Socioeconomics, Diversity, and the Politics of Online Education

Socioeconomics,
Diversity, and the Politics
of Online Education
Kristina Setzekorn
Purdue University Global, USA
Nainika Patnayakuni
Calhoun Community College, USA
Tina Burton
Purdue University Global, USA

A volume in the Advances in Mobile and Distance
Learning (AMDL) Book Series


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Names: Setzekorn, Kristina, editor. | Patnayakuni, Nainika, editor. |
Burton, Tina, editor.

Title: Socioeconomics, diversity, and the politics of online education /
Kristina Setzekorn, Nainika Patnayakuni, and Tina Burton, editors.
Description: Hershey, PA : Information Science Reference, 2020. | Includes
bibliographical references and index. | Summary: “This book explores
online education’s optimal design and management so that more students,
especially those traditionally underserved, are successful and can
contribute to their communities and society. Additionally, it looks at
the political/regulatory, diversity, and socioeconomic impacts on online
education, especially for online education demographic groups”-Provided by publisher.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019055633 (print) | LCCN 2019055634 (ebook) | ISBN
9781799835837 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781799835844 (paperback) | ISBN
9781799835851 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Web-based instruction--Social aspects. | Web-based
instruction--Political aspects. | Nontraditional college
students--Services for. | Education, Higher--Effect of technological
innovations on.
Classification: LCC LB1044.87 .S6179 2020 (print) | LCC LB1044.87 (ebook)
| DDC 371.33/44678--dc23
LC record available at />LC ebook record available at />This book is published in the IGI Global book series Advances in Mobile and Distance Learning (AMDL) (ISSN: 23271892; eISSN: 2327-1906)
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Utilizing a 5-Stage Learning Model for Planning and Teaching Online Courses Emerging Research and Opportunities
Riad S. Aisami (Troy University, USA)
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Managing and Designing Online Courses in Ubiquitous Learning Environments
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Global Demand for Borderless Online Degrees
Robert P. Hogan (Walden University, USA)
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Enriching Collaboration and Communication in Online Learning Communities
Carolyn N. Stevenson (Purdue University Global, USA) and Joanna C. Bauer (Claremont Lincoln University, USA)
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Advancing Mobile Learning in Contemporary Educational Spaces
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Student Support Toward Self-Directed Learning in Open and Distributed Environments
Micheal M. van Wyk (University of South Africa, South Africa)
Information Science Reference ã â2019 ã 321pp ã H/C (ISBN: 9781522593164) • US $195.00
Administrative Leadership in Open and Distance Learning Programs
Koksal Buyuk (Anadolu University, Turkey) Serpil Kocdar (Anadolu University, Turkey) and Aras Bozkurt (Anadolu University, Turkey)
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Table of Contents

Foreword.............................................................................................................................................. xiv
Preface.................................................................................................................................................. xvi
Acknowledgment...............................................................................................................................xxiii
Section 1
Chapter 1
Facilitating Civility in Distance Education.............................................................................................. 1
Catherine F. Flynn, Purdue University Global, USA
Chapter 2
Enhancing Student Involvement in a Technologically Connected World.............................................. 17
Joyce B. Boone, Purdue University Global, USA
Chapter 3
Pedagogy in a Potentially Hostile Online Environment......................................................................... 35
Lynne Williams, Purdue University Global, USA
Tamara P. Fudge, Purdue University Global, USA
Chapter 4

More Than a Course: Participation in MOOCs to Signal Professional Value....................................... 50
Sergey Gorbatov, IE Business School, IE University, Spain
Monika Hamori, IE Business School, IE University, Spain
Svetlana N. Khapova, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Evgenia I. Lysova, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Janneke K. Oostrom, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands






Section 2
Chapter 5
Gender Gap: Factors Affecting Female Students’ Retention in an Online Undergraduate IT 
Program.................................................................................................................................................. 79
Kristina Setzekorn, Purdue University Global, USA
Tina Burton, Purdue University Global, USA
Colleen M. Farrelly, Staticlysm LLC, USA
Susan Shepherd Ferebee, Purdue University Global, USA
Chapter 6
Online Doctoral Programs: Breaking Down Barriers for Women......................................................... 90
Kathleen Scarpena, Purdue University Global, USA
Chapter 7
A Safer Place for Women: Online Education...................................................................................... 111
Judith E. Larkin, Canisius College, USA
Harvey A. Pines, Canisius College, USA
Section 3
Chapter 8
Managing Generational Diversity: Lessons German Companies Can Learn From Silicon Valley..... 127

Martin Klaffke, Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft Berlin, Germany
Chapter 9
Native American Cultural Identity Exploration in Their Postsecondary Education: A Narrative
Inquiry.................................................................................................................................................. 142
Susan Shepherd Ferebee, Purdue University Global, USA
Andrew C. Lawlor, University of Phoenix, USA
Chapter 10
Representation in 21st Century Online Higher Education: How the Online Learning Culture
Serves Diverse Students....................................................................................................................... 165
Maggie Broderick, Northcentral University, USA
Chapter 11
The Influence of Politics and Diversity in Educational Differentiation............................................... 184
Desiree L. DePriest, Purdue University Global, USA
Chapter 12
A Critical Review of Barriers to United States Military Spouse Education and Employment........... 193
Crystal Lewis, Northcentral University, USA




Chapter 13
Redefining Educational Opportunity in America................................................................................ 216
Peter Plympton Smith, University of Maryland Global Campus, USA
Chapter 14
Improving Social and Economic Mobility for People With Disabilities Through Online 
Education............................................................................................................................................. 229
Jessica D. K. Love, Purdue University Global, USA
Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 244
About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 281
Index.................................................................................................................................................... 286

Detailed Table of Contents

Foreword.............................................................................................................................................. xiv
Preface.................................................................................................................................................. xvi
Acknowledgment...............................................................................................................................xxiii
Section 1
This section is a collection of chapters related to some unique attributes of online learning, such as
incivility and cyberbullying, theories related to student involvement and transactional distance that
should improve online students’ experience, and the role of massively open online courses in providing
upskilling opportunities.
Chapter 1
Facilitating Civility in Distance Education.............................................................................................. 1
Catherine F. Flynn, Purdue University Global, USA
Higher education has a long history of incivility, and the advent of distance learning has further
exacerbated the issues. Increasing incivility in our society adds another challenging dimension to
combating incivility and maintaining a supportive, educational environment. This chapter addresses the
challenges of maintaining civility in the online teaching and learning environment that facilitates access
24/7. Specific issues relevant to disruptive actions in distance learning are covered, as well as strategies
for preventing and reducing online incivility. Promoting a sense of connectiveness and social interaction
is recommended, while also maintaining a professional relationship. Online culture is discussed as a key
element in establishing an effective online environment.
Chapter 2
Enhancing Student Involvement in a Technologically Connected World.............................................. 17
Joyce B. Boone, Purdue University Global, USA
In the multi-faceted domain of adult online education, administrators, researchers, and practitioners
have an opportunity to assist adults who bring unique experiences, talents, challenges, and needs to the
online learning environment. The purpose of this chapter is to refresh the reader’s awareness about two
theories: student involvement and transactional distance. It is the hope of the author that a heightened

understanding of these theories will spark new ideas, research, and practices, facilitating successful
outcomes. Taken individually or paired as theoretical or conceptual frameworks, these theories are
seminal to both adult and distance education domains. Researchers, decision-makers, and practitioners







are encouraged to objectively observe their educational environments through the lenses of these two
theoretical perspectives and consider what is working and what is not working in the context of today’s
rapidly changing cultural, socio-political climate.
Chapter 3
Pedagogy in a Potentially Hostile Online Environment......................................................................... 35
Lynne Williams, Purdue University Global, USA
Tamara P. Fudge, Purdue University Global, USA
Student-on-student bullying in brick and mortar schools is unfortunately commonplace and has been the
subject of research for many years. Alongside the growth of online learning, there has been a corresponding
growth in cyberbullying, not only in the student-on-student category, but also student-on-teacher. This
new form of bullying can be devastating for the target because, unlike the traditional form of bullying
where interactions take place face to face, cyberbullying incorporates email, social media, and texts,
which allows the aggression to spread rapidly across a potentially vast range of communication outlets,
thus magnifying the effect. Given the potential for significant harm to instructors who are at risk of being
targeted by an aggrieved or angry student, more research needs to be done concerning student to teacher
cyberbullying. This chapter will examine various cases of student to teacher cyberbullying as well as
the role that gender plays in online bullying and end with recommendations for prevention or recourse
on the part of the targeted instructor.
Chapter 4
More Than a Course: Participation in MOOCs to Signal Professional Value....................................... 50

Sergey Gorbatov, IE Business School, IE University, Spain
Monika Hamori, IE Business School, IE University, Spain
Svetlana N. Khapova, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Evgenia I. Lysova, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Janneke K. Oostrom, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands
The authors explore the role of massive online open courses (MOOCs), one of the learning alternatives
that has become available to millions of people, in the job search process, linking the invested effort in
obtaining a certification or completing several courses from the same specialization with the job seeking
outcomes, such as getting a job. In a study of a marketing MOOC learners (N = 278), they explore the
antecedents and outcomes of such invested effort through the lens of the signaling theory. The results
indicated that school brand importance and self-promotion were important predictors of invested effort
in MOOCs, while learning goal orientation towards MOOCs was not. The invested effort in MOOCs
positively related to perceived usefulness of MOOCs in getting a job through both signaling of MOOCrelated competencies and perceived employability. The authors complemented the quantitative data with
19 semi-structured interviews to provide nuances to the findings. Theoretical and practical implications
of the role of MOOCs in the context of contemporary careers are discussed.
Section 2
This section is a collection of chapters regarding online education’s gender-related attributes, including
the role of online faculty gender in supporting female IT students’ persistence, mitigation of barriers for
women completing doctoral programs, as well as the online environment’s support of women students’
preference for privacy and risk aversion.




Chapter 5
Gender Gap: Factors Affecting Female Students’ Retention in an Online Undergraduate IT 
Program.................................................................................................................................................. 79
Kristina Setzekorn, Purdue University Global, USA
Tina Burton, Purdue University Global, USA
Colleen M. Farrelly, Staticlysm LLC, USA

Susan Shepherd Ferebee, Purdue University Global, USA
Women are underrepresented in information technology (IT) fields. This study aims to understand
faculty gender’s impacts on female IT student retention in introductory courses in an online university’s
undergraduate IT program. Univariate and multivariate statistical models indicate that faculty gender
does not moderate the retention of female students in this context. However, the retention rates of women
are encouraging, suggesting that an online format may be conducive to the retention of female students.
Chapter 6
Online Doctoral Programs: Breaking Down Barriers for Women......................................................... 90
Kathleen Scarpena, Purdue University Global, USA
This chapter examines the role of online education in removing the barriers that prevent women from
entering, and ultimately successfully completing, doctoral programs. Three core questions guide this
chapter as it examines this complex problem of practice: Do online doctoral programs mitigate access
barriers specifically for women? What are the implications of access-based college choice decisions
for women? How can increased access to online doctoral programs shrink the gap for women in fields
where they are underrepresented? This chapter also includes solutions and recommendations for practice
designed to support online programs in creating expanded access and opportunity for women, particularly
those impacted by underrepresentation, in terms of entry into and completion of doctoral programs.
Chapter 7
A Safer Place for Women: Online Education...................................................................................... 111
Judith E. Larkin, Canisius College, USA
Harvey A. Pines, Canisius College, USA
A feature of online study not widely recognized is that apart from its convenience, which eases the
burdens of managing family and work demands, the online educational environment offers control over
privacy and visibility. To convey how women, in particular, place importance on having control over
privacy, this chapter describes studies the authors have conducted to investigate gender differences in
reactions to situations where public performance vs. privacy is involved. While recognizing the success
of online courses in meeting privacy needs, attention is also drawn to the challenge that online instructors
face to prepare students with skills in public presentation important for success beyond the classroom.
Section 3
This section is a collection of chapters related to socioeconomic and multi-cultural aspects of online

learning.
Chapter 8
Managing Generational Diversity: Lessons German Companies Can Learn From Silicon Valley..... 127
Martin Klaffke, Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft Berlin, Germany




Germany is undergoing a dramatic demographic change that requires its organizations to make workforce
talent of all ages a strategic priority. Practitioners in Germany focus largely on Generation Y employees,
because this young employee cohort expresses new and different work-related values. However, diverse
attitudes and behaviors of employees in different age groups can potentially lead to conflict and have an
overall negative impact on organizational performance. Given US labor legislation and media pressure,
managing workforce diversity has been on the agenda of U.S. organizations for many years. Consequently,
it can be assumed that there are areas in which German organizations can learn best practices from the
U.S. experience. Although data collected from Silicon Valley organizations suggest that taking specific
action for managing the multi-generational workforce is currently not a pressing issue in the tech industry,
setting up innovative workplaces is an action field in which Germany can learn from its U.S. counterparts.
Chapter 9
Native American Cultural Identity Exploration in Their Postsecondary Education: A Narrative
Inquiry.................................................................................................................................................. 142
Susan Shepherd Ferebee, Purdue University Global, USA
Andrew C. Lawlor, University of Phoenix, USA
Thirteen percent of American Indians/Alaskan Natives have achieved a bachelors’ degree or higher compared
to 28% of the overall United States population. Improving Native American educational attainment is
critical as a pathway to economic prosperity and social equality. The problem is that educational leaders
do not know what American Indians/Alaskan Natives consider a successful educational experience as
aligned with their cultural identity. The purpose of this qualitative narrative inquiry was to examine the
post-secondary experiences of American Indians/Alaskan Natives through their online stories via social
media. Results showed the American Indians/Alaskan Natives’ culture dominated their educational

experience, and they were unlikely to widen their social identity. Moving from a mono-cultural view
to one that includes a Eurocentric college culture could be contributory and fruitful. Online education
might allow these Native American students to remain in their culture and still experience the Eurocentric
college culture.
Chapter 10
Representation in 21st Century Online Higher Education: How the Online Learning Culture
Serves Diverse Students....................................................................................................................... 165
Maggie Broderick, Northcentral University, USA
This chapter examines representation of women and minorities in 21st century higher education with
regard to how the online learning culture serves diverse students. Over the past two decades, faculty
and student representation by women and minorities has increased, while online learning has also
grown exponentially, becoming almost ubiquitous in its reach and scope. Even with differences across
institutions (public versus private, size of the university, and populations served), the online learning
environment has a seemingly agreed-upon set of rules, standards, and practices. Arguably, online learning
has a distinct culture, which can thus be viewed through the lens of Vygotskyian sociocultural theory.
While online learning may have some perceived downsides, a potential benefit is that the nature of the
technology and the agreed-upon culture of 21st century online learning across institutions may serve
to mask and inhibit implicit bias and thus level the playing field for women and minority students and
faculty in higher education.




Chapter 11
The Influence of Politics and Diversity in Educational Differentiation............................................... 184
Desiree L. DePriest, Purdue University Global, USA
Current societal shifts are unfolding connections between laws, acts, and behaviors of the past that
affect education in the present. There is limited scholarship that reveals the historical intentionality in
excluding underrepresented and marginalized persons from education. The concern is that the quest for
higher industry recognition based on the old models of elite and traditional schools will make online

environments vulnerable to those same exclusions. The mission is to apply transparency to the underlying
disparate history in education and how severely it has affected so many generations of people, change the
paradigm going forward, and not repeat homogeneity online. This chapter proposes a critical examination
of factors that necessitated the evolution from past education models established to perpetuate societal
dominance by a select few, to the present inclusive online learning models. The chapter argues that
technology, along with the failure to include diverse populations as a unique demographic, contributed
to the disruption that became online learning.
Chapter 12
A Critical Review of Barriers to United States Military Spouse Education and Employment........... 193
Crystal Lewis, Northcentral University, USA
In the United States, there are over one million military spouses. Frequent geographical relocations, the
psychological stress and anxiety associated with spousal deployments, and supporting their children as the
only parent while their active duty spouse is away leave military spouses disproportionately accountable
for all family obligations. Ultimately, these inequities create barriers for military spouses and their
employment and educational pursuits. Despite similarities in lifestyle to active duty service members,
military spouses are not categorized as an at-risk population and have not been studied in depth. This
chapter utilized the source, survey, synthesize method to address the literature gap surrounding the barriers
to military spouse education and employment. Findings from the existing literature were synthesized
to present the key themes for studies that investigated the military culture, barriers to military spouses’
pursuits of higher education, employment, and career advancement and earnings.
Chapter 13
Redefining Educational Opportunity in America................................................................................ 216
Peter Plympton Smith, University of Maryland Global Campus, USA
This chapter discusses the historic progression of American higher education and its role in opportunity
and work. There are social and economic costs in higher education’s current opportunity structure, in
that many Americans are excluded by campus models, traditions, and values coupled with broader
societal norms. For them, the higher education opportunity pathway remains an opportunity monopoly
beyond their reach. Clayton Christiansen’s theory of disruptive innovation is referenced to reframe this
education-opportunity debate.
Chapter 14

Improving Social and Economic Mobility for People With Disabilities Through Online Education. 229
Jessica D. K. Love, Purdue University Global, USA




Students with disabilities face many roadblocks to graduation, including but not limited to campus
buildings that are difficult to manage, rigid class schedules that do not accommodate a disability, and
unnecessarily complex process for obtaining ADA accommodations. Online education is comparable to
traditional university programs in quality and accreditation standards. Online education could improve
graduation rates and thus provide a higher probability that a graduate with disabilities will find a job
and have greater opportunities for economic mobility.
Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 244
About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 281
Index.................................................................................................................................................... 286


xiv

Foreword

This book is more than a well-organized and thought-provoking tapestry of familiar issues confronting
students, teachers and classrooms of any kind. It is an invitation, in a post pandemic world of work and
learning, to heed sage advice about the danger of failing to learn from history. It is a reminder that we
are not doomed to link one paradigm to the next. This book can also be a fantasy-provoking exercise
with something I personally like to avoid: a blank piece of paper.
Readers will recognize and have strong mental frameworks for the ideas here, whether they bring a
background of formal education experience (at any level), or are simply intrigued by the evolution of
learning culture and potential opportunity online offers. The chapters highlight how the universal issues
of our world and its societal mores seem forever reflected in our institutions, even those we promote

and cling to as tools of change, like education. Each author invites us to look ahead and apply our best
critical thinking skills to reshape the future with the possibilities of a virtual learning space. Whether
the challenge is gender or race, psychological traits or physical disability, student engagement or instructor skills, niches of degree pursuit or culture, technology itself or the inequities of its access, there is a
message to hope, as we expand this new virtual horizon.
Take my blank piece of paper for a moment, then, while I suggest that maybe hope is okay, even if
hope is NOT a plan. Perhaps the amorphous virtue of hope can encourage us away from the solid comfort
of what research and scholars have created as a foundation on which we tend to build. Learning is science, after all, facilitated by artists. Magic happens when science takes leaps away from its conventional
wisdom and toward some black hole.
I am proud that when COVID-19 meant a sacrosanct tradition like a graduation ceremony was lost,
Purdue Global had already held its first virtual ceremony. We had moved along what we believed was
an inevitable path for a 21st Century online university. It was gratifying to share that option with our
colleagues in a spirit of service to students everywhere, and with a collective respect for the value of a
tradition, changing as it must with reality. And yet, if that is where we stop…..taking the next step with
all that we know and carrying forward what we desire to preserve, we do not embrace the blank piece
of paper or bravely cross the threshold of a black hole.
Read this book with a blank piece of pure white paper. As you are provoked to compare and contrast
what you know and what may be possible, remind yourself that truth does change. What we can create
is not reality we know or would recognize. Born of science, technology still demonstrates its human
nature of good and evil. Don’t trust it alone. Technology dazzles with its power to literally alter reality
and suspend belief, but remember what was once viewed as miraculous, is now the mundane. One challenge, as articulated here, is to find the kernel of that next Big Idea. How will the possibilities of virtual
education help write the next, better iteration for even one of the deserving issues explored?




Foreword

But don’t stop there. Indulge in fantasy, please. Believe that magic lives in all of us who choose to be
conscious in our pursuits, as much as it manifests in any future techno-ability. We are past the time of one
without the other. If these ideas seem familiar education fodder, don’t let that make this a comfortable

read. Choose to forget if that helps you imagine. The tribute to this group of authors, prodding us all to
keep moving along, will be the book not yet written about the miracle of change that was education in
the 21st century. Pick your topic. Start writing your chapter. Pass it on.
Carolyn Nordstrom
Purdue University Global, USA

xv


xvi

Preface

The idea for this book was triggered by a series of articles explaining how higher education, rather than
promoting social mobility, now actually exacerbates wealth and income inequality. Whereas physical
hailstorms were cited as historically postponing or derailing farmers’ sons’ education plans, socioeconomic hailstorms often derail worthy students’ educations today (c.f., Fischer, 2016, Rivard, 2014,
Schneider, 2018, Wolfston, 2014).
Until 40 years ago, higher education promoted social mobility, broad economic growth and democracy. This civic mission has since been hijacked to one of “spending for glory” to garner higher placing
in The US News & World Report’s Best Colleges rankings. Heavily weighted criteria include how much
the university spends per student for education, faculty salaries, maintaining a low student/faculty ratio
and minimizing student debt (Wolfston, 2014). Colleges reduce acceptance rates, decrease class size,
pursue students who have higher test scores and GPAs; hoard endowments; build expensive facilities;
compete for superstar faculty, coaches and athletes and market themselves to each other to enhance their
“peer assessments.” (socialmobilityindex.org).
Pursuit of these rankings makes higher education less attainable for most middle- and lower-income
students. Students from diverse ethnic and working class families; who attend mediocre or failing
neighborhood elementary and secondary schools; who are traumatized by substandard housing, food
insecurity and violence; and whose families cannot afford tutoring or test prep classes earn lower grades
and underperform on standardized admissions exams that do not reflect their world view. To maintain
their large endowments, elite research universities do not spend their funds meaningfully supporting

needy students. Their graduates, whose families pay for tuition, room and board, books and fees out of
savings, have little student debt, while students from less privileged backgrounds must borrow to cover
all these education costs, and thus graduate with higher debt (Fischer, 2016).
These skewed institutional incentives thus reduce socioeconomic diversity at elite research universities. Business and political leaders tend to matriculate there, and their children with all the previouslymentioned advantages and many more, are preferentially admitted as “legacies” or on athletic scholarships for sports in which only privileged students have participated, e.g., lacrosse, rowing or equestrian
sports. This circular, insulated environment is thus reinforced by society, economics and politics, and is
further reinforced when these universities only consider other elite institutions’ graduates when hiring
faculty and administrators.
There is a role for elite research universities, but sadly, most traditional universities also compete
on these same criteria. The context is scarcity, with aspirations of elitism and exclusivity. Their use of
standardized test scores excludes otherwise capable applicants with diverse world views, and they select
faculty based on publications, mentor and alma mater —one could argue, criteria minimally related to




Preface

undergraduate student success and teaching quality. Like elite universities, non-elite traditional universities
aspiring to this perceived quality, chase a limited number of non-diverse valedictorians and privileged
18-year-olds, Ivy League-graduated faculty, elite athletes and winning coaches, in an escalating “arms
race.” Demand has been price inelastic, due to “winner-take-all” employment prospects (high starting
salaries) for prestige university graduates and student loan availability, so competition shifted to accoutrements that appeal to 18-year-olds: luxurious new student apartments and campus buildings, sports
complexes and winning sports teams, rather than price.
However, a growing number of non-traditional students demand the no-frills, time- and cost-efficient
version of a college education—i.e., just the knowledge, skills and credentials to advance their careers—
with the logistics and schedule that allow them to attend without quitting their job or moving to a university town. Online education is an example of technology-enabled disruption (Christenson, 1997), in
that it reduces cost by not investing in any but the most relevant features and thus enables more students
to attend, regardless of their finances, location and schedule.
While the non-elite traditional university has increasingly priced itself out of the market, its main
strengths have constrained its strategy, limiting its ability to adjust to shifting market demand and price

elasticity. Climbing walls, physical libraries, parking structures, sports arenas, coaches’ contracts and
faculty tenure are legacy costs built into a traditional university’s business model, and increasingly must
be covered by student tuition and fees, as the population of residential college-bound18-year-olds declines, and state government funding drops in response to the current economic contraction precipitated
by the COVID-19 pandemic.
This disruption model was illustrated with Encyclopedia Britannica in the 1980s. The encyclopedia’s most competitive features (luxurious leather binding, gilt-edge pages, full-color pictures) became
irrelevant with the advent of the PC + MS Encarta, which offered the same benefit (information for
children’s school reports) and more (e.g., continuous updates, word processing, calculations, and more)
at the same price point. Britannica’s legacy strategy was locked-in by its previous path-dependent strategic success, e.g., its commission-based salesforce (opposed change) and full-color content that could
not be digitized with technology available at that time (Evans & Wurster, 1999).
Online education also threatens to disrupt cross-subsidies in the traditional model. For example, in
traditional universities, large freshman classes subsidize small specialized senior-level and graduate
classes. If universities accept competency assessments, MOOCs and professional certifications in lieu
of these freshman classes, how will the small specialized classes’ costs be covered? How are traditional
universities going to cover their legacy costs (e.g., climbing walls, infrastructure, sports arenas, tenured
faculty and coaches’ pay) without those large freshman survey classes? Traditional universities are not
scalable. They have large legacy fixed costs, and this becomes untenable with dwindling enrollment.
This issue of cross subsidies was also seen in the print newspaper industry’s business model. Classified ads subsidized the rest of the newspaper, so when online classified ads cherry-picked a small part of
this business, it had an outsize impact, pushing firms (and the industry) into a death spiral. Newspapers
had to replace that lost ad revenue by reducing cost (e.g., lower-quality materials, fewer pages, skilled
journalist layoffs) and raising subscription prices. The resulting lower perceived value caused people to
cancel their subscriptions, which lowered ad rates and both results further lowered revenue, which had
to be made up by more drastic cost-cutting and higher subscription prices –thus the death spiral (Evans
& Wurster, 1999).

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Like newspapers, American universities must charge more in student tuition and fees to make up for

declining enrollment and to cover legacy costs—and/or reduce quality, e.g., cut programs and staff. The
resulting high tuition and fees charged, coupled with high unemployment and low pay for non-prestige
traditional university graduates, and availability of potentially disruptive alternatives (e.g., professional
certifications, free and low-cost MOOCs, bootcamps, pre-employment skills exams, etc.) make potential
students question investments in traditional university education, and employers question the requirement for college degrees.
This gets to the idea of Mission. Many traditional universities aspire to an elitist “spending for glory”
mission measured by the US News & World Report’s Best Colleges criteria, such as spending/student,
university endowment, number of valedictorians admitted, class size, faculty prestige publications, entrant GPAs and standardized test scores, etc., and this is also reinforced to some extent by accreditors.
One could argue though, that public universities’ missions should be directed to improving students’
social mobility, which supports them, their families, employers and communities. This social mobility
mission is antithetical to low acceptance rates, and frills like campus climbing walls, sports programs,
small class size and new classrooms, whose cost increasingly deters students of modest means and those
with family and work responsibilities.
Social mobility is improved when universities instead focus on meeting open enrollment students
where they are, customizing their education offerings, while charging lower tuition, so they can graduate
with relevant skills into high-demand, stable, good-paying careers ( Such
focus on access, affordability, relevance and graduation promotes political, social and economic stability
(Berg & Ostry, 2011). The public interest would thus be better served if accreditation and prestige were
recast around social mobility criteria, rather than elitist “Best Colleges” criteria.
Online public universities could offer trajectory-changing education at more affordable cost if they
unabashedly pursued a social mobility mission and culture. Such action meets students where they are
(e.g., those with GEDs or low GPAs, military families, low income, immigrant, rural, disabled, First
Nation and first generation students, working parents and other nontraditional students), supporting
their educational on-boarding and financial/ social/ career needs, offering credit for prior learning to
graduate them quickly, with skills and credentials supporting employment and growth in expanding
fields (Smith, 2014). This mission also provides a more inclusive, diverse student body and work force.
It requires institutionalizing a consistently supportive organizational culture driven by “what’s best for
students and society.”
To the extent that the social mobility missions are muddied with elitist aspirations, online public
universities risk Porter’s “stuck in the middle” dilemma (1980). This happens when a public online university’s strategy includes, in addition to social mobility, some aspects of a prestige research university,

such that in the name of “quality” and for brand prestige, and sometimes mandated by accreditors, they
limit admission based on high school GPA, class standing and test scores; institute “gatekeeper courses;”
have a punitive culture where inadequate advising and skills preparation, missed seminars and artificial
deadlines threaten student success. Another element is the additional cost incurred from maintaining
physical locations, small class sizes, large fulltime faculties and research requirements as well as other
“reputational” aspirations.
Online public universities cannot credibly compete for US News Best Colleges prestige against wellendowed, long-standing prestige-branded, top-20 research universities, yet they direct scarce resources
to their otherwise irrelevant criteria. To the extent that online universities’ resources and policies are
focused only on students’ social mobility, i.e., meeting them where they are and offering them in-demand
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career skills and credentials, they can provide life-changing and lifelong education at a cost significantly
less than that currently charged by prestige and even “stuck in the middle” universities.
For reasons previously discussed, online education has become a serious contender in the last 20
years. The first quarter 2020 has seen an emergency mass migration of nearly all traditional higher
education students online, to slow the COVID-19 pandemic’s spread. This mass migration was effected
with less than a month of preparation, with little attention to best practices, training, resources or consistent outcomes. Consequently, the book’s topics (online learning’s attributes, multi-cultural effects and
gender-related aspects) are quite relevant to instructors’ and institutions’ efforts to better understand and
optimize their online offerings with socioeconomic and diversity impacts.
This public health, and resulting social and economic disaster has been described both as a “black
swan” and perhaps more accurately as a “gray rhino.” That is, politicians and financial traders reference
a black swan event as coming out of nowhere, being “highly improbable, even unimaginable” (Wucker,
2020, para 2). On the other hand, gray rhino events like the current pandemic, recession, inequality and
climate change are “obvious, visible, coming right at you, with large potential impact and highly probable consequences” (Baram, 3/10/20, para 4).
Given predictions that COVID-19 will be a persistent hazard until a vaccine is widely available, and
that new pandemics can emerge just as quickly, one would expect most knowledge work, e.g., work
conducted in government offices, businesses and educational institutions, to be do-able remotely going

forward. Other reasons to move knowledge work online include the increased effectiveness (e.g., fewer
geographic constraints in sourcing personnel, improved ability to accommodate those with disabilities,
increased diversity, fewer distractions and better life-work balance) and cost reduction for all concerned
(e.g., real estate, utilities, insurance; commute time and cost; and highway maintenance). Time, money
and energy are spent unnecessarily transporting people to, and maintaining, parking lots and buildings
full of cubicles.
Remote work also reduces pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. Transportation is responsible
for 23% of global carbon emissions; driving and aviation contribute 72% and 11% of transportation’s
greenhouse gas emissions respectively (Henriques, 2020). The positive effects the COVID-19 Stay
Home order has had on the environment, wildlife and climate (more gray rhinos), suggest benefits of
expanding remote work/ study, after this pandemic resolves. The world will also be better prepared for
the next emergency. Addressing one gray rhino will have thus catalyzed progress toward mitigating
other gray rhinos.
The book’s topics (online learning’s attributes, multi-cultural effects and gender-related aspects) are
also quite relevant to anyone wanting to better understand online operations’ socioeconomic and diversity
impacts. The book is organized in three sections and fourteen chapters.
Section 1 includes a collection of chapters related to some unique attributes of online learning, such
as incivility and cyberbullying, theories related to student involvement and transactional distance, and
the role of massively open online courses in providing upskilling opportunities.
Chapter 1 discusses the topic of incivility in the classroom and how online education is impacted
by this issue. Specific issues relevant to disruptive behaviors in distance learning are covered, as well
as strategies for preventing and reducing online incivility. The unique culture of online education is
discussed as a key factor in establishing an effective online environment.
Chapter 2 presents theories related to student involvement and transactional distance. The authors
believe an increased understanding of these theories will enable innovation and improve the educational
environment for adult and distance learners.
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Chapter 3 explores the growth in cyberbullying in online education; both among students, as well as
between students and faculty. The authors examine a variety of student to teacher cyberbullying situations
as well as the role that gender plays in online bullying. Recommendations for prevention and solutions
for the faculty are included.
Chapter 4 reviews the role of massive online open courses (MOOCs), which have opened access to
millions of people to upskill and earn new credentials. Both a quantitative analysis of learners’ invested
effort in MOOCs and a qualitative analysis via interviews are included. The implications of the role of
MOOCs in the educational landscape is also discussed.
Section 2 includes a collection of chapters regarding online education’s gender-related attributes,
including the role of online faculty gender in supporting female IT students’ persistence, mitigation of
barriers for women pursuing doctoral programs, as well as the online environment’s support of women
students’ preference for privacy and risk aversion.
Chapter 5 addresses the shortage of women in information technology (IT) fields by exploring the
possible impact faculty gender has on female IT student retention. A study was conducted, and the results indicate that faculty gender does not directly affect the retention of female students in the context
of this study. However, the data gathered regarding the retention rates of women in the online education
environment are positive.
Chapter 6 examines the role of online education in removing the obstacles that prevent women from
applying for and finishing doctoral programs. Barriers to entry, success factors, and the positive impact
on underrepresented fields are explored. In addition, solutions and recommendations for expanded access and completion of doctoral programs for women are included.
Chapter 7 discusses the condition that online education draws more women than men. This greater
level of attraction for online on the part of women is explored, to include factors such as convenience,
privacy and visibility. In addition, the authors note the concern that lack of visibility fails to prepare
students with the confidence for public presentation which can be critical for success in the workplace.
Section 3 includes a collection of chapters addressing multi-culturalism in online learning.
Chapter 8 focuses on the significant demographic changes in German companies that has made
workforce talent of all ages a strategic priority. German practitioners tend to focus on Generation Y employees because these younger employees represent new and different work-related values. The diversity
of attitudes and behaviors can lead to conflict and have an overall negative impact on organizational
performance. The authors share data gathered from Silicon Valley organizations which may assist with
setting up innovative workplaces in Germany to manage the diversity.

Chapter 9 addresses the disparate numbers of American Indians/Alaskan Natives who have earned
a bachelors’ degree or higher, in contrast to the overall United States population. This is a qualitative
narrative addressing the need to improve Native American educational fulfillment. Data indicated the
American Indians/Alaskan Natives’ culture dominated their educational experience. Online education
could permit these Native American students to stay true to their culture and still gain benefit from the
Eurocentric college culture.
Chapter 10 reviews how the online education culture serves women and minorities. The distinct
education culture is viewed through the lens of Vygotskyian Sociocultural Theory. The ability for online
education to inhibit bias and make strides to level the playing field for women and minorities is explored
in both student and faculty populations.

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Chapter 11 presents opinions regarding how the activities and actions of the past have affected education today. The history of exclusion for underrepresented individuals from education is addressed. The
author’s goal is to avoid this from being repeated in the online education arena where radical change
can be realized with the technology and inclusive online model available.
Chapter 12 explores military spousal education and the unique stresses faced by these students. With
frequent relocations, spousal deployment and single-parent homes created, barriers exist for spouses to
pursue education. The authors seek to bring light to the gap of research that subsists for this underserved
population.
Chapter 13 discusses the historic progression of American higher education and its role in opportunity and work. There are social and economic costs in higher education’s current opportunity structure,
in that many Americans are excluded by campus models, traditions and values coupled with broader
societal norms. For them, the higher education opportunity pathway remains an opportunity monopoly
beyond their reach. Clayton Christiansen’s theory of disruptive innovation is referenced to reframe this
education-opportunity debate.
Chapter 14 discusses the challenges faced by students with disabilities attempting to complete their
college education in a traditional campus setting. The option of online education is explored in reference to quality and student success during their education and the support their gain when they seek to

find careers.

REFERENCES
Baram, M. (2020, March 10). Why the coronavirus crisis is a gray rhino and not a black swan. Fast
Company. Retrieved from />Berg, A., & Ostry, J. (2011). Inequality and unsustainable growth: Two sides of the same coin? Retrieved
from />Christensen, C. M. (1997). The innovator’s dilemma: When new technologies cause great firms to fail.
Harvard Business School Press.
Evans, P., & Wurster, T. (1999). Blown to bits: How the new economics of information transforms strategy. Harvard Business School Press.
Fischer, K. (2016, January 17). Engine of inequality. Chronicle of Higher Education, 62(19). Retrieved
from />d=7560&elqat=1&elqTrackId=76dc581be62c403aa0dce3784f16bda8
Henriques, M. (2020). Will Covid-19 have a lasting impact on the environment. BBC News. Retrieved
from />Porter, M. (1980). Competitive strategy. Free Press.

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Rivard, R. (2014, June 3). Rankings Noise: What would it really take to be in the U.S. News top 20? And
can anyone really change in the ‘beauty pageant’ of the reputational survey? Inside HigherEd. Retrieved
from />Schneider, N. (2018, May 20) The University Is Not an Aristocracy: So why do we value selectivity
over social mobility? The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved from />article/The-University-Is-Not-an/243465
Smith, P. (2014, November 10). The coming era of personalized learning paths. EDUCAUSE Review,
49(6). />Social Mobility Index. (2019). Opportunity through US Higher Education. Retrieved from https://
socialmobilityindex.org/
Wolfston, J. (2014, October 30). How Higher Education Can Improve Economic Mobility in the United
States. Big Think. Retrieved from />Wucker, M. (2020, March 17). No, the coronavirus wasn’t an unforeseen problem. Washington Post.
Retrieved from />
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xxiii

Acknowledgment

The editors would like to acknowledge the experience, dedication, engagement and passion that each
author has shown for their profession and appreciate their expert and insightful contributions to this book.
Second, the editors wish to acknowledge the reviewers’ valuable contributions toward the improvement
of quality, coherence, and content presentation of chapters. Most of the authors also served as referees;
we highly appreciate their double task.
Kristina Setzekorn
Purdue University Global, USA
Nainika Patnayakuni
Calhoun Community College, USA
Tina Burton
Purdue University Global, USA




Section 1
This section is a collection of chapters related to some unique attributes of online learning, such as
incivility and cyberbullying, theories related to student involvement and transactional distance that
should improve online students’ experience, and the role of massively open online courses in providing
upskilling opportunities.


1

Chapter 1

Facilitating Civility in
Distance Education
Catherine F. Flynn
/>Purdue University Global, USA

ABSTRACT
Higher education has a long history of incivility, and the advent of distance learning has further exacerbated the issues. Increasing incivility in our society adds another challenging dimension to combating
incivility and maintaining a supportive, educational environment. This chapter addresses the challenges
of maintaining civility in the online teaching and learning environment that facilitates access 24/7.
Specific issues relevant to disruptive actions in distance learning are covered, as well as strategies for
preventing and reducing online incivility. Promoting a sense of connectiveness and social interaction is
recommended, while also maintaining a professional relationship. Online culture is discussed as a key
element in establishing an effective online environment.

INTRODUCTION
Civility in public discourse has garnered a great deal of attention in recent times with much debate on
its role in our lives, both personal and professional (Levine, 2010). A “Civility in America” survey
administered in 2018 found that 93% of Americans reported a severe civility deficit in this nation, with
almost 70% identifying it as a major problem. Indeed, incivility permeates all corners of our lives, and
academic institutions struggle against students and faculty that can be contentious and disrespectful.
William Ouchi, author of Theory Z, contends Americans have lost their sense of trust and the appreciation for friendship (1981). Clearly lack of civility is not a recent phenomenon. Ouchi cited shortcomings
more than three decades ago. Of relevance to distance education is that Ouchi did not cite technology as
being the cause of increased incivility in the nation, but rather how we manage people and engage with
one another: our connectiveness and social interaction.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-3583-7.ch001

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