(Luận văn thạc sĩ) a study on english adverbs as modifiers (a contrastive analysis with vietnamese equivalents)

Vietnam national university, Ha noi
College of foreign languages
Post-graduate department

Le Thi Minh Hien

A study on English adverbs as modifiers
(A contrastive analysis with Vietnamese
equivalents)
Nghiên cứu về trạng từ tiếng Anh với chức năng bổ nghĩa
(So sánh đối chiếu với tiếng Việt)

M.a. Minor-Thesis

Field: English linguistics
Code: 60.22.15

Hanoi, 2009


iv

Table of contents

Acknowledgements

ii

Table of content

iii

Symbols and abbreviations

vii

List of table

viii

Part one: introduction

1

01. Rationale

1

02. Aims of the study

2

03. Scope of the study

2

04. Method of the study

2

05. Design of the study

3

Part two: investigation

4

Chapter I: theoretical preliminaries

4

I.1. Definition of adverb

4

I.2. Features of adverbs

5

I.2.1. The complex/ derived group

5

I.2.2. The compound group

6

I.2.3. The simple group

6

I.2.4. Morphonology of Vietnamese adverbs

7

I.3. Classification of adverbs

7

I.3.1. Syntactic classification of English adverbs

7

I.3.2. Syntactic classification of Vietnamese adverbs

7

I.3.3. Semantic classification of English adverbs

8

I.3.3.1. Circumstantial adverbs

8


v

I.3.3.2. Process adverbs

9

I.3.3.3. Modal adverbs

10

I.3.3.4. Adverbs of degree

10

I.3.3.5. Focusing adverbs

10

I.3.3.6. Conjunctive adverbs

10

I.3.4. Semantic classification of Vietnamese adverbs

10

I.3.4.1. Adverbs of time

10

I.3.4.2. Adverbs of place

10

I.3.4.3. Adverbs of frequency

10

I.3.4.4. Adverbs of manner

10

I.3.4.5. Adverbs of cause/ reason

11

I.3.4.6. Adverbs of purpose

11

I.3.4.7. Adverbs of modality

11

I.3.4.8. Adverbs of degree

11

I.3.4.9. Adverbs of conjunction

11

I.3.5. Position classification of English adverbs

11

I.3.5.1. Circumstantial adverbs

11

I.3.5.2. Adverbs of manner

12

I.3.5.3. Modal adverbs

12

I.3.5.4. Adverbs of degree and focusing adverbs

12

I.3.5.5. Conjunctive adverbs

12

I.3.5.6. Adverbs in initial position

13

I.3.6. position classification of Vietnamese adverbs

13

I.4. Functions of English adverbs

14

I.4.1. What is considered to be “modifier”?

14

I.4.2. Main functions of adverbs

14

I.4.2.1. Modifier of verbs

14

I.4.2.2. Modifier of adjectives

15

I.4.2.3. Modifier of other adverbs

15

I.4.2.4. Modifier of nouns/ noun phrases

15

I.4.2.5. Modifier of participles, prepositions and prepositional phrases

16


vi

I.4.2.6. Modifier of (pre)determiners, cardinal numerals,
indefinite pronouns/quantifiers

16

I.4.2.7. Modifier of sentences

16

I.4.3. Types of modifiers

17

I.4.3.1. Grading modifiers

17

I.4.3.2. Intensifying modifier

18

I.4.3.3. Attenuating modifier

18

I.4.3.4. Quantifying modifier

18

I.4.3.5. Descriptive or attitudinal modifiers

18

I.4.3.6. Focusing or reinforcing modifiers

18

I.5. Adverbs and Adverbials

18

I.5.1. What is an adverbial?

18

I.5.2. Units realizing adverbial functions

18

I.5.3. Classes of adverbials

19

I.5.4. Types of adverbials forming sentence elements

20

I.5.4.1. What is an adjunct?

22

I.5.4.2. What is a disjunct?

26

I.5.4.3. What is a conjunct?

26

Chapter II: English adverbs as modifiers and their vietnamese
equivalents

29

II.1. Contrastive analysis with teaching and learning of foreign languages

29

II.2. Modifying function of English adverbs and their Vietnamese equivalents

29

II.2.1. Modifier of adjectives and adverbs

29

II.2.2. Modifier of verbs

29

II.2.3. Modifier of nouns/ noun phrases

30

II.2.4. Modifier of particles, prepositions and prepositional phrases

31

II.2.5. Modifier of (pre)determiners/ cardinal numerals/ indefinite pronouns

31

II.2.6. Cases of subjuncts

31


vii

II.2.7. Modifier of a sentence

31

II.3. Mobility in positions of English and Vietnamese adverbs

32

II.4. Similarities and differences between English adverbs as modifiers and

Vietnamese

equivalents

33

II.4.1. Similarities

33

II.4.2. Differences

34

Chapter III: Implications to teaching adverbs as modifiers 35
III.1. Errors made by Vietnamese learners in using adverb

35

III.2. An experiment

35

III.3. Error analysis

35

III.3.1. Errors in confusing adjectives and of adverbs

35

III.3.2. Errors in placing adverbs

36

III.3.3. Errors in choosing adverbs of degree (=intensifiers)

37

III.4. Suggestions for teaching and learning English adverbs as modifier

38

III.2.1. To the teachers

38

III.2.2. To the student

38

Part three: Conclusion

39

1. Recapitulation

39

2. Limitations and suggestions for further studies

40

Bibliography

x

Appendix

I


viii

Symbols and abbreviations

A

Adverbial

Adv

Adverb

A.P

Adverb phrase

C

Complement

C.A

Contrastive analysis

E

End position

I

Initial

M

Medial

NP

Noun phrase

O

Object

S

Subject

P

Predicate

V

Verb

*

Unacceptable/ Ungrammatical structures

[ ]

the number of the example used


ix

List of table

Table 1 Types of Item Subjuncts

21

Table 2 Residue functions

23

Table 3 Types of circumstantial elements

23

Table 4 Correspondence between experiential and interpersonal functions

24

Table 5 Types of adjuncts

25

Table 6 English adverbs of degree and their Vietnamese equivalents

29

Table 7 Types of adverbs modifying verbs and their Vietnamese equivalents

30


Part one
Introduction
1. Rationale
So far, English has been widely used as the language of international commerce,
popular cultures and the Internet all over the world. It is English that has play an important part
in bringing people from different cultures closer with greater mutual understanding.

In recent years, in Vietnam, this language has become a compulsory subject in schools,
colleges and universities thanks to its importance to the work force in the future .
However, in learning process, quite a lot of Vietnamese learners find English grammar,
especially the role and position of word classes difficult to master. This obstacle may partly
due to teaching process, lack of practice and sometimes their mother tongue interference. In a
try to offer a remedial suggestion to this problem, this topic has been chosen for the three
following reasons:
-

Adverb is one of word classes in English. Nevertheless, it used to be regarded as a
“dustbin” word-class since it has a complicated morphological classification as well as
a variety of semantic and syntactic functions. However, in theory, adverb will be
definitely clarified if the different types of adverbs and their functions are fully focused
on in a detailed study.

-

Adverb is a language phenomenon, generally found in both English and Vietnamese.
Since these two languages originate from different language families, there certainly
exist similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese in this linguistic
category.

As a result, Vietnamese learners of English have great trouble in understanding, identifying
and using adverbs in general and their different functions in particular.
-

It’s commonly believed that contrastive analysis is considered a device for predicting
points of difficulty and possible errors that learners will make. R. Lado (1957) states:
“We can predict and describe the pattern that will cause difficulty by comparing
systematically the language and the culture to be learnt with the native language and

culture of the learners”.

2. aims of the study:


The aims of the study on English adverbs as modifiers in contrast with their Vietnamese
equivalents are:
-

To provide a clear classification on English adverbs in terms of their morphological
features as well as their semantic and syntactic functions.

-

To study the positions and roles of English adverbs as modifiers in relation with other
word classes (i.e. verbs, adjectives, ...) or other words.

-

To show the linguistic characteristics of English adverbs in contrast with the
Vietnamese equivalents, chiefly basing on the function of modification.

-

To find out similarities and differences of adverbs as modifiers in English and
Vietnamese.

-

To suggest some types of exercises and activities on the adverbs as modifiers in

English with an aim to help Vietnamese learners avoid errors and negative interference.

3. Scope of the study:
This study examines English adverbs as modifiers compared with Vietnamese
equivalents to point out the distinctive features of English adverbs and possible difficulties that
Vietnamese learners may meet when studying English adverbs. Therefore, attention paid to
English will far outweigh to Vietnamese as this study will be used in teaching English adverbs
as modifiers to Vietnamese learners.
In general, English adverbs have two syntactic functions: modifiers and adverbials. As
the study requires, more focus will be on the modifying function.
4. methods of the study:
As the study sets its main objectives of investigating and contrasting the syntactic and
semantic functions and the classification of adverbs in general and adverbs as modifiers in
particular , in English and Vietnamese, the research method is mainly based on microlinguistic
CA.
On the basis of CA, an experiment is done on certain obstacles that Vietnamese
learners may encounter when learning adverbs. The data for analysis is based on the
experiment and examples are collected from the grammatical materials and reference books
written by contemporary English and Vietnamese linguists. The source of materials is taken
from English texts in different genres: novels, short stories, books and the like.
5. Design of the study:


This study is composed of three parts:
Part one, entitled “Introduction” outlines the background of the study.
Part two with the title of “Investigation” comprises three chapters:
Chapter I discusses the theoretical preliminaries with a focus on the characteristics of the
adverbs as modifiers. Chapter II presents and describes cases of adverbs with the modifying
function as compared to Vietnamese translation equivalents. The last chapter shows the
findings and implications for teaching and learning English adverbs extracted from the study.

Part three is “Conclusion” provides the recapitulation, limitations of the study and
suggestions for further studies. The study ends with the “Bibliography”.


Part two
investigation
Chapter I: theoretical preliminaries
I.1. Definition of the adverb:
Like other parts of speech in English grammar, adverb is considered to be basic and
complicated one. However, not any satisfactory definitions for adverb have been reached yet.
It may due to the fact that many modern grammarians recognize words traditionally grouped
together as adverbs to serve a number of different semantic and syntactic functions. Therefore,
each scholar considered them from his own point of view. Briefly, we would like to present
some English and Vietnamese linguists’ viewpoints on adverbs and then draw out common
ideas about adverbs in English and Vietnamese.
According to G. David Morley (2000; 40) ‘Traditionally in grammar, adverbs have
been seen as performing a so-called modifying role in relation to verbs. This role is associated
with circumstantial adverbs, which are single words marking circumstances – how, why, when,
where – of the verbal process’. For instance: [1] He learns English fast.
[2] The party is going to take place here.
Sharing the same viewpoint, Bergman, Carol Ann (1986) agreed that, “As it is proved
that an adjective adds more information to a noun or a pronoun whereas an adverb adds
preciseness to a verb, an adjective or another adverb”. That is to say, adverbs take the
modifying role of strengthening or weakening the force of those adjectives/ adverbs in:
[3] They are extremely happy.
[4] Ann walks rather slowly.
Furthermore, an adverb may also modify a noun or pronoun and a sentence,
emphasizing or qualifying the statement expressed as in:
[5] The rooms upstairs have not been cleaned for ages.
[6] He saw an accident and immediately he contacted the police.

In short, adverb is a modifying word which gives extra meaning to a verb, an adjective,
another adverb, a noun or a pronoun and even a sentence. They express some additional
circumstances attending an action or a quality: time, place or manner of an action, the degree
of a quality, etc.


Let us change to some Vietnamese researchers’ opinions about adverbs
According to Diep Quang Ban (1992; 167), ‚adverb is a supplementary sentence
element. Syntactically, it can be one word or co-coordinative or subordinative phrase.‛
As for Hoang Trong Phien (1980; 124), ‚adverb is a supplementary sentence element
and it is the most popular one among others, it has the meaning of place, time, reason and
purpose...‛
The scope of meaning of adverb as a supplementary sentence element are commonly
expressed as followed:
[7] Mùa hè năm ấy, nhà tôi chuyển về thành phố.
- In the summer that year, we moved into the town.
b. Manner:
[8] G· nãi víi t«i bằng giọng mềm mại và trơn tuồn tuột.
- He said to me with a soft and very smooth voice.
c. Means, reasons, purpose, ...:
[9] Một hôm do bận trực ở cơ quan nên tôi về muộn.
- One day, I came home late due to being on duty. (Nguyen Huy Thiep, 2004)
In conclusion, both English and Vietnamese’s researchers share the same viewpoint
about adverb:
- It is a supplementary sentence element.
a. Time, place:

- It serves to give additional meaning to other elements in the clause, depending on
types of adverbs and their positions in the clause which will be clarified in the following parts.
I.2. Features of adverbs:

The most common characteristic of the English adverb is morphological. Therefore,
morphologically, we can classify adverbs according as their lexical stems.
Angela D. (1992; 549) states ‚English adverbs are either complex, compound or
simple‛.
According to Howard, Jackson (1992; 61), there are three sets of adverbs: -ly adverbs,
simple adverbs and adverb particles. Considering the two viewpoints above, the writer would
like to present adverbs morphologically as follows:
I.2.1. The complex/ derived group:
The first and largest of the sets contains adverbs which typically, though not
exclusively, end in -ly and are derived from adjectives by means of this suffix, i.e. slow –
slowly. Although most words in –ly are adverbs, it should be noted that many others ending in
–ly are not adverbs at all, they are adjectives formed from nouns as princely, husbandly,


motherly… or from other adjectives as goodly, kindly….Particularly, some words take both
adjectival and adverbial role such as: back, early, deep, right, ...
Other adverbs are derived from nouns by means of the suffixes: -wise/ -ward(s) and ways -> expressing the locative circumstance of direction as clockwise, skyward, eastwards,
sideways. They are used with the meaning ‚as far as….is concerned‛.
Added to this group, a lot of adverbs are formed with the prefix a-: abroad, aside,
again, ahead,… but again this prefix is also found in adjectives like ashamed, asleep, awake,...
Another small set of adverbs has be- as first syllable, also indicating position or
direction: before, behind, beneath, besides, between, beyond...
I.2.2. The compound group:
Some of these are shortened forms of preposition groups: downstairs, overnight, ....
Others are combinations of other classes of words: however, moreover,...
I.2.3. The simple group:
Finally, there are adverbs with simple lexical stems. They are one-syllable or twosyllable words of native origin which are not marked for class: up, often, there, very, yet…....
Here, we may wish to divide this set into two subgroups as followed:
+ One is a restricted group of mainly temporal adverbs, which have a simple (nonderived) form expressing temporal position or frequency; yesterday and tomorrow (may also
included).

+ The other is a restricted group of words referring mainly to the locative circumstances
of position and direction including in, on, below, before… adverb particles of this type may
often be viewed as a kind of abbreviated expression of a locative circumstance as:
[10] Have you let the cat out?- usually the interpretation is possible either from the
generally understood situational context or from some previous sentences in the discourse of
text.
I.2.4. Morphonology of Vietnamese adverbs:
As we all know, Vietnamese is not an inflectional language with no change in form.
Therefore, Vietnamese adverbs do not have such morphological features as compared to those
in English.
[11] Anh ta làm gì cũng cẩn thận. - He does anything carefully.


[12] Anh ta lµ mét con ng-êi cÈn thËn. – He is a careful man.
I.3. Classification of adverbs:
I.3.1. Syntactic classification of English adverbs:
According to Quirk R. & Green Baum S. (1987; 125), there are two types of syntactic
functions that characterize adverbs, but an adverb need have only one of these: adverbial and
modifier of a verb, an adjective and another adverb.
(1) Adverbial: An adverb may function in the clause itself as an adverbial, as a
constituent distinct from S, V, O and C. It is usually an optional element and peripheral to the
structure of the clause. It takes the functions of adjuncts, disjuncts and conjuncts.
[13] I spoke to him outside (an adjunct)
[14] Perhaps my suggestions will be accepted (a disjunct)
(2) Modifier: the principal function of an adverb is to modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs
or other units in the clause.
Furthermore, according to Downing, Angela (1992; 556), adverbs, whether simple or
complex realize the syntactic functions as elements of group and clause structures:
+ In group structures: modifier in adverbial groups; modifier in adjective groups; modifier in
nominal groups; modifier of determiners; modifier of preposition .

+ In clause structures: Adjunct; Disjunct; Conjunct.
However, in addition to the two functions above, English adverbs realize two more
functions:
+ Subject predicative: [15] We were outside when it started to rain.
+ Object predicative: [16] Shall I throw the letter away?
I.3.2. Syntactic classification of Vietnamese adverbs:
Vietnamese adverbs are regarded as words with both notional (thùc tõ) and functional
(h- tõ) role. Like English adverbs, they are also used to modify verbs, adjectives, as well as the
predicative and the whole sentence. For example:
[17] The capacity to develop tea plants in Vietnam is still very great, but it has not
been fully exploited yet because...
- Khả năng phát triển cây chè ở Việt Nam còn rất lớn nh-ng ch-a đ-ợc khai thác triệt
để vì...


[18] In the field of commerce, Japanese TOYOTA has made a rather successful start.
- Trên lĩnh vực th-ơng mại, HÃng TOYOTA của Nhật Bản đà có sự khởi đầu khá thành công.
[19] The competition with favored North American beer is certainly very harsh.
- Việc cạnh tranh với các loại bia hợp gu Bắc Mỹ chắc chắn là rất khốc liệt.
[20] Besides, HYUNDAI and KIA of Korea are easily consumed because of ...
- Ngoµi ra, HYUNDAI Vµ KIA cđa Hµn Qc cũng là những nhÃn hiệu dễ tiêu thụ vì...
(Minh Thu-Nguyen Hoa, 2006)
I.3.3. Semantic classification of English adverbs:
According to A.J. Thomson and A.V. Martinet (1985; 52), adverbs are classified into
six types: adverbs of manner, adverbs of place, adverbs of time, adverbs of frequency, adverbs
of degree
and sentence adverbs.
As for M. Swan (1995; 22), adverbs are divided into such types as: connecting adverbs,
focusing adverbs, adverbs of certainty, adverbs of completeness, adverbs of manner, adverbs of
place, adverbs of time, adverbs of frequency, emphasizing adverbs.

Meanwhile, Angela D. (1992; 551), states that ‘adverbs express six broad types of
meaning in clauses and groups: circumstantial, process, modal, degree, focusing, conjunctive.
Although each researcher has reasons to classify adverbs into different types with quite
different names, they share the same semantic classification of those types. Basically, adverbs
consist of six main types, each of which is made up of several subtypes, which are exemplified
by lexical exponents in the following subsections:
I.3.3.1. Circumstantial adverbs:
+ Adverbs of time: used to denote the time of an action, they refer to definite time,
duration of time and indefinite time. They primarily answer the question: ‘When?’, ‘Since
when?’ and ‘How long?’.
+ Adverbs of frequency: used to denote the frequency of the action either definitely or
indefinitely. They mainly answer the question ‘How often?’.
+ Adverbs of place: used to denote the location, position or the direction of an action.
Denoting location or position answers the question ‘Where?’. Denoting direction answers the
questions ‘Where to?’ and ‘Where from?’.


According to Howard Jackson (1992; 47), ‚...circumstances can not generally be said
to be necessary for the completeness of a proposition. Circumstances are usually additional
information about a situation‛. There are six types of circumstance with a number of
subdivisions as the following diagram:
Position (Where?)
LOCATIVE

Source (Where from?)
Path (Which way?)

Direction

Goal (Where to?)

Distance (How far?)
Position (When?)
TEMPORAL

Duration

Orientation

Backward (Since when?)
Forward (Until when?)

General (How long?)
Frequency (How often?)
Manner (In what way?)
PROCESS (How?)

Means (By what means?)
Instrument (What with?)
Agentive (By whom?)

RESPECT – Respect (In respect of what?)
Cause (Why? What cause?)
Reason (Why? For what reason?)
CONTINGENCY

Purpose (Why? What for?)
Result (With what result?)
Condition (Under what conditions?)

Concession (Despite what conditions?)

DEGREE (How much?)
Amplification
Diminution
Measure


I.3.3.2. Process adverbs (=adverbs of manner): used to denote the mean or method of an
action, and very often they answer the question ‘how?’. In many cases, they can be expressed
by prepositional phrases: by bus; in a loud voice,...
[21] He spoke to me in a loud voice. (=quietly)
They are subdivided into two kinds:
+ adverbs of manner: [22] He searched everywhere carefully.
+ adverbs of respect/ comment: used to give the speaker’s opinion of an action:
[23] He generously paid of us all.
I.3.3.3. Modal adverbs (=sentence adverbs)
A.J. Thomson and A.V. Martinet (1985; 58) claimed ‘these adverbs modify the whole
sentence and normally express the speaker’s/ narrator’s opinion’. They are divided into two
types:
(A) Adverbs expressing degrees of certainty include: actually, probably, undoubtedly,
etc...
[24] He is undoubtedly a great leader.
(B) Other sentence adverbs: (un)fortunately, frankly, honestly, naturally, officially,
etc...
[25] Honestly, Tom didn’t get the money.
I.3.3.4. Adverbs of degree (= intensifiers): used to denote the degree to which the
action is performed and they broadly answer the question „to what extent?‟.
[26] The very fast car is running smoothly.
[27] The fast car is running very smoothly.
I.3.3.5. Focusing adverbs: pointing to a particular part of a sentence, the meaning conveyed
often depends upon their position. Common examples are: also, even, only, ...Let’s compare:

[28] Only John helped me to buy the house. (= Only John and no one else helped me.)
# John only helped me to buy the house. (= John didn't actually buy it for me.)
I.3.3.6. Conjunctive adverbs: performing conjunctions, and serving to connect sentences, as
well as to express some circumstance of time, place, degree, or the like.
[29] He fell down the stairs; consequently, he will not be attending school tomorrow.
I.3.4. Semantic classification of Vietnamese adverbs:


Nguyen Kim Than (1996; 190), defines the main types of adverbs in Vietnamese:
I.3.4.1. Adverbs of time:
[30] Hôm qua, anh đi ®©u? – Where did you go to yesterday?
I.3.4.2. Adverbs of place:
[31] Các bạn đang họp ở trên lầu They are having a meeting upstairs.
I.3.4.3. Adverbs of frequency:
[32] Năm năm Đại hội họp một lần. The Congress is held every five years.
I.3.4.4. Adverbs of manner:
[33] Chúng tôi đi tàu thủ ®Õn HP – We went to HP by ship.
[34] Chị ta chạy vội vào trong nhà. - She ran into the house hastily.
I.3.4.5. Adverbs of cause/ reason:
[35] T¹i anh, tôi đến muộn - Due to your fault, I came late.
I.3.4.6. Adverbs of purpose:
[36] Anh ta hÐt to ®Ĩ chóng t«i cã thĨ nghe râ.
- He shouted so that we could hear him clearly.
I.3.4.7. Adverbs of modality:
[37] Hy väng cËu ®Õn kÞp - Hopefully, you come there in time.
I.3.4.8. Adverbs of degree (intensifiers):
[38] Mặc áo khoác vào đi, ngoài trời rÊt l¹nh. - Put on the coat, it is very cold outside.
I.3.4.9. Adverbs of conjunction (=sentence adverbs):
[39] Be careful! Otherwise, you may fall.
I.3.5. Position classification of English adverbs:

According to C.E. Eckersley (1970; 261), ‘there are three positions for adverbs in the
sentence’:
(a). Front-position, i.e. as the first in a sentence.
(b). Mid-position, coming after the subject. The location of adverbs in the middle position
varies depending on the type of verb used.
(c). End-position, i.e. as the last words in a sentence.
[40] Now it is time to leave. - It is now time to leave.- It is time to leave now.


While R. Quirk and S. Green Baum (1987; 208) also distinguish ‚three positions of
adverbs for the declarative form of the clause‛: (a). Initial position (i.e., before the subject)
(b). Medial position:
(c). Final position: after an intransitive verb, or
after any object or complement.
I.3.5.1. Circumstantial adverbs:
Mostly, they are placed at the very end of the clause. Initial position is also common if
the adverb is not the main focus of the message or for purpose of emphasis. Some can go in
mid-position, especially with adverbs of indefinite frequency (often, ever, etc...)
[41] We are always on time.
[42] She read those books silently in the library all day.
However, adverbs of time is very flexible and may occupy any of the three positions in
a clause to serve the purpose of their modification. The adverbs of negative: never, seldom,
rarely, hardly ever,...are occasionally fronted and followed by subject-operator inversion for
purposes of emphasis.
[43] Never in my life I have seen such a big tomato.
Similarly, adverbs of place are sometimes placed at the beginning of a clause, for
emphasis.
[44] On the hilltop an old castle stood majestically.
I.3.5.2. Adverbs of manner:
They derive from value adjectives qualifying the activities referred to the clause; they

are placed most frequently in final position.
[45] He washed the clothes well. - * He well washed the clothes.
In contrast, a manner adverb derived from a human propensity adjective refers just to
the state of the subject; it can occur in I, M or E position, especially if the adverb is not
important to the meaning of the verb.
[46] He had been washing the clothes happily. and He had happily been..
[47] Angrily, she tore up the letter.
I.3.5.3. Modal adverbs:
As clause adjuncts, they are typically placed in mid-position or after be, since they tend
to focus on the process expressed by the verb.


[48] They will probably get married next month.
However, perhaps and may be are exceptions to this rule. They usually go at the
beginning of a clause as in:

[49] Perhaps she will come.

I.3.5.4. Adverbs of degree and focusing adverbs:
It is best to place them in front of and next to the word(s) modified by them.
[50] She’s done everything- she’s even been a soldier.
I.3.5.5. Conjunctive adverbs:
They are often placed at the beginning of a clause, serving to provide a link between
the present clause with the previous one(s).
[51] I would like to go skiing. However, I have too much work to do.
However, when the clause contains no adverb of frequency, some connecting adverbs
may be placed in the M position of a clause.
[52] I am, nevertheless, anxious to continue.
I.3.5.6. Adverbs in initial position:
When an adverb is placed at the beginning of a clause, its meaning extends to the

whole clause and not simply to the predication or to an element of the predication. In this
position, the meaning may be of two broad kinds:
(a) it may function as an element within the clause and have the same status as the
other elements as in: [53] Slowly, the rising sun appeared over the distant horizon.
In this way, the scope of the adverb ranges more widely over the clause than it would
do in mid- or end-position.
(b) other adverbs occur in initial position but are considered, both syntactically and
semantically, to be outside the clause, and are usually called Disjunct and Conjunct:
[54] Frankly, I don’t believe you.
[55] As a result, they are going to buy a smaller car.
In short, the choice of position is determined by its type (circumstantial, modal, degree,
etc.), the scope of its meaning (whole clause or part of a clause), the degree of emphasis the
speaker wishes to give to it, and the general information structure of the clause.
I.3.6. Position classification of Vietnamese adverbs:


As far as the position of adverbs is concerned, Hoang Trong Phien (1980; 126) says:
‚Adverbials (functioning as adverbs) can occur at the beginning, in the middle and at the end
but the most popular position is at the beginning of a sentence‛
However, according to Nguyen Kim Than (1964; 212), ‚in Vietnamese, adverbs have
two main positions in a sentence: initial and final positions‛
That is to say, Vietnamese adverbials can take three positions in a sentence: before
subject-predicate, after subject-predicate and between subject and predicate.
[56] Năm ấy, mẹ tôi còn khoẻ. - That year, my mother was still in good health.
[57] Cách mạng đà do Việt Bắc mà thành công (Hồ Chủ Tịch).
- The revolution, thanks to Viet Bac, was successful.
[58] Chị công tác ở đây à?- Do you work here?
I.4. Functions of english adverbs:
As mentioned above, English adverbs are realized through two syntactic functions: an
adverbial and a modifier. As the main aim of the study, we should focus on the second

function, that is the role of modifying.
I.4.1. What is considered to be “a modifier”?
According to Jackson, Howard (1992; 125), the class of items which realize meanings
associated with the classification and description of participants, we will call modifiers. In
other words, a modifier (or qualifier) is a word or sentence element that limits or qualifies
another word, a phrase, or a clause. In English, there are two common kinds of modifiers:
adjectives, participles and nouns which modify nouns and pronouns, and adverbs, which
modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, nouns, other words or even sentences.
The modifier term are usually subdivided into two types:
- A premodifier is a modifier placed before the head (the modified component).
- A postmodifier is a modifier placed after the head as in:
[59] "a very great (pre-modifier) party last night (post-modifier)".
In addition, adverbial clauses (or particle phrases) such as of course, luckily, therefore,
etc..., commenting on the rest of the sentence or what has gone before in a previous sentence,
may also be classed as modifiers, as in: [60] Luckily, they didn’t recognize us.


G. David Morley (2000; 131) states that ‚the element occurring between the determiner
and the headword element is the modifier and its function is determined by this position‛.
In short, modifiers are not usually required by a clause's syntax; they are optional, and
help clarify or limit the extent of the meaning of the word or phrase they modify.
I.4.2. Main functions of adverbs:
As it can be seen in many cases, an adverb basically functions as a modifier of a verb,
an adjective, another adverb. However, adverbs are not restricted to the those three functions.
They can also act as modifiers of a preposition, a noun/ a noun phrase, a determiner, a
numeral, a pronoun and a whole sentence. Furthermore, not all adverbs that modify adjectives
will also modify adverbs. As such, not all adverbs occur with all the functions. We would like
to analyze the modifying function of adverbs explicitly and separately as followed:
I.4.2.1. Modifier of verbs:
According to G. David Morley (2000; 40) ‚adverbs have been seen as performing a socalled modifying role in relation to verbs. This role is associated with circumstantial adverbs‛

[61] He came yesterday/ here.
[62] Residents must quickly and quietly exit the building during the fire drill.
Besides, many degree adverbs can be used with gradable verbs which refer to things
that can happen more or less completely, fully, strongly, etc... as in: [63] I entirely agree.
However, certain degree adverbs generally go together with certain verbs. For example,
we can say I fully understand and I firmly believe but not *I fully like and *I firmly think.
I.4.2.2. Modifier of adjectives:
The gradability of adjectives may be exploited and expressed by means of modifying
adverbs. Most commonly, the modifying adverb is an intensifier, whether an emphasizer,
conveying primarily emphasis and not scaling as really, actually, clearly, indeed, ...
[64] She is really kind to me.
or an amplifier, denoting a high degree as very, absolutely, in all respects, badly,
deeply, well..
[65] She took a very small piece of the cake.
or a downtoner, suggesting an incomplete or low degree as quite, slightly, nearly...
[66] I quite enjoyed the film.
and viewpoint adverbs as theoretically, dramatically, musically, ...


I.4.2.3. Modifier of other adverbs:
Adverbs also operate in relation to other adverbs, where they indicate the degree of the
adverbial circumstance. Adverbs modifying other adverbs can only be intensifiers.
[67] My use of adverbs is almost always perfect.
However, some intensifiers are restricted to a small set of lexical items, i.e. deeply
(anxious), highly (intelligent), strikingly (handsome)...whereas many intensifiers can modify
adjectives, adverbs, and verbs alike. Basically, they pre-modify gradable adjectives and
adverbs to increase or decrease the meaning of the word modified. However, enough is an
exception to this rule as in: [68] He spoke clearly enough.
I.4.2.4. Modifier of nouns/ noun phrases:
Adverbs are also found in many cases to modify the whole nominal and prepositional

phrases by focusing on and heightening the entity/ relator/ processor concerned. They thus are
known as intensifying adverbs as:
[69] He is rather a nuisance.
[70] He ran just behind you.
The noun phrase is perhaps postmodified by an adjective or adverb in a number of
phrases of measure as:
[71] John is ten years old.
[72] They stayed up all night long.
Some adverbs signifying place or time postmodify noun phrases take on what might be
thought of as the ‘adjectival role’ within the nominal phrase:
Place: the way ahead, the direction back, the hall downstairs, that man there, his
return home...
Time: the meeting yesterday, the meal afterwards, the day before, ...
However, in some of the phrases, the adverbs can also be used as a premodifier within
the noun phrases e.g.: the downstairs hall, his home journey, the above photo...
I.4.2.5. Modifier of particles, prepositions and prepositional phrases:
The few intensifying adverbs that can premodify particles in phrasal verbs can also
premodify prepositions or (perhaps rather) prepositional phrases. It is called the adverbial
function:
[73] He made his application well within the time.


[74] It's immediately inside the door.
I.4.2.6. Modifier of (pre)determiners, cardinal numerals, indefinite pronouns/ quantifiers:
Intensifying adverbs (including downtoners) can be used in this way.
[75] Nearly everybody came to our part.
With the ordinals and superlatives, a definite determiner is obligatory for
premodification.
[76] We counted approximately the first thousand votes.
Some intensifiers such as too, so, very, rather,...can be used to modify such indefinite

quantifiers as much, many, little and few.
[77] We’ve got very little time left.
[78] His firm does quite a lot of business in Egypt.
I.4.2.7. Modifier of sentences:
Lastly, adverbs can modify the whole sentence, though the concept of modification
here needs to be interpreted in an increasingly liberal way. Indeed, the relationship is no longer
one of modification at all but rather one of interrelationship with the rest of the clause.
G. David Morley (2000; 42) listed three subgroups of adverb modifying a whole
sentence:
+ In the first group, known in traditional grammar as ‘sentence adverbs’, are those
which have the function of providing a connective link between the preceding clause and the
present one. A more contemporary term is conjunctive adverbs.
[79] Therefore, the performance should now be better.
+ In the second group of adverbs relating to the rest of the clause are those which
express different facets of the speaker’s perspective on the sentence and which have been
labeled as modal or disjunctive adverbs.
- the speaker’s assessment of the degree of certainty or doubt surrounding the factual
content of the clause as in: [80] Jill have probably gone by bus.
- the speaker’s comment on/ reaction towards the clause content as in:
[81] Luckily, no one was hurt.
- the speaker’s terms of reference for the clause:
[82] Briefly, it doesn’t meet our demand.


+ The third group of sentential/ interclausal adverbs embraces expressions regularly
used in social discourse and can thus be labeled as interpersonal adverbs, though strictly
speaking
some of the examples below involve more than one word:
Politeness/ courtesy adverbs as : please, ...
Continuity markers as: well, now then, ...

Greeting and farewells as: Hello, hi,...
Polarity and agreement responses as: yes, no, okay...
Approval formulae as: Hurrah, cheers,...
As it can be concluded in many cases, adverbs primarily serve to modify or qualify
verbs, adjectives or other adverbs, even sentences. In other words, their appearance is mainly
aimed at giving preciness to the word/ the clause modified.
I.4.3. Types of modifiers:
According to Downing, Angela (1992; 585), the modification usually takes the form of
grading, intensification or attenuation, quantification, description or simply of focusing and
reinforcement as they are exemplified below:
I.4.3.1.Grading modifier:
Adverbs are graded by the same words as adjectives: more, least, too often, ...
[83] He visits his hometown too often.
I.4.3.2. Intensifying modifiers:
As with adjectives, intensification to adverbs may be (a) high, or (b) medium:
(a) very soon; quite recently; right now; extremely naturally; soon after; close by;...
(b) quite softly; fairly well; pretty easily; rather badly; ...
I.4.3.3. Attenuating modifiers: somewhat, partly, scarcely, not fully, slightly, a little, hardly,
...
[84] I’m afraid this man hardly ever comes on time.
I.4.3.4. Quantifying modifiers:
As with adjectives, this refers to circumstantial adverbs of space and time and may be
(a) exact:

[85] The airport is at least ten miles away.

(b) non-measurable quantity: expressed by the deictic items so and that