an investigation into the level of foreign language anxiety and its relationship with oral performance among english–major students at thu duc college

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
HO CHI MINH CITY OPEN UNIVERSITY
-----------------------------------------

AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE LEVEL OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANXIETY

AND ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH ORAL PERFORMANCE
AMONG ENGLISH–MAJOR STUDENTS AT THU DUC COLLEGE

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Arts (TESOL)

Submitted by
HA NHAT LINH

Supervisor
Dr. NGUYEN THUY NGA

Ho Chi Minh City, September 2018


TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents ....................................................................................................... ii
Abstract ...................................................................................................................... v
Statement of Authorship ........................................................................................... vi
Acknowledgments .................................................................................................... vii
List of Figures ........................................................................................................ viii
List of Tables............................................................................................................. ix
Abbreviations ............................................................................................................ x

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................1
1.1.

Background of the study ................................................................................1

1.2.

Personal motivation .......................................................................................2

1.3.

Rationale for the research ..............................................................................3

1.4.

Aims of the study ...........................................................................................4

1.5.

Research questions ........................................................................................4

1.6.

Significance of the study ...............................................................................4

1.7.

Structure of the thesis ....................................................................................5

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................7

2.1.

Introduction ...................................................................................................7

2.2.

General anxiety and anxiety in language learning ........................................7

2.2.1.

Anxiety as a psychological construct ......................................................7

2.2.2.

Anxiety and foreign language learning ..................................................9

2.3.

Selected theories and models of foreign language anxiety .........................10

2.3.1.

The effects of anxiety on learning from instruction (Tobias, 1979) .....10

2.3.2.

Foreign language anxiety in classroom (Horwitz et al., 1986) ............11

2.4.

The constituents of foreign language anxiety Horwitz et al. (1986) ...........14

2.4.1.

Communication apprehension ..............................................................14

2.4.2.

Fear of negative evaluation ..................................................................15

2.4.3.

Test anxiety ...........................................................................................16

2.5.

Foreign language anxiety and oral performance .........................................17

ii


2.5.1.

Oral performance .................................................................................17

2.5.2.

The effects of FLA on oral performance ...............................................18

2.6.

Previous study..............................................................................................20

2.7.

My research model ......................................................................................27

2.8.

Summary ......................................................................................................28

CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY ............................................................................29
3.1.

Introduction .................................................................................................29

3.2.

Research site ................................................................................................29

3.3.

Participants ..................................................................................................30

3.4.

Research design and instruments .................................................................31

3.4.1.

Research design – quantitative and qualitative ....................................31

3.4.2.

Questionnaire........................................................................................32

3.4.2.1.
(1986)

The foreign language classroom anxiety scale (Horwitz et al.
........................................................................................................32

3.4.2.2.

Construction and content ...............................................................33

3.4.2.3.

Piloting the questionnaire ..............................................................37

3.4.3.

IELTS Speaking Simulation Test ..........................................................38

3.4.4.

Interview ...............................................................................................39

3.5.

3.4.4.1.

Rationale for using the interview ...................................................39

3.4.4.2.

Construction and content ...............................................................40

Data collection procedure ............................................................................41

3.5.1.

Administering the questionnaire ...........................................................42

3.5.2.

Conducting the test ...............................................................................42

3.5.3.

Conducting the interview ......................................................................43

3.6.

Data analysis ................................................................................................45

3.6.1.

FLCAS and speaking results .................................................................45

3.6.2.

Interview analysis .................................................................................47

3.7.

Summary ......................................................................................................47

CHAPTER 4. DISCUSSION ...................................................................................48
4.1.

Introduction .................................................................................................48

4.2.

The levels of FLA among participants ........................................................48

4.2.1.

Characteristics of the sample ...............................................................48

4.2.2.

The levels of FLA ..................................................................................49

iii


4.2.3.
4.3.

Response to each FLCAS item ..............................................................51

The relationship between FLA and oral performance in tests .....................55

4.3.1.

Exam results ..........................................................................................55

4.3.2.

Pearson correlation between FLA and speaking score ........................57

4.3.3.

Presentation and interpretation of the interview ..................................58

4.3.2.1.

Interviewees’ profile ......................................................................58

4.3.2.2.
results

The relevance between self-reported FLA score and surveyed
........................................................................................................59

4.3.2.3. Students’ perceptions of the relationship of anxiety and their
performance ....................................................................................................60
4.4.

Discussion of the findings ...........................................................................62

4.4.1.

Summary the findings ...........................................................................62

4.4.2.

Discussion .............................................................................................63

4.4.2.1.

The level of anxiety among students ..............................................63

4.4.2.2.

Response to each FLA item ............................................................63

4.4.2.3.

The relationship between anxiety and oral performance ..............65

4.5.

Summary ......................................................................................................66

5.1.

Introduction .................................................................................................67

5.2.

Conclusion ...................................................................................................67

5.3.

Contributions and Implications ...................................................................68

5.4.

Recommendations .......................................................................................70

5.5.

Limitations ...................................................................................................72

5.6.

Recommendations for future research .........................................................73

5.7.

Summary ......................................................................................................75

REFERENCES ..........................................................................................................76
Appendix 1. Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (English version) ...........82
Appendix 2. Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (Vietnamese version) ....84
Appendix 3. Interview guide .....................................................................................86
Appendix 4. Speaking marking criteria .....................................................................87

iv


ABSTRACT
The role of English communication has been set on top of most educational institutes
of Vietnam. Alongside with the developments in learning and teaching English,
relevant aspects such as psychology in language learning have been attracting the
attention of language educators. This study hopefully provides an understanding of
how students experience anxiety – a subjective feeling – during their learning process
in the Vietnamese context, especially with speaking performance. Thesis aims are to
measure the level of foreign language anxiety existing among English–major students
at Thu Duc College and examine its relationship with participant students’ oral
performance. There were 91 students in the first-year program, who are studying
speaking course 2 at the college, participating in the study. A questionnaire, IELTS
simulation speaking test, and interview were used as the instruments of the research.
The results of the questionnaire indicate that student participants are of a moderate
level of foreign language anxiety. In detail, there are medium levels of
communication apprehension and the fear of negative evaluation, while students are
experiencing high level of testing anxiety. Furthermore, the Pearson correlation
results reveal that foreign language anxiety is debilitating to the oral performance of
students. There were six interviewees from high and low anxiety groups participating
an open-ended interview to clarify the difference in the effects of FLA on oral
performance. Implications of the findings thus discuss the suggested solutions for this
problem and recommend research paths for future research in the Vietnamese
context.

v

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP
Except where reference is made in the text of the thesis, this thesis contains no
material published elsewhere or extracted in whole or in part from a thesis by which
I have qualified for or been awarded another degree or diploma.
No other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgement in the main text
of the thesis.
This thesis has not been submitted for the award of any degree or diploma in any
other tertiary institution.
All research procedures reported in this thesis were approved by the Graduate School,
Ho Chi Minh City Open University.

vi


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Firstly, I wish to express my profound gratitude to my supervisor Dr. Nguyen Thuy
Nga for her sound advice, instantaneous encouragement, and extensive support for
the development and completion of this study.
Secondly, I am so grateful to Mr. Pham Minh Trung, Ms. Nguyen Thi Thuy Anh, Mr.
Bui Tri Vu Nam, and Ms. Nguyen Thi Thien Khoa for their perceptive comments and
helpful advice on statistical analysis.
Thirdly, I am further indebted to the cooperation of students at Thu Duc College, who
have participated in the survey.
Finally, I would like to thank all members of my family, especially my father who is
my role model in life and research, for their love, patience and encouragement for
hanging in there until then.

vii

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2. 1. Model outlining the effects of anxiety on learning from instruction
(Tobias, 1979) ..................................................................................................... 11
Figure 2. 2. Inverted “U” relation between anxiety and performance (He, 2018)
.............................................................................................................................. 19
Figure 2. 3. Proposed research model on the relationship between FLA and oral
performance .......................................................................................................... 28
Figure 3. 1. Design of the present research .......................................................... 32
Figure 4. 1. Overview of FLA in the classroom and testing ................................ 51
Figure 5. 1. The model of the relationship between foreign language anxiety and
oral performance .................................................................................................. 68

viii


LIST OF TABLES
Table 2. 1. Summary of selected research on the relationship between language
anxiety and oral performance ............................................................................... 26
Table 3. 1. The construct of questionnaire about Communication Apprehension
.............................................................................................................................. 36
Table 3. 2. The construct of questionnaire about Fear of negative evaluation .... 37
Table 3. 3. The construct of questionnaire about Test Anxiety ........................... 37
Table 3. 4. The construct of interview questions ................................................. 40
Table 3. 5. The research procedure ...................................................................... 42
Table 3. 6. Description of interview participants ................................................. 44
Table 3. 7. The interpretation of FLCAS ............................................................. 45
Table 3. 8. Grading system .................................................................................. 46
Table 3. 9. The interpretation of Pearson Correlation value ................................ 47
Table 4. 1. Response and Non–Response Distribution of Questionnaires .......... 48
Table 4. 2. Characteristics of questionnaire participants ..................................... 49

Table 4. 3. Distribution of FLA levels ................................................................. 50
Table 4. 4. Communication Apprehension .......................................................... 52
Table 4. 5. Fear of Negative Evaluation .............................................................. 53
Table 4. 6. Test Anxiety ....................................................................................... 54
Table 4. 7. The description of FLA levels by three groups ................................. 54
Table 4. 8. The students’ achievement in speaking tests ..................................... 55
Table 4. 9. Overall grade averages for students by anxiety groups (midterm test)
.............................................................................................................................. 56
Table 4. 10. Overall grade averages for students by anxiety groups (final
examination) ......................................................................................................... 56
Table 4. 11. Pearson Correlation between FLA levels and speaking results from
midterm test and final examination ...................................................................... 57
Table 4. 12. Interviewees’ profile ........................................................................ 58
Table 4. 13. Comparison between students’ FLA self-report and FLCAS .......... 58

ix


ABBREVIATIONS
FLA

Foreign language anxiety

L1

Mother language

L2

The target language

FLCAS

Foreign language classroom anxiety scale

ELT

English language teaching

EFL

English as a foreign language

x


CHAPTER 1.
1.1.

INTRODUCTION

Background of the study

English has been seen as the world’s lingua franca for a long period of time (Ostler,
2010) and Vietnam is not an exception as this language is the most popular language
to study in the country (Bui, 2016). Hence, the importance of English has become
increasingly prominent for the country, entailing the highly demand for young
Vietnamese generation with good English communication skills. Especially,
university students should ideally have a good command of communication skills in
English to prepare for their future careers and lives. Besides students who could

obtain good English achievement to meet the requirement of foreign language to work
locally and internationally, there are over three quarters of graduate students who fail
to communicate verbally in English (Bui, 2006). Hoang (2011) also stated that how
to speak English well is still questionable among many learners of English, especially
for the students of colleges and universities. It is undoubted that external conditions
lead to the considerable differences in levels of achievement among language learners
during the foreign language learning or acquisition process. One of the reasons for
such a discrepancy is attributed to individual learner differences (Szyszka, 2017),
which could either inhibit or accelerate learning, and one of the individual learner
differences that affects the learning process is foreign language anxiety (FLA).
Notably, research on anxiety in foreign language learning has been flourishing in
recent decades (Liu, 2005).
In Vietnamese context, the anxiety when learning has been found to exist to university
students in English classrooms (Tran, Baldauf, & Moni, 2013) and has a close
relationship with speaking performance (Nguyen & Tran, 2015). Nearly a half of high
school student participants reported that anxiety could affect their language
achievement in speaking (Nguyen & Tran, 2015). What is more, Tran et al. (2013)
has found both positive and negative aspects of FLA among tertiary students. Those
who supported the positive side of FLA in learning English considered it as a tool to
push them to learn. In contrast, detrimental effects of FLA inhibited students from

1


succeeding in the target language (L2). The language achievement in L2 of a student
depends on the levels of FLA he or she experiences in the classroom (Szyszka, 2017).
1.2.

Personal motivation

The personal motivation comes from my own experience as an English learner and
teacher.
Firstly, as an English learner, I spent seven years studying English at a high school
and passed English examinations with high grades before entering university.
However, I was weak at speaking in English in tests at the university. I failed to open
my mouth to speak in class, albeit my effort at home to practice pronunciation and
enhance my vocabulary learning. I sometimes stammered out an answer responding
to the question from teachers and even stumbled in my presentation. Things turned
into a dilemma when I started to do a part-time job at an English center where I had
to communicate with native speakers. Beyond my imagination and other students as
well, I could not improve my speaking skill, I was always feeling harassed and
apprehensive while being acknowledged to speak English with native speakers. To
meet the requirement of the university, I then took the IELTS test and the result
showed a significant gap between speaking skill and other skills. It took me a long
time to acquire my expectative results for speaking and to overcome my own negative
feelings towards speaking.
At the very first step of my teaching career, I worked as a teaching assistant for
university students who were preparing English to study overseas. My responsibility
was to help pull-out students get involved in class and solidify basic English
knowledge, and help them with difficulties while learning. From this position, most
students felt entirely comfortable sharing their feelings in class. They might have
different manifestations, such as wanting to quit the class, feeling safe in the corner
of the class without contacting with others and the teacher, or finding their heart
pounding when they knew that they were going to be called. However, they all agreed
that speaking was the most anxiety-provoking skill.

2


As an in-service English teacher at a college in Ho Chi Minh City for two years, I

regretfully saw that most English-majors there avoid speaking in the target language.
When the teacher requires them to answer, they remain silent. Some have shown
better results but lost their control with word choice, pronunciation, or used mixed
word forms both in class and in oral tests. Their performance in class partly
anticipates their inability to use English for conversation in the work-place later.
My own problems and concerns derived from my experience have driven me to
investigate the present matter of language anxiety among students, starting with my
current students who are learning English as their major.
1.3.

Rationale for the research

Recent years have seen a real increase in the number of studies dealing with anxiety
in the L2 domain (Tóth, 2010). These studies were all based around the development,
maintenance and dimensions of FLA. However, to the best of my knowledge, the
amount of research in FLA in Vietnam is quite limited, and conducted with limited
number of participants; as a result, the findings could not be applied for most
Vietnamese language classes (Tran et al., 2012). Whilst, FLA was counted as one of
the factors affecting students’ speaking performance (Nguyen & Tran, 2015) in
Vietnamese language classrooms. With the demand of good command in English
communication, the scarcity of research in the area of FLA calls for further
exploration of second language anxiety in the Vietnamese context.
Additionally, FLA is featured by “complex” and “multifaceted” characteristics
(Sanders & Wills, 2003). While a number of researchers have found an association
between FLA and oral performance (Young, 1990; Liu, 2005; Tóth, 2010; He, 2018)
and in Vietnam (Tran et al., 2013; Nguyen & Tran, 2015), the precise effect of FLA
on oral performance is a much-debated topic. In other words, several studies have
shown that FLA could facilitate, debilitate or be neutral towards students’ oral
performance. FLA positively affects the language achievement by enhancing the
competitiveness, considered as the key to success in language learning (Bailey,

1983). Cao (2011) also reported the positive side of anxiety in second language
3


achievement. Similarly, Tran et al. (2013) believed that anxiety could make such
students focus more on EFL learning. Conversely, the negative side of FLA has been
reported in several studies. Anxiety could not only inhibit students from language
reception and generation but also affect their learning process (Yang, 2003; Zheng,
2008). Students with high anxiety are identified as being quiet or having shaking
hands or legs during English lessons or oral English tests (Cortazzi & Jin, 1996). The
inconsistent findings could be explained by the dependence on context of FLA (Kim,
2009), since FLA is not context free. Research has shown that FLA might vary in
different cultural groups or instructional contexts (Horwitz, 2001; Kim, 2009).
Therefore, this study set out to develop an understanding the level of anxiety among
university students in Vietnamese ELT context.
1.4.

Aims of the study

This study will investigate the level of anxiety among English-majors, and the
relationship between anxiety and oral performance among first-year students at Thu
Duc College. The aims are as below:
-

To measure the level of language anxiety in the English classroom in general,
and each anxiety component specifically.

-

To explore the relationship between FLA and oral performance.

1.5.

Research questions

With the mentioned aims, the research focuses on the three following questions:
1. What are language anxiety levels among English-major students at Thu
Duc College in their English class and tests?
2. What is the relationship between participant students’ language anxiety
and their oral performance in tests?
1.6.

Significance of the study

Theoretically, the study hopes to contribute to filling the gap of FLA in Vietnam.
Firstly, the finding in the level of anxiety among Vietnamese students while learning
the target language will shed a light on the nature of FLA in the current ELT context.
4


Admittedly, Vietnamese ELT context has its own features, so how Vietnamese
students are dealing with FLA will be identified in this research. What is more,
whether the portion of students with high level of FLA is the majority or not will
provide a general picture of FLA in Vietnam. Secondly, Walker (2017) claimed
speaking as one of the most important stages of foreign language learning, so by
examining the role of FLA in the relationship with speaking the research could serve
as a reference to both learners and teachers in studying factors that might help
students enhance or inhibit speaking skill.
Methodologically, this research employed both quantitative (questionnaire survey)
and qualitative (language testing and focused interview) methods to collect data,

which are expected to be significant in two aspects. Firstly, current studies in Vietnam
reused the scale of Horwitz et al. (1986) without any modifications Tran et al. (2012).
It should be noted that due to cross-cultural differences in the educational system,
some items are not appropriate and inapplicable in the Vietnamese context. The scale
which is developed in this study is expected to examine how anxiety influences
language learning and show precise findings. Secondly, most of the previous studies
applied focused interviews to affirm the results derived from the quantitative
approach. Meanwhile, this research adapts interviews to encourage learner reflections
about how FLA affects their performance, which could help understand FLA
objectively. More significantly, this research has examined the level of anxiety and
speaking score in midterm test and final examination, which thus far provides a
thorough picture of the relationship between FLA and oral performance in tests.
1.7.

Structure of the thesis

The study includes five chapters. The present chapter is an introductory chapter
which outlines FLA research background, and current issues. It additionally states the
scope and expected results of the research.
Chapter 2 reviews the relevant literature concerning definitions and major
developments in FLA. It firstly provides a general picture of anxiety, and anxiety
specifically in language learning then gives a further review of models of FLA, the
5


construct of FLA and the relationship between FLA and oral performance. Then, the
chapter presents a thorough review of the developments in the field of FLA in
Vietnam and other countries, with a discussion of the status of FLA and the limited
empirical research. This chapter ends with a presentation of the applied model in the
study.

Chapter 3 depicts the methodology employed in the present research, including an
introduction of the participants, the three research instruments, data collection
procedures, data analysis methods, and the considerations for validity and reliability
of each instrument.
Chapter 4 reports the results and findings obtained from the three instruments.
Furthermore, it then provides a detailed discussion of the findings based on the
derived data.
Chapter 5 concludes the study with a discussion of contributions, implications, and
limitations of the whole research, ending with some proposed directions and
suggestions for future FLA research.

6


CHAPTER 2.
2.1.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

The aim of this chapter is to provide a theoretical background for the concept of
language anxiety, emphasizing the relationship with oral performance. Thus, the
construct of general anxiety is first explored and the definitions of anxiety and FLA
are analyzed. Subsequently, the models of FLA are examined to establish the research
model for the present research, followed by the construct of language anxiety.
Additionally, the link between oral performance and FLA is discussed. Finally,
relevant studies concerning the roles of language anxiety in second language
acquisition in Vietnam and other countries are provided.
2.2.

General anxiety and anxiety in language learning

The emphasis of this study is one specific anxiety – the anxiety related to learning;
however, it is necessary to look at the concept of anxiety in general – as a
psychological construct. In this part, I consider some basic definitions of anxiety in
the psychological literature, then go on to describe some theoretical framework of
anxiety in language learning.
2.2.1.

Anxiety as a psychological construct

Anxiety has long been researched in the early 20th century and viewed as a
fundamental human emotion (Zeidner, 2014).
Anxiety is an uncomfortable emotional state that is tightly associated with expected
dangers (Aydin, 2013). When a person is acknowledging dangers, he tends to feel
powerless and experiences tension. Despite whether the danger is real or imagined,
unpleasant emotional reactions are activated (Rachman, 2004). Besides threatening
situations, this kind of emotion links with the uncertainty of forthcoming events.
Rachman (2004) referred to anxiety as the tense of anticipation of a threatening but
unclear event or a feeling of uneasy suspense. Liu (2005) stated that anxiety arises
when people are not certain of the upcoming occasions, when they are aware that

7


their performance will be evaluated, or when they worry about the consequence of an
event. In detail, the construct of anxiety is associated with cognitive concern about
the consequences of failure (Szyszka, 2017).
A person experiencing anxiety is easily detected by physical and psychological

changes as his body reacts to the sources which caused worry and tension (Rink,
2002). The breath becomes shorter or faster than as usual, and the mouth is dryer.
Additionally, with anxiety, people may sweat, feel dizzy or their hearts beat too
quickly Other manifestations which could be observed are chills or feeling cold,
clammy hands, or muscle tension. The levels of anxiety in the same context may not
be the same among different individuals, reasoning that the mental representation of
each person varies (Szyszka, 2017). Anxiety, thus, affects people in different ways,
positively and negatively. While Arnold & Brown (1999) allocated anxiety to
negative emotions, Goodwin (1987) argued that anxiety plays a significant role in
establishing character, enhancing creativity, and raising the awareness of
possibilities.
Anxiety is categorized into three kinds: state anxiety, trait anxiety, and situationspecific anxiety. This distinction was first put forward by Cattel & Scheier (1960).
Trait anxiety, according to Spielberger and Radnofsky (2001, p. 1), refers to
“relatively stable individual differences in anxiety-proneness, that is, to differences
between people is the tendency to perceive stressful situations with elevations in the
intensity of their state anxiety reactions”. State anxiety, in turn, refers to the “momentto-moment experience of anxiety” (MacIntyre, 1999, p. 28), and are chracterized by
“subjective feelings of tension, nervousness, and worry, and by activation or arousal
of the autonomic nervous system” (Spielberger & Radnofsky, 2001, p. 1). The
situation-specific view of anxiety is based on the assumption that certain types of
situations are morelikely to produce anxiety than others, however, there is individual
variation among people as to what particular situations they perceive as anxiety
provoking (Tóth, 2010). According to MacIntyre and Gardner (1991, p.90), situationspecific constructs “can be seen as trait anxiety measures limited to a given context”.
In this perspective, anxieties are approached in well-defined specific situations such
8


as speaking in public, writing language examinations, and participating in a language
class.
In summary, in accordance with psychological research, anxiety is a subjective
feeling which is characterized by unpleasant or uncomfortable traits. It mainly

happens when people have to face situations in doubt or at risk, with specific
psychological and physical manifestations. This feeling may be harmful or beneficial
to people, according to each circumstance and individual response. Anxiety is
classified into three different kinds, in which the situation-specific anxiety is the
foundation for development of later research in foreign language anxiety.
2.2.2.

Anxiety and foreign language learning

Horwitz et al. (1986) played a significant role in establishing basic concepts of FLA,
and they viewed it as “a distinct complex of self-perceptions, beliefs, feelings, and
behaviors related to classroom language learning and arising from the uniqueness of
the language learning process” (p. 128). In other words, the concept of FLA is based
on the subjectivity of a learner’s perception while learning a foreign language in the
classroom. This, in turn, entails an uncomfortable and restrained state in the ability to
comprehend and produce the foreign language. Hence, the language performance in
listening and speaking skills have a close relationship with language anxiety.
MacIntyre & Gardner (1994) viewed language anxiety in association with second
language contexts including speaking, listening, and learning, as “the feeling of
tension and apprehension” (p. 284). When a language learner is supposed to perform
in the foreign language in the written or oral form, he may perceive that situation as
highly anxiety-inducing.
In later research, MacIntyre (1999) claimed that foreign language learning is the
cause of language anxiety – “the worry and negative emotional reaction aroused when
learning or using a second language” (p. 27). Language anxiety may occur when a
language learner is supposed to face a threatening language learning situation with
feelings of tension, nervousness, and worry. Due to the root in psychology, language

9

anxiety is manifested by physical responses which are similar to general anxiety, such
as the intensification of heart rate, muscle tension, and sweating.
As shown above, there are many concepts for language anxiety, developed from
psychological theories. Albeit different interpretations of FLA, it is commonly
specified by the feeling of apprehension and tension experienced in the foreign
language acquisition process in the classroom context. It originates from the necessity
of learning and using a foreign language linked to a learner’s self-perception in the
learning context.
2.3.

Selected theories and models of foreign language anxiety

While an array of theoretical accounts and models explicating the complex nature of
anxiety have been proposed (Szyszka, 2017), the following section presents two
models which delves into the cognitive effects of anxiety and anxiety in language
classroom contexts. Tobias’s (1979) model attempted to clarify the cognitive effects
of anxiety on learning from instruction. Horwitz et al.’s (1986) theory explored the
effect of anxiety in foreign language classrooms.
2.3.1.

The effects of anxiety on learning from instruction (Tobias, 1979)

The relationship of language anxiety in L2 cognitive processing was first explained
by Tobias’s (1979) model, which took three stages of L2 information processing into
account: input, processing, and output.
The first stage – input – implied the individual’s first exposure to a stimulus. If
anxiety was aroused during this stage, internal reactions might have restricted the
ability to pay attention to the instructor’s words, and originated the inability to encode
stimuli internally. As a result, the effectiveness of input might be lessened, so students

tended to require frequent repetition of instructor’s utterances.

10


Output

Input
Instructional methods,
displays of content, etc.
Method A

Processing of input to store,
retrieve, or transform it
High reliance on Process A
Criteria

Method B

Low reliance on Process A

Anxiety

Figure 2. 1. The effects of anxiety on learning from instruction (Tobias, 1979)
The second stage was called processing when input messages were decoded, and
learning occured. Processing anxiety was detrimental to both language
comprehension and learning if the meaning of new items was not understood, either
based on learners’ experience or with similar native language items. Therefore,
learners failed to activate their knowledge about that point of language at a given
time.

After the previous stages – input and processing – were successfully completed, the
final stage called output would occur. Anxiety aroused at this stage might lead to the
ineffective recovery of vocabulary, inappropriate use of grammatical rules, or an
inability to respond.
2.3.2.

Foreign language anxiety in classroom (Horwitz et al., 1986)

The development of a theoretical model of FLA by Horwitz et al. (1986) was a very
important step forward in the study of anxiety in language learning (Tóth, 2010),
since this model of FLA was the first attempt to single our anxiety from the broader
context of affective variables. FLA is defined by Horwitz et al. (1986, p.128) as “a
distinct complex of self-perceptions, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors related to
11


classroom language learning arising from the uniqueness of the language learning
process”. By this definition, the authors consider FLA as a type of situation-specific
anxieties, and define FLA into three performance anxieties: communication
apprehension, fear of negative evaluation, and test anxiety.
Communication apprehension played a more significant role in FLA and was
defined as “a type of shyness, characterized by fear of or anxiety about
communicating with people” (Horwitz et al., 1986, p. 127). Horwitz et al. (1986)
noted that people who typically had trouble in real and anticipated communication
with others in a foreign language learning environment were faced with
communication apprehension. In detail, they lost their control in common
communicative situations such as in groups or public, or in decoding information
from speaking and listening.
Fear of negative evaluation was defined as the “apprehension about others’
evaluations, distress over their negative evaluations, avoidance of evaluative

situations, and the expectation that others would evaluate oneself negatively”
(Horwitz et al., 1986, p. 128). The term evaluation here was attributable to both
academic and non-academic evaluations involving in students’ performance and
competence in the target language. Anxiety was provoked in a foreign language class
by both real and imaginary evaluations from either the teacher or their peer. With
students who were frequently evaluated, they tended to rarely initiate conversation or
minimally interact with others. Due to the more frequent possibility to make mistakes
in the language classroom than other subjects, learners were much more vulnerable
towards criticism and negative evaluation (Tsui, 1996). In other words, students
might feel much more anxious when they were doubtful of their foreign language
proficiency.
Test anxiety referred to “a type of performance anxiety stemming from a fear of
failure” (Horwitz et al., 1986, p. 127). It occurred when a student demanded a better
result, compared to their language ability, or worried about their performance. This
one was similar to the fear of negative evaluation, but narrower in scope. Test anxiety

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was aroused in the situation of tests and quizzes, which was almost inevitable in
language learning.
This section has briefed overview of theoretical framework of FLA in instructional
settings and in L2 learning and communication as well. According to Tobias (1979),
an individual with a high level of language anxiety are likely to face mental block
which affects the way he or she acquires L2 information. The mental block
respectively occurs during three stages, for the first time – at the input stage, while
making connections between existent and new knowledge at the processing stage,
and while demonstrating the language performance at the output stage. Although
FLA model of Horwitz et al. (1986) is seen as an independent construct, several links
have been noted between the two mentioned models. A learner may feel more anxious

in a specific learning situation when dealing with speaking, writing, reading, or
listening in a foreign language. Moreover, the feeling of worry and apprehension
which is experienced in the language classroom may cause the disappearance of
existent language knowledge. The language performance in test situation may be
viewed as the output stage of language learning according to Tobias (1979). In other
words, the construct of FLA of Horwitz et al. (1986) is conceptualized as connected
with the cognitive effects of anxiety on language learning of Tobias (1979), so FLA
three components – communication apprehension, fear of negative evaluation, and
test anxiety – reflect the concept of language anxiety from instructions derived from
Tobias’s model in 1979.
The theoretical models of anxiety discussed above provide a framework for a better
understanding of the complex concept of anxiety, which were experienced in L2
learning context. Since this study focuses on the specific educational setting of L2
learning – test situation, it is of paramount importance to examine language anxiety
thoroughly in classroom and in test, rather than in association with instructions. Thus,
the model of Horwitz et al. (1986) will be adapted as the model of the research, and
its constituents needs to be defined and specified.

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2.4.

The constituents of foreign language anxiety Horwitz et al. (1986)

Horwitz et al. (1986) proposed that FLA frequently manifests itself in, among others,
listening and speaking activities, testing situations, or worries about making mistakes.
Therefore, this section will outline the manifestations of FLA of each constituent in
language classroom.
2.4.1.

Communication apprehension

Communication apprehension was defined as a major component of both FLA and
speaking anxiety (Horwitz, 2012). Consequently, without it, it was impossible to look
into the relationship between anxiety and speaking, and the effects of anxiety on oral
performance as well.
As stated above (section 2.3.2), Horwitz et al. (1986) defined communication
apprehension as the fear that individual experiences in oral communication.
Alternative views argued that it was the proclivity of people to avoid or fear social
interaction (Daly, Caughlin, & Stafford, 2009), or the fear/ anxiety which was
originated from actual or expected communication with a person or persons
(McCroskkey, 2005).
In language learning contexts, communication apprehension was manifested in
difficulty to speak in different forms of communication, such as in dyads, groups, or
in public. Even listening to or learning a spoken language could cause anxiety or fear
for learners (Horwitz et al., 1986). Yilmaz (2014) emphasized that most students
blamed FLA for their poor proficiency level in the target language which was far
from maintaining a conversation. In other words, this situation occurs when they had
perceived that the interlocutor had a higher proficiency level, especially teachers and
native speakers. Talking with a native or more proficient speaker may lead to
reticence and avoidance of conversations among these students, given the
deficiencies of self-confidence and control towards ongoing conversations. Another
case which linked to communication apprehension was talking with new people in
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group discussions (Mustapha, Ismail, & Singh, 2010). Public speaking reluctance,
tension and nervousness attributed to communication apprehension’s manifestations
in this specific case.

Students with a high level of anxiety tended to quit the foreign language class, or they
felt so terrible that they were pulled out courses with communications demands (Ely,
1986; Phillips, 1992). Evidence given by Daly et al. (2009) showed that a spacious
class might create a comfortable learning environment for these students because they
could minimize any involvements at the back rows in the class. Such evidence was
also consistent with Horwitz et al. (1986), showing manifestations of anxiety as an
unwillingness to speak publicly, or refusal to volunteer. These students tended to
present their speeches with different speeds when performing with and without
audiences.
Anxious students themselves naturally underrated their language ability and focused
on their failure instead of successes in a foreign language (Cacioppo, Glass, &
Merluzzi, 1979). Another sign of anxiety in a language class was the frequency of
using a nonsense expression such as “uh, huh” or remaining reticent by smiling during
conversations (Schlenker & Leary, 1985).
2.4.2.

Fear of negative evaluation

The second constituent of FLA was defined by Horwitz et al. (1986) as the fear of
negative evaluation. This concept was described as the fear or distress towards
negative assessment or others’ evaluation about evaluative situations; evenly, it also
occurred when a person himself assessed his performance depressingly (Watson &
Friend, 1969).
Due to continual evaluation in a language classroom, a learner was continually
subject to either peer or teacher monitoring (Ohata, 2005). This case usually caused
the feeling of uneasiness, especially when a learner failed to perform in the target
language or lost control of the situation in the classroom. Besides sitting passively in
class, students with the fear of negative evaluation might minimize any involvement
with in-class activities or even withdraw from the course (Aida, 1994). Also, the
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