Essay collection

Essay collection
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Essay Writing
Copyright ©1995-2008 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue
Overview
The essay is a commonly assigned form of writing that every student will encounter while in
academia. Therefore, it is wise for the student to become capable and comfortable with this type
of writing early on in her training.
Essays can be a rewarding and challenging type of writing and are often assigned both in class—
which requires previous planning and practice (and a bit of creativity) on the part of the
student—and as homework, which likewise demands a certain amount of preparation. Many
poorly crafted essays have been produced on account of a lack of preparation and confidence.
However, students can avoid the discomfort often associated with essay writing by
understanding some common genres within essay writing.
However, before delving into its various genres, let’s begin with a basic definition of the essay.
What is an Essay?
Though the word ‘essay’ has come to be understood as a type of writing in Modern English, its
origins provide us with some useful insights. The word comes into the English language through
the French influence on Middle English; tracing it back further, we find that the French form of
the word comes from the Latin verb exigere, which means ‘to examine, test, or (literally) to drive

out’. Through the excavation of this ancient word, we are able to unearth the essence of the
academic essay: to encourage students to test or examine their ideas concerning a particular
topic.
Essays are shorter pieces of writing that often require the student to hone a number of skills such
as close reading, analysis, comparison and contrast, persuasion, conciseness, clarity, and
exposition. As is evidenced by this list of attributes, there is much to be gained by the student
who strives to succeed at essay writing.
The purpose of an essay is to encourage students to develop ideas and concepts in their writing
with the direction of little more than their own thoughts (it may be helpful to view the essay as
the converse of a research paper). Therefore, essays are (by nature) concise, and require clarity in
purpose and direction. This means that there is no room for the student’s thoughts to wander or
stray from her purpose; she must be deliberate and interesting.
It is the purpose of this handout to help students become familiar and comfortable with the
process of essay composition through the introduction of some common essay genres.
This handout will include a brief introduction to the following genres of essay writing:
•
The Expository Essay
•
The Descriptive Essay
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•
The Narrative Essay
•
The Argumentative (Persuasive) Essay
The Expository Essay
What is an Expository Essay?
The expository essay is a genre of essay that requires the student to investigate an idea, evaluate
evidence, expound on the idea, and set forth an argument concerning that idea in a clear and
concise manner. This can be accomplished through comparison and contrast, definition,

exempla, the analysis of cause and effect, etc.
Please note: This genre is commonly assigned as a tool for classroom evaluation and is often
found in various exam formats.
The structure of the expository essay is held together by the following:
A clear, concise, and defined thesis statement that occurs in the first paragraph of the essay.
It is essential that this thesis statement be appropriately narrowed to follow the guidelines set
forth in the assignment. If the student does not master this portion of the essay, it will be quite
difficult to compose an effective or persuasive essay.
Clear and logical transitions between the introduction, body, and conclusion.
Transitions are the mortar that holds the foundation of the essay together. Without logical
progression of thought, the reader is unable to follow the essay’s argument, and the structure will
collapse.
Body paragraphs that include evidential support.
Each paragraph should be limited to the exposition of one general idea. This will allow for
clarity and direction throughout the essay. What is more, such conciseness creates an ease of
readability for one’s audience. It is important to note that each paragraph in the body of the essay
must have some logical connection to the thesis statement in the opening paragraph.
Evidential support (whether factual, logical, statistical, or anecdotal).
Often times, students are required to write expository essays with little or no preparation;
therefore, such essays do not typically allow for a great deal of statistical or factual evidence.
A bit of creativity!
Though creativity and artfulness are not always associated with essay writing, it is an art form
nonetheless. Try not to get stuck on the formulaic nature of expository writing at the expense of
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writing something interesting. Remember, though you may not be crafting the next great novel,
you are attempting to leave a lasting impression on the people evaluating your essay.
A conclusion that does not simply restate the thesis, but readdresses it in light of the evidence
provided.
It is at this point of the essay that students will inevitably begin to struggle. This is the portion of

the essay that will leave the most immediate impression on the mind of the reader. Therefore, it
must be effective and logical. Do not introduce any new information into the conclusion; rather,
synthesize and come to a conclusion concerning the information presented in the body of the
essay.
A Complete Argument
Perhaps it is helpful to think of an essay in terms of a conversation or debate with a classmate. If
I were to discuss the cause of the Great Depression and its current effect on those who lived
through the tumultuous time, there would be a beginning, middle, and end to the conversation. In
fact, if I were to end the exposition in the middle of my second point, questions would arise
concerning the current effects on those who lived through the Depression. Therefore, the
expository essay must be complete, and logically so, leaving no doubt as to its intent or
argument.
The Five-Paragraph Essay
A common method for writing an expository essay is the five-paragraph approach. This is,
however, by no means the only formula for writing such essays. If it sounds straightforward, that
is because it is; in fact, the method consists of:
1. an introductory paragraph
2. three evidentiary body paragraphs
3. a conclusion
The Argumentative Essay
What is an Argumentative Essay?
The argumentative essay is a genre of writing that requires the student to investigate a topic,
collect, generate, and evaluate evidence, and establish a position on the topic in a concise
manner.
Please note: Some confusion may occur between the argumentative essay and the expository
essay. These two genres are similar, but the argumentative essay differs from the expository
essay in the amount of pre-writing (invention) and research involved. The argumentative essay is
commonly assigned as a capstone or final project in first year writing or advanced composition
courses and involves lengthy, detailed research. Expository essays involve less research and are
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shorter in length. Expository essays are often used for in-class writing exercises or tests, such as
the GED or GRE.
Argumentative essay assignments generally call for extensive research of literature or previously
published material. Argumentative assignments may also require empirical research where the
student collects data through interviews, surveys, observations, or experiments. Detailed research
allows the student to learn about the topic and to understand different points of view regarding
the topic so that s/he may choose a position and support it with the evidence collected during
research. Regardless of the amount or type of research involved, argumentative essays must
establish a clear thesis and follow sound reasoning.
The structure of the argumentative essay is held together by the following:
A clear, concise, and defined thesis statement that occurs in the first paragraph of the essay.
In the first paragraph of an argument essay, students should set the context by reviewing the
topic in a general way. Next the author should explain why the topic is important (exigence) or
why readers should care about the issue. Lastly, students should present the thesis statement. It is
essential that this thesis statement be appropriately narrowed to follow the guidelines set forth in
the assignment. If the student does not master this portion of the essay, it will be quite difficult to
compose an effective or persuasive essay.
Clear and logical transitions between the introduction, body, and conclusion.
Transitions are the mortar that holds the foundation of the essay together. Without logical
progression of thought, the reader is unable to follow the essay’s argument, and the structure will
collapse. Transitions should wrap up the idea from the previous section and introduce the idea
that is to follow in the next section.
Body paragraphs that include evidential support.
Each paragraph should be limited to the discussion of one general idea. This will allow for
clarity and direction throughout the essay. In addition, such conciseness creates an ease of
readability for one’s audience. It is important to note that each paragraph in the body of the essay
must have some logical connection to the thesis statement in the opening paragraph. Some
paragraphs will directly support the thesis statement with evidence collected during research. It is
also important to explain how and why the evidence supports the thesis (warrant).

However, argumentative essays should also consider and explain differing points of view
regarding the topic. Depending on the length of the assignment, students should dedicate one or
two paragraphs of an argumentative essay to discussing conflicting opinions on the topic. Rather
than explaining how these differing opinions are wrong outright, students should note how
opinions that do not align with their thesis might not be well informed or how they might be out
of date.
Evidential support (whether factual, logical, statistical, or anecdotal).
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The argumentative essay requires well-researched, accurate, detailed, and current information to
support the thesis statement and consider other points of view. Some factual, logical, statistical,
or anecdotal evidence should support the thesis. However, students must consider multiple points
of view when collecting evidence. As noted in the paragraph above, a successful and well-
rounded argumentative essay will also discuss opinions not aligning with the thesis. It is
unethical to exclude evidence that may not support the thesis. It is not the student’s job to point
out how other positions are wrong outright, but rather to explain how other positions may not be
well informed or up to date on the topic.
A conclusion that does not simply restate the thesis, but readdresses it in light of the evidence
provided.
It is at this point of the essay that students may begin to struggle. This is the portion of the essay
that will leave the most immediate impression on the mind of the reader. Therefore, it must be
effective and logical. Do not introduce any new information into the conclusion; rather,
synthesize the information presented in the body of the essay. Restate why the topic is important,
review the main points, and review your thesis. You may also want to include a short discussion
of more research that should be completed in light of your work.
A Complete Argument
Perhaps it is helpful to think of an essay in terms of a conversation or debate with a classmate. If
I were to discuss the cause of World War II and its current effect on those who lived through the
tumultuous time, there would be a beginning, middle, and end to the conversation. In fact, if I
were to end the argument in the middle of my second point, questions would arise concerning the

current effects on those who lived through the conflict. Therefore, the argumentative essay must
be complete, and logically so, leaving no doubt as to its intent or argument.
The Five-Paragraph Essay
A common method for writing an argumentative essay is the five-paragraph approach. This is,
however, by no means the only formula for writing such essays. If it sounds straightforward, that
is because it is; in fact, the method consists of 1) an introductory paragraph 2) three evidentiary
body paragraphs that may include discussion of opposing views and 3) a conclusion.
Longer Argumentative Essays
Complex issues and detailed research call for complex and detailed essays. Argumentative
essays discussing a number of research sources or empirical research will most certainly be
longer than five paragraphs. Authors may have to discuss the context surrounding the topic,
sources of information and their credibility, as well as a number of different opinions on the
issue before concluding the essay. Many of these factors will be determined by the assignment.

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Developing Strong Thesis Statements
The Thesis statement or main claim must be debatable
An argumentative or persuasive piece of writing must begin with a debatable thesis or claim. In
other words, the thesis must be something that people could reasonably have differing opinions
on. If your thesis is something that is generally agreed upon or accepted as fact then there is no
reason to try to persuade people.
Example of a non-debatable thesis statement:
Pollution is bad for the environment.
This thesis statement is not debatable. First, the word pollution means that something is bad or
negative in some way. Further, all studies agree that pollution is a problem, they simply disagree
on the impact it will have or the scope of the problem. No one could reasonably argue that
pollution is good.
Example of a debatable thesis statement:
At least twenty-five percent of the federal budget should be spent on limiting pollution.

This is an example of a debatable thesis because reasonable people could disagree with it. Some
people might think that this is how we should spend the nation's money. Others might feel that
we should be spending more money on education. Still others could argue that corporations, not
the government, should be paying to limit pollution.
Another example of a debatable thesis statement:
America's anti-pollution efforts should focus on privately owned cars.
In this example there is also room for disagreement between rational individuals. Some citizens
might think focusing on recycling programs rather than private automobiles is the most effective
strategy.
The thesis needs to be narrow
Although the scope of your paper might seem overwhelming at the start, generally the narrower
the thesis the more effective your argument will be. Your thesis or claim must be supported by
evidence. The broader your claim is, the more evidence you will need to convince readers that
your position is right.
Example of a thesis that is too broad:
Drug use is detrimental to society.
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There are several reasons this statement is too broad to argue. First, what is included in the
category "drugs"? Is the author talking about illegal drug use, recreational drug use (which might
include alcohol and cigarettes), or all uses of medication in general? Second, in what ways are
drugs detrimental? Is drug use causing deaths (and is the author equating deaths from overdoses
and deaths from drug related violence)? Is drug use changing the moral climate or causing the
economy to decline? Finally, what does the author mean by "society"? Is the author referring
only to America or to the global population? Does the author make any distinction between the
effects on children and adults? There are just too many questions that the claim leaves open. The
author could not cover all of the topics listed above, yet the generality of the claim leaves all of
these possibilities open to debate.
Example of a narrow or focused thesis:
Illegal drug use is detrimental because it encourages gang violence.

In this example the the topic of drugs has been narrowed down to illegal drugs and the detriment
has been narrowed down to gang violence. This is a much more manageable topic.
We could narrow each debatable thesis from the previous examples in the following way:
Narrowed debatable thesis 1:
At least twenty-five percent of the federal budget should be spent on helping upgrade business to
clean technologies, researching renewable energy sources, and planting more trees in order to
control or eliminate pollution.
This thesis narrows the scope of the argument by specifying not just the amount of money used
but also how the money could actually help to control pollution.
Narrowed debatable thesis 2:
America's anti-pollution efforts should focus on privately owned cars because it would allow
most citizens to contribute to national efforts and care about the outcome.
This thesis narrows the scope of the argument by specifying not just what the focus of a national
anti-pollution campaign should be but also why this is the appropriate focus.
Qualifiers such as "typically," "generally," "usually," or "on average" also help to limit the scope
of your claim by allowing for the almost inevitable exception to the rule.
Types of Claims
Claims typically fall into one of four categories. Thinking about how you want to approach your
topic, in other words what type of claim you want to make, is one way to focus your thesis on
one particular aspect of you broader topic.
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Claims of fact or definition: These claims argue about what the definition of something is or
whether something is a settled fact. Example:
What some people refer to as global warming is actually nothing more than normal, long-term
cycles of climate change.
Claims of cause and effect: These claims argue that one person, thing, or event caused another
thing or event to occur. Example:
The popularity of SUV's in America has caused pollution to increase.
Claims about value: These are claims made about what something is worth, whether we value it

or not, how we would rate or categorize something. Example:
Global warming is the most pressing challenge facing the world today.
Claims about solutions or policies: These are claims that argue for or against a certain solution
or policy approach to a problem. Example:
Instead of drilling for oil in Alaska we should be focusing on ways to reduce oil consumption,
such as researching renewable energy sources.
Which type of claim is right for your argument? Which type of thesis or claim you use for
your argument will depend on your position and knowledge on the topic, your audience, and the
context of your paper. You might want to think about where you imagine your audience to be on
this topic and pinpoint where you think the biggest difference in viewpoints might be. Even if
you start with one type of claim you probably will be using several within the paper. Regardless
of the type of claim you choose to utilize it is key to identify the controversy or debate you are
addressing and to define your position early on in the paper!
Organizing Your Argument
How can I effectively present my argument?
Use an organizational structure that arranges the argument in a way that will make sense to the
reader. The Toulmin Method of logic is a common and easy to use formula for organizing an
argument.
The basic format for the Toulmin Method is as follows:
Claim: The overall thesis the writer will argue for.
Data: Evidence gathered to support the claim.
Warrant (also referred to as a bridge): Explanation of why or how the data supports the claim,
the underlying assumption that connects your data to your claim.
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Backing (also referred to as the foundation): Additional logic or reasoning that may be
necessary to support the warrant.
Counterclaim: A claim that negates or disagrees with the thesis/claim.
Rebuttal: Evidence that negates or disagrees with the counterclaim.
Including a well thought out warrant or bridge is essential to writing a good argumentative essay

or paper. If you present data to your audience without explaining how it supports your thesis they
may not make a connection between the two or they may draw different conclusions.
Don't avoid the opposing side of an argument. Instead, include the opposing side as a
counterclaim. Find out what the other side is saying and respond to it within your own argument.
This is important so that the audience is not swayed by weak, but unrefuted, arguments.
Including counterclaims allows you to find common ground with more of your readers. It also
makes you look more credible because you appear to be knowledgeable about the entirety of the
debate rather than just being biased or uniformed. You may want to include several
counterclaims to show that you have thoroughly researched the topic.
Example:
Claim: Hybrid cars are an effective strategy to fight pollution.
Data1:Driving a private car is a typical citizen's most air polluting activity.
Warrant 1:Because cars are the largest source of private, as opposed to industry produced, air
pollution switching to hybrid cars should have an impact on fighting pollution.
Data 2: Each vehicle produced is going to stay on the road for roughly 12 to 15 years.
Warrant 2: Cars generally have a long lifespan, meaning that a decision to switch to a hybrid
car will make a long-term impact on pollution levels.
Data 3: Hybrid cars combine a gasoline engine with a battery-powered electric motor.
Warrant 3: This combination of technologies means that less pollution is produced. According
to ineedtoknow.org "the hybrid engine of the Prius, made by Toyota, produces 90 percent fewer
harmful emissions than a comparable gasoline engine."
Counterclaim: Instead of focusing on cars, which still encourages a culture of driving even if it
cuts down on pollution, the nation should focus on building and encouraging use of mass transit
systems.
Rebuttal: While mass transit is an environmentally sound idea that should be encouraged, it is
not feasible in many rural and suburban areas, or for people who must commute to work; thus
hybrid cars are a better solution for much of the nation's population.
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Using Research and Evidence

What type of evidence should I use?
There are two types of evidence:
First hand research is research you have conducted yourself such as interviews, experiments,
surveys, or personal experience and anecdotes.
Second hand research is research you are getting from various texts that has been supplied and
compiled by others such as books, periodicals, and websites.
Regardless of what type of sources you use, they must be credible. In other words, your sources
must be reliable, accurate, and trustworthy.
How Do I know if a source is credible?
You can ask the following questions to determine if a source is credible:
Who is the author? Credible sources are written by authors respected their fields of study.
Responsible, credible authors will cite their sources so that you can check the accuracy of and
support for what they've written. (This is also a good way to find more sources for your own
research.)
How recent is the source? The choice to seek recent sources depends on your topic. While
sources on the American Civil War may be decades old and still contain accurate information,
sources on information technologies, or other areas that are experiencing rapid changes, need to
be much more current.
What is the author's purpose? When deciding which sources to use, you should take the
purpose or point of view of the author into consideration. Is the author presenting a neutral,
objective view of a topic? Or is the author advocating one specific view of a topic? Who is
funding the research or writing of this source? A source written from a particular point of view
may be credible; however, you need to be careful that your sources don't limit your coverage of a
topic to one side of a debate.
What type of sources does your audience value? If you are writing for a professional or
academic audience, they may value peer-reviewed journals as the most credible sources of
information. If you are writing for a group of residents in your hometown, they might be more
comfortable with mainstream sources, such as Time or Newsweek. A younger audience may be
more accepting of information found on the Internet than an older audience might be.
Be especially careful when evaluating Internet sources! Never use Web sites where an author

cannot be determined, unless the site is associated with a reputable institution such as a respected
university, a credible media outlet, government program or department, or well-known non-
governmental organizations. Beware of using sites like Wikipedia, which are collaboratively
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developed by users. Because anyone can add or change content, the validity of information on
such sites may not meet the standards for academic research.
Using Rhetorical Strategies for Persuasion
There are three types of rhetorical appeals, or persuasive strategies, used in arguments to support
claims and respond to opposing arguments. A good argument will generally use a combination of
all three appeals to make its case.
Logos
Logos or the appeal to reason relies on logic or reason. Logos often depends on the use of
inductive or deductive reasoning.
Inductive reasoning takes a specific representative case or facts and then draws generalizations
or conclusions from them. Inductive reasoning must be based on a sufficient amount of reliable
evidence, in other words the facts you draw on must fairly represent the larger situation or
population. Example:
Fair trade agreements have raised the quality of life for coffee producers, so fair trade
agreements could be used to help other farmers as well.
In this example the specific case of fair trade agreements with coffee producers is being used as
the starting point for the claim. Because these agreements have worked the author concludes that
it could work for other farmers as well.
Deductive reasoning begins with a generalization and then applies it to a specific case. The
generalization you start with must have been based on a sufficient amount of reliable
evidence.Example:
Genetically modified seeds have caused poverty, hunger, and a decline in bio-diversity
everywhere they have been introduced, so there is no reason the same thing will not occur when
genetically modified corn seeds are introduced in Mexico.
In this example the author starts with a large claim, that genetically modified seeds have been

problematic everywhere, and from this draws the more localized or specific conclusion that
Mexico will be affected in the same way.
Avoid Logical Fallacies
These are some common errors in reasoning that will undermine the logic of your argument.
Also, watch out for these slips in other people's arguments.
Slippery slope: This is a conclusion based on the premise that if A happens, then eventually
through a series of small steps, through B, C,..., X, Y, Z will happen, too, basically equating A
and Z. So, if we don't want Z to occur A must not be allowed to occur either. Example:
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If we ban Hummers because they are bad for the environment eventually the government will
ban all cars, so we should not ban Hummers.
In this example the author is equating banning Hummers with banning all cars, which is not the
same thing.
Hasty Generalization: This is a conclusion based on insufficient or biased evidence. In other
words, you are rushing to a conclusion before you have all the relevant facts. Example:
Even though it's only the first day, I can tell this is going to be a boring course.
In this example the author is basing their evaluation of the entire course on only one class, and
on the first day which is notoriously boring and full of housekeeping tasks for most courses. To
make a fair and reasonable evaluation the author must attend several classes, and possibly even
examine the textbook, talk to the professor, or talk to others who have previously finished the
course in order to have sufficient evidence to base a conclusion on.
Post hoc ergo propter hoc: This is a conclusion that assumes that if 'A' occurred after 'B' then
'B' must have caused 'A.' Example:
I drank bottled water and now I am sick, so the water must have made me sick.
In this example the author assumes that if one event chronologically follows another the first
event must have caused the second. But the illness could have been caused by the burrito the
night before, a flu bug that had been working on the body for days, or a chemical spill across
campus. There is no reason, without more evidence, to assume the water caused the person to be
sick.

Genetic Fallacy: A conclusion is based on an argument that the origins of a person, idea,
institute, or theory determine its character, nature, or worth. Example:
The Volkswagen Beetle is an evil car because it was originally designed by Hitler's army.
In this example the author is equating the character of a car with the character of the people who
built the car.
Begging the Claim: The conclusion that the writer should prove is validated within the claim.
Example:
Filthy and polluting coal should be banned.
Arguing that coal pollutes the earth and thus should be banned would be logical. But the very
conclusion that should be proved, that coal causes enough pollution to warrant banning its use, is
already assumed in the claim by referring to it as "filthy and polluting."
Circular Argument: This restates the argument rather than actually proving it. Example:
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George Bush is a good communicator because he speaks effectively.
In this example the conclusion that Bush is a "good communicator" and the evidence used to
prove it "he speaks effectively" are basically the same idea. Specific evidence such as using
everyday language, breaking down complex problems, or illustrating his points with humorous
stories would be needed to prove either half of the sentence.
Either/or: This is a conclusion that oversimplifies the argument by reducing it to only two sides
or choices. Example:
We can either stop using cars or destroy the earth.
In this example where two choices are presented as the only options, yet the author ignores a
range of choices in between such as developing cleaner technology, car sharing systems for
necessities and emergencies, or better community planning to discourage daily driving.
Ad hominem: This is an attack on the character of a person rather than their opinions or
arguments. Example:
Green Peace's strategies aren't effective because they are all dirty, lazy hippies.
In this example the author doesn't even name particular strategies Green Peace has suggested,
much less evaluate those strategies on their merits. Instead, the author attacks the characters of

the individuals in the group.
Ad populum: This is an emotional appeal that speaks to positive (such as patriotism, religion,
democracy) or negative (such as terrorism or fascism) concepts rather than the real issue at hand.
Example:
If you were a true American you would support the rights of people to choose whatever vehicle
they want.
In this example the author equates being a "true American," a concept that people want to be
associated with, particularly in a time of war, with allowing people to buy any vehicle they want
even though there is no inherent connection between the two.
Red Herring: This is a diversionary tactic that avoids the key issues, often by avoiding opposing
arguments rather than addressing them. Example:
The level of mercury in seafood may be unsafe, but what will fishers do to support their families.
In this example the author switches the discussion away from the safety of the food and talks
instead about an economic issue, the livelihood of those catching fish. While one issue may
effect the other it does not mean we should ignore possible safety issues because of possible
economic consequences to a few individuals.
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Ethos
Ethos or the ethical appeal is based on the character, credibility, or reliability of the writer.There
are many ways to establish good character and credibility as an author:
•
Use only credible, reliable sources to build your argument and cite those sources
properly.
•
Respect the reader by stating the opposing position accurately.
•
Establish common ground with your audience, often this can be done by acknowledging
values and beliefs shared by those on both sides of the argument.
•

If appropriate for the assignment, disclose why you are interested in this topic or what
personal experiences you have had with the topic.
•
Organize your argument in a logical, easy to follow manner. You can use the Toulmin
method of logic or a simple pattern such as chronological order, most general to most
detailed example, earliest to most recent example, etc.
•
Proofread the argument. Too many careless grammar mistakes cast doubt on your
character as a writer.
Pathos
Pathos or the emotional appeal appeals to an audience's needs, values, and emotional
sensibilities.
Argument emphasizes reason, but used properly there is often a place for emotion as well.
Emotional appeals can use sources such as interviews and individual stories to paint a more
legitimate and moving picture of reality or illuminate the truth. For example, telling the story of a
single child who has been abused may make for a more persuasive argument than simply the
number of children abused each year because it would give a human face to the numbers.
Only use an emotional appeal if it truly supports the claim you are making, not as a way to
distract from the real issues of debate. An argument should never use emotion to misrepresent
the topic or frighten people.
Introductions, Body Paragraphs, and Conclusions for an
Argument Paper
The following sections outline the generally accepted structure for an academic argument paper.
Keep in mind that these are guidelines and that your structure needs to be flexible enough to
meet the requirements of your purpose and audience.
You may also use the following Purdue OWL resources to help you with your argument paper:
•
Creating a Thesis Statement
•
Establishing Arguments

•
Organizing Your Argument
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•
Organizing Your Argument Slide Presentation
•
Logic in Argumentative Writing
•
Paragraphs and Paragraphing
•
Transitions and Transitional Devices
Introduction
The introduction is the broad beginning of the paper that answers three important questions:
1. What is this?
2. Why am I reading it?
3. What do you want me to do?
You should answer these questions by doing the following:
1. Set the context – provide general information about the main idea, explaining the
situation so the reader can make sense of the topic and the claims you make and support
2. State why the main idea is important – tell the reader why s/he should care and keep
reading. Your goal is to create a compelling, clear, and convincing essay people will want
to read and act upon
3. State your thesis/claim – compose a sentence or two stating the position you will support
with logos (sound reasoning: induction, deduction), pathos (balanced emotional appeal),
and ethos (author credibility).
For exploratory essays, your primary research question would replace your thesis statement so
the audience understands why you began your inquiry. An overview of the types of sources you
explored might follow your research question.
If your argument paper is long, you may want to forecast how you will support your thesis by

outlining the structure of your paper, the sources you will consider, and the opposition to your
position. Your forecast could read something like this:
First, I will define key terms for my argument, and then I will provide some background of the
situation. Next I will outline the important positions of the argument and explain why I support
one of these positions. Lastly, I will consider opposing positions and discuss why these positions
are outdated. I will conclude with some ideas for taking action and possible directions for future
research.
This is a very general example, but by adding some details on your specific topic, this forecast
will effectively outline the structure of your paper so your readers can more easily follow your
ideas.


16 
 
Thesis Checklist
Your thesis is more than a general statement about your main idea. It needs to establish a clear
position you will support with balanced proofs (logos, pathos, ethos). Use the checklist below to
help you create a thesis.
This section is adapted from Writing with a Thesis: A Rhetoric Reader by David Skwire and
Sarah Skwire:
Make sure you avoid the following when creating your thesis:
•
A thesis is not a title: Homes and schools (title) vs. Parents ought to participate more in
the education of their children (good thesis).
•
A thesis is not an announcement of the subject: My subject is the incompetence of the
Supreme Court vs. The Supreme Court made a mistake when it ruled in favor of George
W. Bush in the 2000 election.
•
A thesis is not a statement of absolute fact: Jane Austen is the author of Pride and

Prejudice.
•
A thesis is not the whole essay: A thesis is your main idea/claim/refutation/problem-
solution expressed in a single sentence or a combination of sentences.
•
Please note that according to the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, Sixth
Edition, "A thesis statement is a single sentence that formulates both your topic and your
point of view" (Gibaldi 56). However, if your paper is more complex and requires a
thesis statement, your thesis may require a combination of sentences.
Make sure you follow these guidelines when creating your thesis:
•
A good thesis is unified: Detective stories are not a high form of literature, but people
have always been fascinated by them, and many fine writers have experimented with
them (floppy). vs. Detective stories appeal to the basic human desire for thrills (concise).
•
A good thesis is specific: James Joyce’s Ulysses is very good. vs. James Joyce’s Ulysses
helped create a new way for writers to deal with the unconscious.
•
Try to be as specific as possible (without providing too much detail) when creating your
thesis: James Joyce’s Ulysses helped create a new way for writers to deal with the
unconscious. vs. James Joyce’s Ulysses helped create a new way for writers to deal with
the unconscious by utilizing the findings of Freudian psychology and introducing the
techniques of literary stream-of-consciousness.
Quick Checklist:
_____ The thesis/claim follows the guidelines outlined above
_____ The thesis/claim matches the requirements and goals of the assignment
_____ The thesis/claim is clear and easily recognizable
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_____ The thesis/claim seems supportable by good reasoning/data, emotional appeal

Body Paragraphs
Body Paragraphs: Moving from General to Specific Information
Your paper should be organized in a manner that moves from general to specific information.
Every time you begin a new subject, think of an inverted pyramid - the broadest range of
information sits at the top, and as the paragraph or paper progresses, the author becomes more
and more focused on the argument ending with specific, detailed evidence supporting a claim.
Lastly, the author explains how and why the information she has just provided connects to and
supports her thesis (a brief wrap up or warrant).

Image Caption: Moving from General to Specific Information
The four elements of a good paragraph (TTEB)
A good paragraph should contain at least the following four elements: Transition, Topic
sentence, specific Evidence and analysis, and a Brief wrap-up sentence (also known as a
warrant) – TTEB!
1. A Transition sentence leading in from a previous paragraph to assure smooth reading.
This acts as a hand off from one idea to the next.
2. A Topic sentence that tells the reader what you will be discussing in the paragraph.
18 
 
3. Specific Evidence and analysis that supports one of your claims and that provides a
deeper level of detail than your topic sentence.
4. A Brief wrap-up sentence that tells the reader how and why this information supports the
paper’s thesis. The brief wrap-up is also known as the warrant. The warrant is important
to your argument because it connects your reasoning and support to your thesis, and it
shows that the information in the paragraph is related to your thesis and helps defend it.
Supporting evidence (induction and deduction)
Induction
Induction is the type of reasoning that moves from specific facts to a general conclusion. When
you use induction in your paper, you will state your thesis (which is actually the conclusion you
have come to after looking at all the facts) and then support your thesis with the facts. The

following is an example of induction taken from Dorothy U. Seyler’s Understanding Argument:
Facts:
There is the dead body of Smith. Smith was shot in his bedroom between the hours of 11:00 p.m.
and 2:00 a.m., according to the coroner. Smith was shot with a .32 caliber pistol. The pistol left
in the bedroom contains Jones’s fingerprints. Jones was seen, by a neighbor, entering the Smith
home at around 11:00 p.m. the night of Smith’s death. A coworker heard Smith and Jones
arguing in Smith’s office the morning of the day Smith died.
Conclusion: Jones killed Smith.
Here, then, is the example in bullet form:
•
Conclusion: Jones killed Smith
•
Support: Smith was shot by Jones’ gun, Jones was seen entering the scene of the crime,
Jones and Smith argued earlier in the day Smith died.
•
Assumption: The facts are representative, not isolated incidents, and thus reveal a trend,
justifying the conclusion drawn.
Deduction
When you use deduction in an argument, you begin with general premises and move to a specific
conclusion. There is a precise pattern you must use when you reason deductively. This pattern is
called syllogistic reasoning (the syllogism). Syllogistic reasoning (deduction) is organized in
three steps:
1. Major premise
2. Minor premise
3. Conclusion
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In order for the syllogism (deduction) to work, you must accept that the relationship of the two
premises lead, logically, to the conclusion. Here are two examples of deduction or syllogistic
reasoning:

Socrates
1. Major premise: All men are mortal.
2. Minor premise: Socrates is a man.
3. Conclusion: Socrates is mortal.
Lincoln
1. Major premise: People who perform with courage and clear purpose in a crisis are great
leaders.
2. Minor premise: Lincoln was a person who performed with courage and a clear purpose in
a crisis.
3. Conclusion: Lincoln was a great leader.
So in order for deduction to work in the example involving Socrates, you must agree that 1) all
men are mortal (they all die); and 2) Socrates is a man. If you disagree with either of these
premises, the conclusion is invalid. The example using Socrates isn’t so difficult to validate. But
when you move into more murky water (when you use terms such as courage, clear purpose, and
great), the connections get tenuous.
For example, some historians might argue that Lincoln didn’t really shine until a few years into
the Civil War, after many Union losses to Southern leaders such as Robert E. Lee.
The following is a more clear example of deduction gone awry:
1. Major premise: All dogs make good pets.
2. Minor premise: Doogle is a dog.
3. Conclusion: Doogle will make a good pet.
If you don’t agree that all dogs make good pets, then the conclusion that Doogle will make a
good pet is invalid.
Enthymemes
When a premise in a syllogism is missing, the syllogism becomes an enthymeme. Enthymemes
can be very effective in argument, but they can also be unethical and lead to invalid conclusions.
Authors often use enthymemes to persuade audiences. The following is an example of an
enthymeme:
If you have a plasma TV, you are not poor.
20 

 
The first part of the enthymeme (If you have a plasma TV) is the stated premise. The second part
of the statement (you are not poor) is the conclusion. So the unstated premise is “Only rich
people have plasma TVs.” The enthymeme above leads us to an invalid conclusion (people who
own plasma TVs are not poor) because there are plenty of people who own plasma TVs who are
poor. Let’s look at this enthymeme in a syllogistic structure:
•
Major premise: People who own plasma TVs are rich (unstated above).
•
Minor premise: You own a plasma TV.
•
Conclusion: You are not poor.
To help you understand how induction and deduction can work together to form a solid
argument, you may want to look at the American Declaration of Independence. The first section
of the Declaration contains a series of syllogisms, while the middle section is an inductive list of
examples. The final section brings the first and second sections together in a compelling
conclusion.
Rebuttal Sections
In order to present a fair and convincing message, you may need to anticipate, research, and
outline some of the common positions (arguments) that dispute your thesis. If the situation
(purpose) calls for you to do this, you will present and then refute these other positions in the
rebuttal section of your essay.
It is important to consider other positions because in most cases, your primary audience will be
fence-sitters. Fence-sitters are people who have not decided which side of the argument to
support.
People who are on your side of the argument will not need a lot of information to align with your
position. People who are completely against your argument - perhaps for ethical or religious
reasons - will probably never align with your position no matter how much information you
provide. Therefore, the audience you should consider most important are those people who
haven't decided which side of the argument they will support - the fence-sitters.

In many cases, these fence-sitters have not decided which side to align with because they see
value in both positions. Therefore, to not consider opposing positions to your own in a fair
manner may alienate fence-sitters when they see that you are not addressing their concerns or
discussion opposing positions at all.
Organizing your rebuttal section
Following the TTEB method outlined in the Body Paragraph section, forecast all the information
that will follow in the rebuttal section and then move point by point through the other positions
addressing each one as you go. The outline below, adapted from Seyler's Understanding
Argument, is an example of a rebuttal section from a thesis essay.
When you rebut or refute an opposing position, use the following three-part organization:
21 
 
The opponent’s argument – Usually, you should not assume that your reader has read or
remembered the argument you are refuting. Thus at the beginning of your paragraph, you need to
state, accurately and fairly, the main points of the argument you will refute.
Your position – Next, make clear the nature of your disagreement with the argument or position
you are refuting. Your position might assert, for example, that a writer has not proved his
assertion because he has provided evidence that is outdated, or that the argument is filled with
fallacies.
Your refutation – The specifics of your counterargument will depend upon the nature of your
disagreement. If you challenge the writer’s evidence, then you must present the more recent
evidence. If you challenge assumptions, then you must explain why they do not hold up. If your
position is that the piece is filled with fallacies, then you must present and explain each fallacy.
Conclusions
Conclusions wrap up what you have been discussing in your paper. After moving from general to
specific information in the introduction and body paragraphs, your conclusion should begin
pulling back into more general information that restates the main points of your argument.
Conclusions may also call for action or overview future possible research. The following outline
may help you conclude your paper:
In a general way,

•
restate your topic and why it is important,
•
restate your thesis/claim,
•
address opposing viewpoints and explain why readers should align with your position,
•
call for action or overview future research possibilities.
Remember that once you accomplish these tasks, unless otherwise directed by your instructor,
you are finished. Done. Complete. Don't try to bring in new points or end with a whiz bang(!)
conclusion or try to solve world hunger in the final sentence of your conclusion. Simplicity is
best for a clear, convincing message.
The preacher's maxim is one of the most effective formulas to follow for argument papers:
1. Tell what you're going to tell them (introduction).
2. Tell them (body).
3. Tell them what you told them (conclusion).
Logic in Argumentative Writing
This handout is designed to help writers develop and use logical arguments in writing. Through
an introduction in some of the basic terms and operations of logic, the handout helps writers
analyze the arguments of others and generate their own arguments. However, it is important to
22 
 
remember that logic is only one aspect of a successful argument. Non-logical arguments,
statements that cannot be logically proven or disproved, are important in argumentative writing,
such as appeals to emotions or values. Illogical arguments, on the other hand, are false and must
be avoided.
Logic is a formal system of analysis that helps writers invent, demonstrate, and prove arguments.
It works by testing propositions against one another to determine their accuracy. People often
think they are using logic when they avoid emotion or make arguments based on their common
sense, such as "Everyone should look out for their own self interests" or "People have the right to

be free." However, unemotional or common sense statements are not always equivalent to logical
statements. To be logical, a proposition must be tested within a logical sequence.
The most famous logical sequence, called the syllogism, was developed by the Greek
philosopher Aristotle. His most famous syllogism is:
Premise 1: All men are mortal.
Premise 2: Socrates is a man.
Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
In this sequence, premise 2 is tested against premise 1 to reach the logical conclusion. Within
this system, if both premises are considered valid, there is no other logical conclusion than
determining that Socrates is a mortal.
This guide provides some vocabulary and strategies for determining logical conclusions.
All Sections in Logic in Argumentative Writing:
Using Logic
Logical Vocabulary
Before using logic to reach conclusions, it is helpful to know some important vocabulary related
to logic.
Premise: Proposition used as evidence in an argument.
Conclusion: Logical result of the relationship between the premises. Conclusions serve as the
thesis of the argument.
Argument: The assertion of a conclusion based on logical premises.
Syllogism: The simplest sequence of logical premises and conclusions, devised by Aristotle.
Enthymeme: A shortened syllogism which omits the first premise, allowing the audience to fill
it in. For example, "Socrates is mortal because he is a human" is an enthymeme which leaves all
the premise "All humans are mortal."
Induction: A process through which the premises provide some basis for the conclusion.
Deduction: A process through which the premises provide conclusive proof for the conclusion.
Reaching Logical Conclusions
23 
 
Reaching logical conclusions depends on the proper analysis of premises. The goal of a

syllogism is to arrange premises so that only one true conclusion is possible.
Example A:
Consider the following premises:
Premise 1: Non-renewable resources do not exist in infinite supply.
Premise 2: Coal is a non-renewable resource.
From these two premises, only one logical conclusion is available:
Conclusion: Coal does not exist in infinite supply.
Example B:
Often logic requires several premises to reach a conclusion.
Premise 1: All monkeys are primates.
Premise 2: All primates are mammals.
Premise 3: All mammals are vertebrate animals. Conclusions: Monkeys are vertebrate animals.
Example C:
Logic allows specific conclusions to be drawn from general premises. Consider the following
premises:
Premise 1: All squares are rectangles.
Premise 2: Figure 1 is a square.
Conclusion: Figure 1 is also a rectangle.
Example D:
Notice that logic requires decisive statements in order to work. Therefore, this syllogism is false:
Premise 1: Some quadrilaterals are squares.
Premise 2: Figure 1 is a quadrilateral.

Conclusion: Figure 1 is a square.
This syllogism is false because not enough information is provided to allow a verifiable
conclusion. Figure 1 could just as likely be a rectangle, which is also a quadrilateral.
Example E:
Logic can also mislead when it is based on premises that an audience does not accept. For
instance:
Premise 1: People with red hair are not good at checkers.

Premise 2: Bill has red hair.

Conclusion: Bill is not good at checkers.
24 
 
Within the syllogism, the conclusion is logically valid. However, it is only true if an audience
accepts Premise 1, which is very unlikely. This is an example of how logical statements can
appear accurate while being completely false.
Example F:
Logical conclusions also depend on which factors are recognized and ignored by the premises.
Therefore, different premises could lead to very different conclusions about the same subject.
For instance, these two syllogisms about the platypus reveal the limits of logic for handling
ambiguous cases:
Premise 1: All birds lay eggs.
Premise 2: Platypuses lay eggs.
Conclusion: Platypuses are birds.
Premise 1: All mammals have fur.
Premise 2: Platypuses have fur.
Conclusion: Platypuses are mammals.
Though logic is a very powerful argumentative tool and is far preferable to a disorganized
argument, logic does have limitations. It must also be effectively developed from a syllogism
into a written piece.
Using Logic in Writing
Understanding how to create logical syllogisms does not automatically mean that writers
understand how to use logic to build an argument. Crafting a logical sequence into a written
argument can be a very difficult task. Don't assume that an audience will easily follow the logic
that seems clear to you. When converting logical syllogisms into written arguments, remember
to:
•
lay out each premise clearly

•
provide evidence for each premise
•
draw a clear connection to the conclusion.
Say a writer was crafting an editorial to argue against using taxpayer dollars for the construction
of a new stadium in the town of Mill Creek. The author's logic may look like this:
Premise 1: Projects funded by taxpayer dollars should benefit a majority of the public.
Premise 2: The proposed stadium construction benefits very few members of the public.

Conclusion: Therefore, the stadium construction should not be funded by taxpayer dollars.
This is a logical conclusion, but without elaboration it may not persuade the writer's opposition,
or even people on the fence. Therefore, the writer will want to expand her argument like this:
Historically, Mill Creek has only funded public projects that benefit the population as a whole.
Recent initiatives to build a light rail system and a new courthouse were approved because of