inadequate. However, if the other
party is used to dealing with nonnative speakers, the individual can
manage to get a point across.
220

Is not able to communicate Even simple conversation at a slow
adequately.

pace is only partially understood.
Is

able

to

communicate

with

isolated phrases but not in full,

E

grammatically correct sentences and
does not effectively serve to make
himself/ herself understood.
2.5. Who takes the test?
Since its relatively humble beginnings in 1979, test taker numbers have steadily increased
and today the TOEIC test is one of the most common internationally recognized English
proficiency exams in the world. The reason for this is that TOEIC is increasingly being
seen as a reliable standard measure for making both employment and academic decisions.
Business test takers – An increasing number of companies worldwide use the TOEIC to set
targets for English proficiency for the purposes of hiring new workers, transfers to
different companies, or for promotion to management positions. This is especially true of
large multinational corporations, or companies that export their products internationally.

Academic test takers – Although originally aimed at English use within a business context,
TOEIC Listening and Reading Test is increasingly being used within academic contexts.
In Japan, a significant proportion of the universities and colleges surveyed used the test for
purposes of accreditation, course placement, and measuring progress within a curriculum.
A growing number of universities around the world have adopted TOEIC as a way of
screening candidates for their graduate programs, especially in the fields of business or
international studies. In some institutions candidates who achieve high TOEIC scores also
earn the right to be recommended for scholarships or for special certification.
2.6. Test formats: SP and IP
There are two main formats to the TOEIC test, the Secure Program (SP) and the
Institutional Program (IP). The differences between these relate primarily to the way they
are administered.
15