A study on pragmatic equivalence in the english vietnamese translation of the story confession of an economic hit man by john perkins

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES & INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
DEPARTMENT OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES

VŨ THỊ THANH HOA

A STUDY ON PRAGMATIC EQUIVALENCE IN THE
ENGLISH VIETNAMESE TRANSLATION OF THE
STORY “CONFESSIONS OF AN ECONOMIC HIT MAN”
BY JOHN PERKINS
(Nghiên cứu tính tương đương ngữ dụng trong bản dịch Anh- Việt tác
phẩm “Lời thú tội của Một sát thủ kinh tế” của John Perkins)

M.A. Minor Thesis

Field: English linguistics
Code: 602215

Hanoi, 2009


VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES & INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
DEPARTMENT OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES

VŨ THỊ THANH HOA

A STUDY ON PRAGMATIC EQUIVALENCE IN THE
ENGLISH VIETNAMESE TRANSLATION OF THE
STORY “CONFESSIONS OF AN ECONOMIC HIT MAN”
BY JOHN PERKINS

(Nghiên cứu tính tương đương ngữ dụng trong bản dịch Anh- Việt tác
phẩm “Lời thú tội của Một sát thủ kinh tế” của John Perkins)

M.A. Minor Thesis

Field: English linguistics
Code: 602215
Supervisor: Assoc.Prof.Dr. LÊ HÙNG TIẾN

Hanoi, 2009


TABLE OF CONTENT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ABSTRACT
PART I: INTRODUCTION

1

1. Rationale of the study

1

2. Purposes of the study

2

3. Scope of the study

2

4. Methodology

2

5. Design of the study

4

PART II: DEVELOPMENT

5

CHAPTER 1: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

5

1.1. What is Pragmatics

5

1.2. Pragmatic Markers

5

1.3. What is Equivalence in Translation

9

1.4. Pragmatic Equivalence

10

1.5. E. A. Nida’s response-based approach on Translation Quality Assessment 14
1.6. Pragmatic features of the source text and the receptor of the target text

16

CHAPTER 2: PRAGMATIC MARKERS IN THE ORIGINAL TEXT.

20

2.1. Functions of Pragmatic Markers in Rhetorical Structure

20

2.1.1. Emphasizer

20

2.1.2. Comment Msarker

20

2.1.3. Evidential Marker

20

2.1.4. Resumption Marker

21

2.1.5. Addition Marker

21

2.1.6. Concluding Marker

22

2.1.7. Evaluator

22

2.1.8. Topic Shifter

22

2.1.9. Clarifier

22


2.2. Functions of Pragmatic Markers in Sequential Structure

23

2.2.1. Opening segment boundary marker

23

2.2.2. Closing segment boundary marker

23

2.3. Functions of Pragmatic Markers in Inferential Structure

24

2.3.1. Contextual Constrainer

24

2.3.2. Monitoring Marker

24

2.3.3. Justification Marker

24

2.3.4. Face-threat mitigator

25

CHAPTER 3: TREATMENTS OF PRAGMATIC MARKERS IN THE 26
VIETNAMESE TRANSLATION
3.1. Treatment of pragmatic markers in Rhetorical Structure

27

3.1.1. Treatment of Emphasizer

27

3.1.2. Treatment of Comment marker

27

3.1.3. Treatment of Evidential Marker

27

3.1.4. Treatment of Resumption Marker

27

3.1.5. Treatment of Addition Marker

28

3.1.6. Treatment of Concluding Marker

28

3.1.7. Treatment of Evaluator

28

3.1.8. Treatment of Topic Shifter

28

3.1.9. Treatment of Clarifier

29

3.2. Treatment of pragmatic markers in Sequential Structure

29

3.2.1. Treatment of Opening segment boundary marker

29

3.2.2. Treatment of Closing segment boundary marker

29

3.3. Treatment of pragmatic markers in Inferential Structure

29

3.3.1. Treatment of Contextual Constrainer

29

3.3.2. Treatment of Monitoring Marker

30

3.3.3. Treatment of Justification Marker

30

3.3.4. Treatment of Face-threat mitigator

30


3.4. Analysis of the pragmatic equivalence in the translation with regards to 31
pragmatic markers through a written discourse completion task.
3.4.1. The participants

31

3.4.2. The instruments

31

3.4.3. Data analysis

31

3.4.4. Results

31

PART 3: CONCLUSION

41

1. Findings of the study

41

2. Implications

42

3. Recommendations for further research.

43

REFERENCES

44


1

PART I: INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale of the study
Much ink has flown on discussing the term equivalence in translation. It is the
relationship between a source text (ST) and a target text (TT) that allows the TT to
be considered as a translation of the ST. It signifies any relation characterizing
translation under a specified set of circumstances. Equivalence was a relationship
between two texts in two languages, rather than between the languages
themselves. It can be said that success of a translation is determined not only by
the equivalence of meaning. The degree of success also depends on some other

factors like stylistic equivalence, pragmatic equivalence or textual equivalence.
The neglect of any equivalence for any possible reasons may affect or reduce the
target readers‟ reception of a translation. Therefore, it is required for a considerate
translator to be aware of the SL text‟s pragmatic peculiarities and reproduce them
in the target language one. In practice, an important assumption which translators
entertain seems to be one epitomized by something Eugene Nida said many years
ago, echoing Jakobson (1959): “Anything which can be said in one language can
be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message (Nida
and Taber 1969:4).”
The focus of the study will be put on pragmatic equivalence between the source
and target language texts, which is indicated by taking pragmatic markers in both
texts into consideration.
Accordingly, the book “Confessions of an Economic Hitman” (published in 2004)
is chosen. John Perkins lifted the veil on a world rarely seen by most people. He
took us on a tour of the costs and consequences of American corporate hegemony,
dispelling myths of the „free market‟, and forcing us to peer deep into our own
souls. As Perkins states in his earlier works, "The world is as you dream it," so the
question is, “what will you dream?” This book is translated into Vietnamese by a
group of translators headed by Lê Đồng Tâm and has caught a great interest of
certain Vietnamese readers.


2

2. Purposes of the study
The study sets out to obtain the purposes as follows:
- To investigate the numerous functions of pragmatic markers in the ST as well as
the treatment of these markers in the TT.
- To study the dynamic equivalence between the original text and its translation.
- To suggest some implications for teaching and learning of English in general and

translation studies in particular.
3. Scope of the study
The study is focused on dynamic equivalence between “Confessions of an
Economic Hit Man” & its “Lời thú tội của một sát thủ kinh tế”. More specifically,
the study is confined to the relationship between pragmatic effect of pragmatic
markers valid for different receiver groups and habits of using these markers as
well as of choosing language style in different language pairs. The ground for the
investigation in this study is the notion of dynamic equivalence proposed by Nida
& Taber (1969),

Koller (1989), Baker (1992), Newmark (1981), Hatim and

Mason (1990) and Monia Bayar (2007) and the conception of pragmatics and
pragmatic markers suggested by Levinson (1983), Richards J.C, Platt J & Platt H
(1992) and Fraser (1999)
4. Methodology
4.1.

Research Questions

- What are pragmatic features of the source text and the receptors‟response to the
translation text?
- What are functions of pragmatic markers demonstrated in John Perkins‟s original
work? Are these markers treated equivalently in the translation text?
- To what extent are the original text and the translation pragmatically equivalent?


3

4.2. Methods

On the one hand, this study will be conducted under the corpus-based analysis.
The aim of this method is to attempt to outline the existing territory occupied by a
new field of research in translation studies. The research techniques are gathering
quantitative data via a survey questionnaire and presenting the results through
statistics and tables. On the other hand, the qualitative method will be resorted to
as a supplementary one and not officially employed. It will help understand the
meaning of the numbers produced by quantitative methods. Using quantitative
methods, it is possible to give precise and testable expression to qualitative ideas.
This combination of quantitative and qualitative data gathering is often referred to
as mixed-methods research.
4.3.

Data collection procedures

To investigate the pragmatic equivalence between the original text “Confessions
of an Economic Hit Man” and its Vietnamese translation, the following steps will
be taken to collect data for the study:
-

doing document analyses to build up a strong theoretical framework for the
study

-

conducting a survey according to DCT method to identify and collect all
pragmatic markers explicit in the SL and TL texts.
In the DCT the discourse is structured so that part of it is left open and part

closed. A space is provided for subjects to supply speech act under investigation,
but the response is provided in order to cue the respondent as to the appropriate

nature of the speech act realization, i.e., the level of formality, and a description of
the roles and relationship of the interlocutors.
Also the DCT is an effective means of studying the stereotypical perceived
requirements for a socially appropriate response and is a good way to gain insight
into social and psychological factors that are likely to affect speech and


4

performance i.e. it avoids those very context specific constraints that influence
authentic data.
Cohen (1996, p.25) concludes that “discourse completion tests are
effective means of gathering a large amount of data quickly, creating an initial
classification of semantic formulas, and ascertaining the structure of speech act
under consideration.”
-

holding discussions with colleagues in the field to investigate their
viewpoints and experience in translating pragmatic markers

4.4.

Data Analysis

To facilitate the process of analyzing data, the inductive method has been
employed. Then, comparison and contrast between the original and its translation
are made as well as detailed analyses are carried out so that a conclusion on the
level of pragmatic equivalence between the original and translation can be
reached.
5. Design of the study

The study is composed of three main parts: the introduction, the
development and the conclusion.
The introduction states the rationale, purposes, scope, methodology and design of
the study.
The development consists of three chapters:
Chapter one: Theoretical background.
Chapter two: Pragmatic markers in the original text.
Chapter three: Treatments of pragmatic markers in the Vietnamese translation.
The conclusion summarizes the main points discussed in the previous parts and
puts forwards some implications for translation learning and practice.


5

PART II: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
1.1. What is pragmatics?
Some linguistics tend to take into consideration intensional definitions of
pragmatics which are: "the study of the relations of signs to interpreters" (Morris,
1938: 84); "the study of indexical rules for relating linguistic form to a given
context" (Bates, 1976: 3); "a theory that has as its subject matter the relationship
between a language, its subject matter, and the users of the language" (Martin,
1971 : 138); "the theory of the relation between the language users and the
language structure" (Apostel, 1971: 33); "the science of language use" (Haberland
and Mey, 1977: 1). Others deal with extensional definitions: "Pragmatics is the
study of deixis, implicature, presupposition, speech acts, and aspects of
discourse structure" (Levinson, 1983:27); "Pragmatics, for a natural language,
concerns 'illucutionary force', 'implicature', 'presupposition', and 'contextdependent
acceptability'" (Gazdar, 1979: 2).
Richards J.C, Platt J & Platt H (1992:284) regards Pragmatics as the study of the

use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between
sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. Pragmatics
includes the study of:
a. how the interpretation and use of UTTERANCES depend on knowledge of the
real world
b. how speakers use and understand SPEECH ACTS
c. how the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the
speaker and the hearer.
1.2. Pragmatic markers
Pragmatic markers are polyfuntional cues that predicate changes in the speaker‟s
cognition, attitudes, and beliefs and facilitate the transmission of illocutionary


6

force and intentions. The speaker makes use of markers to segment, recover,
organize and reformulate the information provided to the hearer, but also to share
common ground, assumptions and presuppositions with him/her. Behind the use of
a particular marker, there are therefore not only ideational, rhetorical and
structural purposes, but a strong inferential component as well that is reflected in
certain parts of the pragmatic structure of the discourse.
Brinton (1996:33-5) provides an exhaustive list of basic features of pragmatic
markers that, although not fully manifested by all units that could be considered
pragmatic markers, suggest a range of properties that most markers display. One
of these features is that makers have little or no propositional meaning, which
might make us conclude that the presence of a device of such characteristics is
totally unnecessary in the message we are trying to convey. This is basically true
as far as informational value of the message, that is, a marker is not strictly
obligatory for the full understanding of a sentence or segment, but, as Schiffrin
suggests (1987:318), it is probably necessary to make the type of relationship

between preceding and following propositions explicit and clear. In a similar line
of argument, Fraser (1999:946) claims: “a marker reinforces a relationship
between segments by virtue of discourse marker meaning, while on the other hand,
the context, both linguistic and non-linguistic, elaborates and enriches the
relationship based on the details present”. The attempts to clarify the status of
markers have been varied (similar to the numerous labels attached to them).
However, although there seems to be a general agreement among scholars that
markers have a strong procedural meaning, that is, that they are key traces for the
right interpretation of a given piece of discourse, there is no consensus on the sort
of relationship that these units signal.
In this study we proposed four groups of pragmatic markers (Fraser,1999:946).
First, there are basic pragmatic markers, which specify more or less the potential


7

force (type) of the basic message conveyed by the sentence: the message conveyed
with the propositional content of the sentence as the message content. Every
sentence has at least one basic pragmatic marker. This group includes sentence
mood (declarative, interrogative, and imperative structures) and lexical
expressions, for example, performative expressions such as I promise, I claim, and
I regret, and certain forms such as please and kindly. These markers are illustrated
by the examples in (3).
(3) a) I regret that he is still here. b) Admittedly, I was taken in. c) The cat is sick.
By virtue of the I regret in (3a) the speaker is conveying an expression of regret
(more accurately, the sentence has the potential when uttered of conveying an
expression of regret). While in sentence (3b) the speaker is conveying an
admission. Sentence (3c) has no lexical basic pragmatic marker, as do the first
two, but its declarative mood signals that the speaker is expressing belief (a claim,
an admission, a report) towards the state of the world expressed by the

propositional content.
Second, there are commentary pragmatic markers, which signal an entire message
which provides a comment on the direct basic message. These markers are
optionally present but when they do occur, their message is typically very general,
with a single word often signaling both the message force and content. Obviously,
they constitute pragmatic idioms. The sentences in (4) illustrate this type of
marker.
(4) a) Stupidly, Sara didn‟t fax the correct form.
b) I‟m not an expert, but shouldn‟t we be there by now.
In (4a), the basic message is (arguably) a report that Sara didn‟t fax the correct
form, while the commentary message, signaled by stupidly, is that the speaker
believes Sara‟s failure to act to have been stupid. In (4b), the I’m not an expert,
but signals that the basic message which follows is, in the speaker‟s opinion, not
going to be well received by the addressee and the speaker is trying to reduce the
face loss involved.


8

Third, there are parallel pragmatic markers, also optional, which signal an entire
message separate from the basic and any commentary messages. The sentences in
(5) are illustrative of parallel markers.
(5) a) John, take off your dirty shoes. b) In God‟s name, what are you doing now?
In (5a), in addition to the basic message of a directive that John take off his dirty
shoes, the speaker is conveying a message, signaled by John, that it is John who is
being addressed. In (5b), in God’s name signals exasperation on the part of the
speaker which may or may not be related to the hearer‟s activities.
Finally, there are discourse pragmatic markers, again optional, which signal a
message specifying how the basic message is related to the foregoing discourse
context. The sentences in (6) illustrate these markers.

(6) a) Jacob was very tired. So, he left early.
b) Martha‟s party is tomorrow. Incidentally, when is your party?
Here, in (6a), the so signals that the speaker views the report that he left early
should be treated as a conclusion based on the message conveyed by the preceding
sentence, while in (6b) the incidentally signals that the following basic message
should be treated as a shift in topic.
To summarize, a basic marker signals the force of the basic message, a
commentary marker signals a message which comments on the basic message, a
parallel marker signals a message in addition to the basic message, and a discourse
marker signals the relationship of the basic message to the foregoing discourse.
This may be shown schematically in (7).
(7) Discourse PM (Parallel PM (Commentary PM (Basic PM (Propositional
Content)))).
Although it is rare to find all four types of pragmatic markers in a single sentence,
it does occur
(8) I appreciate that you are a member of the Police Benevolent Association and a
supporter of the baseball league. However, frankly Sir, 1 estimate that you were
going a bit more than 86 miles per hour.


9

In the similar line, the proposal here presented (Gonzalez, 2004) builds upon
Redeker‟s (1990) discourse coherence model and following classification of
markers according to the model. First, markers found in the ideational structure
are considered those that set up logico-semantic argumentative relations (of cause,
reason, result, concession, contrast, time, etc.). They have descriptive or lexical
meaning and have been traditionally called in the literature argumentative
connectors. Lexical units that fully fall under this category (units such as therefore,
in contrast, on the other hand, nevertheless, because, etc.) will therefore be

excluded from this study and only markers whose functions fall under the
rhetorical, sequential and inferential components will be considered and discussed.
Markers whose main functions are rhetorical signal the speaker‟s intentions and
goals and basically convey the illocutionary force of the story. Markers found in
the sequential structure delimit segments boundaries and sustain the discourse
network; they highly facilitate the in-and-out shift of the narrative segments. In the
case of markers that have dominant inferential role, the link that is set up between
the cognitive domain of the speaker and hearer is fundamental to understand and
grasp the point of the story.
1.3. What is Equivalence in Translation?

• It is the relationship between a source text (ST) and a target text (TT) that allows
the TT to be considered as a translation of the ST.

• Any relation characterizing translation under a specified set of circumstances.
Equivalence is relative and not absolute, it emerges from the context of situation
by the interplay of (many different factors) and has no existence outside that
context, and in particular it is not stipulated in advance by an algorithm for the
conversion of linguistic units of L1 into linguistic units of L2” (House, 1977)


10

1.4. Pragmatic equivalence: (Nida (1964) calls it “dynamic equivalence”).
The pragmatic level is generally concerned with language that is tied to social
context in a different way. Pragmatics is the study of language used in a specific
social context 'do things' rather than 'say things'. Language used in this way will
often have a force that goes against what seems to be its literal meaning. The SL
and TL words have the same effect on the reader or mainly aiming at the receiver,
to whom the translation is directed.

In extreme cases, where linguistic and cultural materials are inextricably blended,
no very close equivalent is available. In these cases, the translator needs to seek a
solution, probably situated on a different linguistic level compared with the SL, in
order to produce an effect on the reader of the TT that should be as close as
possible to that produced on the reader of the ST.
Contexts of use match in this case, and so does the effect on the TT reader that
will here be sufficiently close to that experienced by the ST reader. To achieve
similarities of effect and cater for reader expectations is to attain full pragmatic or
dynamic equivalence.
The aim of this discussion is to shed as much as possible light on readers. The
readership is a group of readers that the text is aimed at with such following
features as: the level of education, the class and age and sex (if marked).
There is a tendency to make the translation for educated, middle-class readership
in an informal, colloquial style. There are three types of readership: expert,
educated layman and the uninformed.
However, the more cultural (the more local, the more remote in time and in space)
a text is, the less equivalent effect even conceivable unless the reader is
imaginative, sensitive and stepped in the SL culture.
Koller’s (1989) categories establish a descriptive framework which involves
various types of equivalence, among which are: denotative, connotative, textnormative, pragmatic and formal equivalence.


11

According to Koller, pragmatic equivalence, which is synonymous with Nida‟s
dynamic equivalence (Kenny 1998b:77), “means translating the text for a
particular readership” (Koller 1989:103). The expectations of the target readers
have to be considered. It is also called “communicative equivalence”.
This utterance “Hi, how are you?” shows an illocutionary meaning of greeting in
English-speaking countries.

Pragmatic equivalence (Baker:1992) is considered the most complicated level of
equivalence, which requires the translator to understand the underlining message
of the ST. Pragmatic equivalence is associated with implicatures and strategies of
avoidance during the translation process. She claims that the translator needs to
work out implications of the ST in order to get the ST message across. The role
of the translator is to recreate the author‟s intention in another culture in such a
way that help the audience in the target culture understand it clearly.
Texts which may have implicatures can be poems, songs, idioms, literature or
texts involving much culture-specific understanding.
Baker‟s concept well matches the definition of pragmatics by Levinson.
It should also be noted that Newmark's distinction between 'communicative
translation' and 'semantic translation' in his book Approaches to Translation
(1981) is similar to Nida's types of equivalence. For 'communicative translation',
which tends to create the same effects on the reader of the TT as those obtained by
readers of the ST, resembles Nida's notion of dynamic equivalence, whereas,
'semantic translation', which focuses on the rendition of the contextual meaning of
the ST according to the syntactic and the semantic characteristics of the TT, is
similar to Nida's formal equivalence.
However, many critics of the 'equivalent effect' by Newmark come in his Textbook
of Translation (1988). Newmark sees Nida's 'equivalent effect' as: The desirable
result, rather than the aim of any translation. It is an unlikely result in two cases:
(a) if the purpose of the SL text is to affect and the TL translation is to inform (or


12

vice versa); (b) if there is a pronounced cultural gap between the SL and the TL
texts.
We infer from this quotation that the 'equivalent effect' is a result which all
translators long to achieve. However, this result can be unachievable if the ST and

the TT do not share the same goal; i.e., to inform or to affect, or if they do not
have the same cultural equivalents. The possession of cultural references, together
with the remoteness in time and space reduce the possibility of achieving
'equivalent effects', except in case the reader is imaginative, sensitive and has a
good knowledge of the SL culture.
According to Levinson‟s notion of pragmatics, we realize Newmark referred
pragmatic equivalence to the same purpose of the both texts (corresponding to the
primary text‟s implicature& presupposition) and cultural contexts (affecting
directly communicative effect in terms of deixis as well as aspects of discourse
structure).
Additionally, the development in equivalence research is also characterized by the
work of the Syrian theorist Monia Bayar (2007). In her book To Mean Or Not To
Mean, Bayar distinguishes between formal equivalence, semantic equivalence,
cultural equivalence and pragmatic equivalence. As far as 'pragmatic equivalence'
is concerned, Bayar (2007) points out that this type tends to reproduce the context
and text goals of the SL. She also shares the same idea with Hatim and Mason
(1990: 236-8) that "pragmatic equivalence subsumes all of the semio-pragmaticcommunicative layers of communication." Examples of these semiotic and
communicative dimensions are genre, field, mode, tenor, text type and translation
purpose.
Nida and Taber: Formal Equivalence and dynamic Equivalence
In his work on Bible translation, Nida concentrates on studying meaning in both
its semantic and pragmatic natures. He breaks with the old stories, which regard
meanings of words as fixed and unchanged, to give meaning a more functional


13

nature. For him, words get their meanings according to the context and can be
changed through the culture in which they are used.
Nida argued that there are two different types of equivalence, namely formal

equivalence—which in the third edition by Nida and Taber (1982) is referred to as
formal correspondence—and dynamic equivalence. Formal correspondence
'focuses attention on the message itself, in both form and content', unlike dynamic
equivalence which is based upon 'the principle of equivalent effect' (1964:159).
Formal correspondence consists of a TL item which represents the closest
equivalent of a SL word or phrase. Nida and Taber make it clear that there are not
always formal equivalents between language pairs. They therefore suggest that
these formal equivalents should be used wherever possible if the translation aims
at achieving formal rather than dynamic equivalence. The use of formal
equivalents might at times have serious implications in the TT since the translation
will not be easily understood by the target audience (Fawcett, 1997). Nida and
Taber themselves assert that 'Typically, formal correspondence distorts the
grammatical and stylistic patterns of the receptor language, and hence distorts the
message, so as to cause the receptor to misunderstand or to labor unduly hard'.
Concerning dynamic equivalence, Nida mentions that this type is based on "the
principle of equivalent effect", in which "the relationship between receptor and
message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the
original receptor and the message." Dynamic equivalence is defined as a
translation principle according to which a translator seeks to translate the meaning
of the original in such a way that the TL wording will trigger the same impact on
the TC audience as the original wording did upon the ST audience. They argue
that 'Frequently, the form of the original text is changed; but as long as the change
follows the rules of back transformation in the source language, of contextual
consistency in the transfer, and of transformation in the receptor language, the
message is preserved and the translation is faithful'.


14

One can easily see that Nida is in favour of the application of dynamic

equivalence, as a more effective translation procedure. This is perfectly
understandable if we take into account the context of the situation in which Nida
was dealing with the translation phenomenon, that is to say, his translation of the
Bible. Thus, the product of the translation process, that is the text in the TL, must
have the same impact on the different readers it was addressing. Only in Nida and
Taber's edition is it clearly stated that 'dynamic equivalence in translation is far
more than mere correct communication of information'.
Despite using a linguistic approach to translation, Nida is much more interested in
the message of the text or, in other words, in its semantic quality. He therefore
strives to make sure that this message remains clear in the target text.
Nida & Taber‟s conception is in line with aspects of language studied in
pragmatics.
In brief, it is clear from the above diversifying views and theories that the notion
of pragmatic equivalence is arbitrary and relative as well. It is, in fact, difficult to
determine since no one could objectively define the point at which the TT
becomes equal to the ST. Thus, to be moderate as much as possible, we will not
define pragmatic equivalence as a point of translation proficiency or reject its
existence in translation as some wished.

1.5. E. A. Nida’s response-based approach on Translation Quality Assessment
Before Nida, most scholars writing about translation applied a particular linguistic
approach to the topic, taking translation to be a type of applied linguistics. But
Nida‟s concern centered on a systematic approach to translation. He saw in
linguistics the necessary tools of analysis, and he drew on what at the time was a
new science to develop an overall approach to translation that had solid theoretical
underpinnings yet was entirely practical.


15

Although Catford and Nida are important theorists of Linguistic approaches. They
have many differences in their measurement of Translation equivalence. For
Catford, translation equivalence occurs when a Source text and a target text or
item both related to those features of the situation in which the texts are used
which are relevant to the communicative function of the text in that situation. He
does not provide extensive discussion of larger texts, or reader reactions to texts.
In contrast, Nida‟s fundamental measure of translation equivalence is readers‟
response. Whereas Catford bases his theory of translation firmly on an early
version of Halliday‟s systematic grammar, Nida takes his own point Chomsky‟s
genitive view of language.
Three criteria suggested by Nida (1964: 182) for assessing quality of a translation
are programmatic and general: general efficiency of the communication process;
comprehension of intent; equivalence of response. The third and most important
criterion is, of course, closely to Nida‟s well-known basic principle of “Dynamic
(or Functional) Equivalence of a translation”; the manner in which receptors of the
translation text respond to the translation text must be equivalent to the manner in
which the receptors of the source text respond to the source text. Nida and Taber
(1969) suggested three similar criteria: the correctness with which the receptors
understand the message of the original, the ease of comprehension and the
involvement a person experiences as a result of the adequacy of the form of the
translation. Again, these behavioral criteria need to be further explained and put to
the practical tests. Nida and Taber themselves suggested the following practical
tests:
1.5.1. The close technique, in which the degree of comprehensibility of a text is
related to its “degree of predictability”. The reader is provided with a translation
text in which, for example, every fifth word is deleted, and asked to fill in
whatever words seem to fit the context best. The greater the number of correct
guesses, the easier it is to comprehend the text because its predictability is greater.
However, for any detailed qualitative judgment of a translation‟s strength and

16

weakness, the cloze technique seems to be too rough an instrument; the criteria of
intelligibility and ease of comprehension surely cannot be equated with overall
quality of a translation. Further, such a test merely compares several translations,
but fails to undertake the more basic task of judging a translation against its source
text.
1.5.2. Elicitation of respondents‟ reactions to several translation alternatives. As
with the close text, such a test cannot establish true criteria for translation quality
because of the non-inclusion of the original text as a yardstick for quality.
1.5.3. Reading aloud of the translation text to some other person who will then be
asked to explain the contents to several other individuals who were not present at
the first reading of the text. This test, which boils down to giving and comparing
précis of different translations, relies entirely on the individual who reports on the
translation rather than on the translation which is to be tested.
1.5.4. Reading aloud of a translation by several individuals before an audience.
Any places in the text at which readers clearly have difficulties in reading the text
are taken as indications of translation problems. Again, this test completely lacks
reference to the source text and suffers from the relativity of any judgment that
lacks a norm (which could be provided by the source text)
The criteria suggested by Nida are programmatic and general; the practical tests
sound objective. The researcher will select the second practical test: elicitation of
respondents‟ reactions to several translation alternatives via a pragmatic
questionnaire. Nida‟s basic principle of Dynamic equivalence, which has been
demonstrated above causes the researcher to base the translation quality
measurement on Nida‟s own response-based approach with the view to achieving
the study‟s objectives.
1.6. Pragmatic features of the source text and the receptor of the target text
1.6.1. The author‟s expectation and implication towards primary receptors.

17

This book is excellently written and a riveting exposé of international
corruption—and what we can do about it, from the author of Confessions of an
Economic Hit Man, which spent over a year on the New York Times bestseller list.
First, the engaging style is highly reminiscent (nhớ lại, có xu hướng hồi tưởng) of
science fiction author Roger Zelazny- a prolific American writer of fantasy and
science fiction short stories and novels. In his stunning memoir, Confessions of an
Economic Hit Man, John Perkins detailed his former role as an “economic hit
man” in the international corporate skullduggery of a de facto American Empire.
Mr. Perkins reveals the dark side. Therefore, this riveting, behind-the-scenes
exposé unfolded like a cinematic blockbuster told through the eyes of a man who
once helped shape that empire. Picking up where he left off, Perkins continues
down the path of redemption. Once serving the masters of modern slavery, Perkins
now works tirelessly to free those who have been oppressed by the corpratocracy.
His thesis? Our planet cannot survive ruthless consumerism at the expense of the
world and its people. When all the trees are gone, and all the oil is tapped, what
will be left? Does your shirt still feel nice when you understand the suffering
involved in its production? The world John Perkins envisions is one in which
personal participation is crucial, and power does not rest in the hands of the few.
We have everything we need to create a sustainable global society. We have the
resources, the technology, and viable social models. What we need now is a
vision, and the inspiration to create such a world. Perkins provides us with the
inspiration to fearlessly question ourselves, and the power structures that exist
around us.
Furthermore, traveling through countries like Indonesia, Ecuador, Panama, Iraq,
Iran, and so on, Perkins paints a picture so vivid about its life-altering. John made
us feel we had traveled with him around the world and would never forget the

places and people and truths we had learned.
In addition, with this book, we will understand how corporations, the government,
the World Bank, and IMF use third world countries to expand financial enterprises


18

in USA- some of it is legal but dirty; some of it is deceptive, and other dealings are
down right illegal. It is a book that should be read by the people of the third world
countries, they will know exactly why they are third world countries. But the good
news is: life can change. We can change. Deep down inside, we all share common
values. We all want to live peacefully, we all want to prosper, and we all want to
feel love.
One American reader says: “Even though I always suspected that the killings,
resource-grabbing, and bankruptcy of the third world were somehow related, I had
never had seen anyone articulate it in such moving and profound way. I admire the
courage he has demonstrated in exposing the corporocracy”.
Here are some typical endorsements of this book:
"A gripping tell-all book..."--The Rocky Mountain News
"This riveting look at a world of intrigue reads like a spy novel.... Highly
recommended..."--Library Journal
"John Perkins has written a book that shakes one's confidence in the ethics of the
prevailing economic system. We are in troubling times and need to understand
realistically the price we are paying for the 'free' market we enjoy. Perkins has
written an extraordinary tale." --Jim Garrison, author of America as Empire,
President of the State of the World Forum
"Confessions of an Economic Hit Man Is a unique book, brave because it is
personal. With unflinching honesty, John Perkins narrates his moral awakening
and struggle to break free from the corrupt system of global domination he himself
helped to create. This book possesses an immediacy that separates it from the

numerous studies we already have of American Empire. It comes from the heart. I
highly recommend it." --Michael Brownstein, author of World on Fire


19

"John Perkins has told a thrilling story. But what makes it even more relevant is
that his tale is the true account of a deeply dedicated and courageous man who
exposes information that is crucial for the survival of many people in the world. I
couldn't put it down and now want all my friends to read it. Read this book!" -Stephan Rechtschaffen, M.D., cofounder, CEO, Omega Institute and author of
Timeshifting: Creating More Time to Enjoy Your Life
1.6.2. Vietnamese receptors‟ response to the TT.
After this translation book came into beings under the publication of Vietnam
Culture and Information Publishing House in 2006, it drew a great attention from
Vietnamese readers, especially critics in some popular newspapers. They read this
translation text and revealed their different comments on it. According to Saigon
Economics News: “There is no doubt that Confessions of an Economic Hit Man is
as stunning as a spy story: mysterious deaths, incefraudulent financial reports,
rigged elections, extortion, sex, and murder, tropical cities seemingly strange with
Westerners, narrow escapes…However, there are many unusual things about both
this work and the author. This book‟s new thing is that Perkins reveals diplomats
and economists‟ conspiracy as a stunning memoir and a thrilling spy story and full
of questions about mysteries of President Kenedy, Panama‟s President Torrijos
and even the parson Martin Luther King”.
In addition, these professional readers also put various questions about the vadility of
typical events in this work. Although they were suspicious of either the author‟s ability of
writing about correct information or his own imagination, they were impressed by the
author‟s vivid and detective stories that open their mind to the current situation of the
world they are living in. It is said that this work somehow changed their attitudes towards
their own life and surrounding world.

20

CHAPTER 2: PRAGMATIC MARKERS IN THE ORIGINAL TEXT.
The primary aim of this part is to show how certain lexical units, found in specific
segments of a narrative discourse, help create the intended meaning of the story.
The idea is that pragmatic markers are not arbitrarily used in oral speech but are,
to a certain extent, context and genre-dependent. The hypothesis that follows from
that aim is that markers help in the organization of the narrative segments. This
involves taking into consideration the way a given structure reflects the speaker‟s
illocutionary intentions and attitude, the discourse organization and the
semanticopragmatic meaning of the units in question.
2.1. Functions of Pragmatic Markers in Rhetorical Structure
Under this structure, we have included the following functions.
2.1.1. Emphasizer: by means of this marker the speaker reinforces the
propositional value of the utterance. The speaker seems to be using the marker
“You know” as a metalinguistic monitor with a modal function emphasizing the
force of the speech-act and as a social monitor eliciting a reaction from the
addressee.
S1: "In any case, you know we have a big project in Kuwait. It'll be a while before
you leave for Indonesia. I think you should use some of your time to read up on
Kuwait. The Boston Public Library is a great resource, and we can get you passes
to the MIT and Harvard libraries." (I, 2,13)
2.1.2. Comment marker: by means of this marker the narrator steps out of the
narrative‟s world to introduce a personal comment or a piece of information that
she/he considers is relevant for the full understanding of the story, not necessarily
related directly to the events.
S2: "It's okay," Fidel chuckled gently. "He didn't hurt me. I just asked him what
you guys were shooting at. I think I used to play the same game." (II,12,67)

2.1.3. Evidential Marker: The speaker makes use of this marker to make a fact or
a situation salient. By means of it, she/he highlights the illocutionary force of the