Student writing process, perceptions, problems, and strategies in writing academic essays in a second language - A case study

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VNU Journal of ScicncC; R)reign Languages 24 (2008) 184-197

Student writing process, perceptions, problems,

and strategies in writing academic essays

in a second language: A case study

L u o n g Q u y n h T r a n g \ N g u y e n T h i M a i H o a

Dquìrtĩììưnt o f EĩĩsỊli^h “ Am erican LíW*Ịuaỵe ĩii Culture, Coỉỉe<ịL' of Foreign Lnìì^Ịua^Ịes,

V h ' t n a m N a t i o n a l U ì ỉ i v c r s i t y , H a n o i , P h n m V a n D o n * Ị S t r e e t , C a u d a y , l l i i n o i , V i e t n a m

Rcceh»ed 19 AÍÍĨV 2(X)S

A b s t r a c t W h e n s t u d y in g In A u s tra lin , In te rn a tio n a l s t u d e n t s in g e n e r a l And V ie tn a m e s e s t u d e n t s in
piTThculiir m e e t m a r y d iffic u ltie s , o n e o f w h ic h is w r itin g a c a d c m is c s s n y s /a s s ig n m u n ls in E n g lis h .

T h e c u r r e n t c a s e s t u d y , « i p p l y i n g t h e c o g n i t i v i s t v i e w , A i m s M e x p l o r i n g t h o p r o b l e m s a s w e l l a s t h e

p ro c c s s OÍ w r i t i n g a c a d e m ic a s s ig n m o n ls o f a p a r tic u la r V ie tn a m e s e s l u d e n t s tu d v i t i g a t a n
A u slra li« in u n iv e r s ity . B a s e d o n th o c o d in g s c h o m o a p p lie d b y C u m m i n ^ |1 9 8 9 | a n d B o s h e r [1998Ị,
th e s t u d y s p e c ific a lly a d d r e s s e s th r e e m a jo r q u e s tio n s : (1) H o w d o e s th e s t u d e n t p e r c e iv e th e

r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h o a c a d o m i c e s s a y ? ( 2 ) W h a t dt>e.s ht* a c t u a l l y d o i n t h e p r o c e s s o f W T i t i n g ? ( 3 )

W h«it a r c th e p r o b le m s h e e n c o u n te r s o n d s tr a te g ie s h e u s e d d u r i n g t h e p rtK c s s o f w r itin g t h e e s s a y
in Enghi»h? D a ta r e le v a n t fo r t h e s t u d y w a s co Ilc c te d b y m e a n s o f in - d e p th in te r v ie w s , s tim u la lu d
recall, a n d in te r p r e ta tio n 0Í t h e s t u d e n t 's w r itte n p rix iu c ts . D a ta a n o lv s is h a s s h o w n th a t ih e su b )c c t
d ĩđ n o t p a y m u c h ìíttL*ntii>n to g r a m m a tic a l e r r o r s o r s p o i l i n g m is ta k o s n n d h e m o t m a n y p r o b le m s

and used a lot of Str.itopics to solve them.

1. In tro d u ctio n

Sccond Lmguage (L2) com posiiion

research a n d ỉcaching have d ev elo p e d an d
m atu re d to a great exlent for the lasi few
dccades (Roca d c Larios, M u rp h y & Marin
[1]), L2 com position specialists have found
guidance, how ever, in first lan g u ag e (LI)
composition research, w hich has a history
dating to the early 1900 (H aynes, 1978, as
cited in Krapels [2]). After th e m id tw entieth
century; LI com position research in English

* C o r r c s p o n d m p a u th o r . T ci.: 84-4-8255103
E -m ail: l u o n g q u y n h tr a n g ộ y a h o o .c o ĩìì

sp eakin g counlrics ch a n g e d its atten tio n from
ex am ining ihe effects of som e pedagogicaJ
treatm ent on s tu d e n t w riters' p r o d u c ts to
exploring the act o f w ritin g (Krapels [2|).
Later in 1971, Em ig's LI w ritin g research w as
ỉhe first m ajor stu d y to officially signal the
shift in com position research from p ro d u c t to
process (Krapels [2]),

A sim ilar shiit can b e ob serv ed in ihe
field of L2 com position research a n d practice.

F r o m t h e s o c i o - c u h u r a l c o n i c a l w h e r e t h e

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Luoỉii,: Qttụiĩỉĩ Trnn^, N<ịuựeìĩ Thi Mãi i ỉoa / VNU loumal of Sàưncc, Foreign iMìiịỊUiìỊịes 24 (2()()8) Ĩ84-Ĩ97 185

text (C um m in g [3]). T he process m ovement,
according lo Rocn d c Larios, M urphy; and
Míirin [1|, o rig inated from the belief that for
teoching L2 w ritin g cffectiv'oly the teaching
procedures sh o u ld bo bnsed on a theory that
accounted for whcit stu d en i w riters actually

d i d i n t h e p ro c c 5 f> o f c o m p o s i n g a te x

t-The c urren t stu d y aim s at exploring the
p roblem s as well a s Ihc process of w riting
academ ic assig n m en is of a particular
Vietnam ese ESL s tu d e n t stu d y in g at an
A ustralian university. It is significant because
stu d y in g at A ustralian universiiies, ESL
slu d o nls m ccỉ quite .1 few p roblem s writing
essays, rcporls, tissignmcnts, etc. in English
as they not only h av e to w rite in another
language, English, b u l com e u p with strange
p attern s nnd con v en lio n s of academ ic written
discourse in a new university culture {Ballard
an d Cltinchy [4]).

A lth o u gh {his s tu d y was carriod out as a
case stu d y , it is h o p e d thcit its findings can
help o th e r Vielimmese stu d e n ts stu d y in g at

Australinn universities to bo aw are of how
one of their poors copes with writing academic

i n l l i c o l u J y t n a y

provide ESL support unit with some

implications if they arc to help Vietnamese ESL
•students wilh their ncademic writing.

2. L iteratu re review

As m e n tio n e d enrlicT, co m p o sin g process
has b een a m ajor focus of L2 w riting research
for the last several decades. Rescarchcrs have
invo.sti gated different aspccts of L2
co m p o sin g process for different g ro u p s of
participants, Bnsod on LI w riting models,
they h a v e c o m p a re d L2 skilled an d unskilled
w riters o r co n sid ered L2 w riting skill as a
co n iin u u m of abilities evolving at different
rates (Roca d e LarioS; M u rp h y an d Marin

Ị1]). T here are also studies c o m p a rin g LI and
L2 com p o sin g b eh avio urs to cxnm ine the
transfer of w ritin g abilities across languages,
or an aly zin g the relaiionship between
w ritin g ability a n d L2 proficiency (Roca de
LarioS; M u rp h y an d Marin [1]).

T h i s s c c t i o n , h o w e v e r , w i l l n o ! a t t e m p t t o

review all of Ihe literature on L2 com posing
process. O f intcresl to this particuli^r study
are those stu d ies w hich ex am in e ih c writers'
m icro cognilive processes w hile com posing
in English a n d give insights into the
pro b le m s an d solutions of Ihe writers. This
section will firstly review som e key studies in
this field. After thaỉ i( will discuss w h at the
stu d ie s h av e found. Also, it will show the
g a p s in the literature and how the present
s tu d y can fit in.

3. R ev iew o f th e studios

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186 i.ruvi^ Quynh Tranị^, N^nyeti Thi Mai Hoa / VNU ỊourìiaỊ o f Science, Forei*ỊU bìH^ịuaịics 24 Ĩ84-Ĩ97

O n th e contrarV/ ủ d o p íin g the m eth o d s
em ployod in LI process w ritin g stu d ie s and
adapHng P erl's [6Ị c o d in g scheme; Raimes
[7| exam ined concurrent Ihink-aloud data
collected from eight unskilled ESL stu d en ts
while they w ere w ritin g a n arra tiv e d u r in g 65

m i n u t e s . D a t a f o r t h e s t u d y w a s a l s o

g athered from the results of the M ichigan
Test of English Language Proficiency, holistic
scores on the essay, an d a n s w e rs to a 12-page

questionnaire.

In an o th er study, Kelly [8], again using
the participants' th ink -alo u d protocol data,
investigated the co m p o sin g processes of nine
advanced ESL learners form seven different
Lis. The stu d y followed the design a d o p ted
by Zamel [5] and Raim es [7] a n d a d a p te d the
coding system from Perl [6]. A lthough
similar techniques (co ncu rrent ihink-aloud
protocols) w ere used, th e n a tu re of the
w riting task given to th e subjects w as
changed. T he w riting lask assigned to the
subjects w as oxposiỉory in nature. Kelly's
results co rresponded to a fairly g re a t extcnl
with those of other researchers w ritin g ab out

i h c d d i n c U u i c UĨ ứ l U U u K ỉ l c i .

A m uch larger scale s tu d y w a s o n e by
G u m m in g (9] w hich investigated the
English w riting processes of 23 French-
spcaking college s tu d e n ts u sin g their written
texts and think-aloud data. T he stu d y had
som e notable characteristics. F irs t it used
m ultivariate statistical analyses, w hich was
m a d e possible by the relatively large sam p le
size. Second; the s tu d e n ts ' w ritin g processes
for three different tasks (letter writing,
su m m ary , a n d argum cntaH on, on e to three

h o u rs each) w ere co m p a re d . M oreover, the
s tu d y introduced controlled variables of LI
w riting expertise a n d L2 w ritin g proficiency.
D ep e n d in g on th e subjects' decision
statem ents in the th in k -alo u d protocols,

G u m m in g investigated Ihe fou r aspccLs of

w ritin g {language use, discourse

organization, g i s t a n d p ro c e d u re for w riting)
the stu d e n ts atten d ed to in the w ritin g
process. Five ty p es of prob lc m -so ivin g
b eh av io u rs including heuristic search es wilh

a n d w i t h o u t r e s o l u t i o n , p r o b l e m r e s o l u t i o n ,

problem identification, an d k n o w led g e
telling w e re also focused on.

Similarly, Boshcr [10] c o m p a re d th e L2
w ritin g processes of three S o uỉh easl Asian
ESL college stu d e n ts w ith different
educational b ackg ro un d s. W hile a d a p tin g the
coding schem e from G u m m in g [9], Boshcr
use d a technique which w a s n o t only
different from C u m m in g b u t also different

from o th er researchers. Stimulated

retrospective protocols gathered from the
subjects w ho recalled their composing
processes while watching their o w n videotaped
writing behtiviours were Itsed as alternative
data to think-aloud protocols. Pnrtiripants'
written texts were also analyzed.

Roca d e Larios, M u rp h y , a n d M anchon
[11] carricd o u t tw o small case studies, again

a p p l y i n g l h i u k 'i i l u u i . 1 p i u l u L u l b

fro m th e p a rtic ip a n ts w h ile w ritin g , ỈO
exam ine th e restru ctu rin g proccss w here the
w riters look for "an alternative syntactic plan
onco the w rite r predicts, anticipates, or
realizes th a t the original plan is not going to
be satisfactory for a varieỉy of linguistic,
ideational or textual reasons" {Roca de
Larios, M u rp h y an d M anchon [111). Unlike
o th e r studies review ed above, th e stud y by
Roca d e Larios, M u rp h y a n d M anchon
fo c u scd o n th e p a rtic u la r w r iti n g s tra te g y o/
restru ctu rin g which, according to the
researchers, received not m u c h attention in
research o n co m p o sin g proccss.

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Q uynh Trang, Nịịuỵetì V ìi M ai Hoa / VNU Ịouníaỉ o f Science, Foreign Languages 24 (2008) Ì84‘Ĩ97 187

processes of tw o g ro u p s of Japanese EFL

learners (34 in total): an expert w rite r g ro u p
of 12 learners an d a novice w riter g r o u p with
22 college stu d ents. T he m e th o d w a s similar
to th e o n e u s e d in Bosher [10Ị in that the
subjects p ro d u c e d recall p rotocols while

w a t c h i n g I h e i r v i d e o t a p e d w r i t i n g

beh aviours; how ever, th e p artic ip an ts could
choose the lan g u ag e in w hich they p ro d u c ed
the protocols. Also, the s tu d y a d o p te d a

different coding schem e specifically

d ev e lo p e d for this type of d a ta . Besides
ih ink -alo u d protocols, th e d a ta in clu d e d the
p artic ip a n ts' written texts, their p au sin g
b e h a v io u rs w hile writing, a n d analytical
scores g iv e n to the w ritten texts,

4. F in d in g s o f th e s tu d ie s

T h e ab ov e stu d ies invesrigating p a rt of or
the e n tire process of L2 w ritin g com m only
h av e reach ed to so m e conclusions- Firstly,
u n sk illed L2 w riters are sim ilar to unskilled
LI w rite rs in that they tend to p la n less an d

r c v ir .o m o r e a t t h o w o r d n n d p h r í ì í ĩ c l e v e l

(e.g., Z a m e l [5Ị; Raim es [7]; Roca d e Larios,
M u rp h y a n d M iinchon [11]; Sasciki [12]).
Secondly, unskilled L2 w riters a r e different
from LI co u n te rp arts in that ỉhey arc’ less
con cern ed a b o u t surface level revisions an d
m ore c o m m ilte d to Ihe given assig n m en t
(e,g., R a im e s [7]; Sasaki [12|). Besides, skilled
L2 w r ite rs are sim ilar to skilled LI w riters in
that th e y h a v e th e tendency to plan more,
revise m o r e at the discourse level, an d spend

m o r p H m r f i n d i n g t h e m o s t p f f e c t i v i ’ w a y t o

d o t h e ta sk (e.g, Zam el [5j; Kelly (8);
G u m m in g [9]; Roca d e Larios, M u rp h y &
M a n ch o n [11]; Sasaki [12]). Also, co m p osing
proficiency w hich is in d e p e n d e n t of L2
proficiency a p p e a rs to have influence on L2

w ritin g (e.g., Raimes [7]; G u m m in g [9];
Bosher [10]). Lastly, learners' attention
p attern s a n d their problem-solving
b eh a v io u rs are different d e p e n d in g on their
LI w ritin g expertise and the type of tasks
they h av e to d o (e.g., C u m m in g

[9])-5. L im ita tio n s o f th e stu d ies

A lth o u g h the above studies have
p ro v id e d useful insights into ih e writing

process of ESL students, they are not w ithout
limitations. Firstly, except for the stu dy bv
Zam el [5], all the described studies d e p e n d
o n th e controlled conditions of m o st process
studies, re q u irin g the participants to
co m p o se ab o u t an artificial topic for a
p re d e te rm in e d a m o u n t of time. This m ay
result in w ritin g that is not truly
rep resen tativ e of the w ritin g m o st students
d o m ost often. W riting in controlled
co n ditions im plies "a co m p o sing process that
is radically different from the process each of
us u n d e rg o e s in the course of o u r norma!

w r i t i n g " ( F r o c d m a n a n d P r i n g l e [1^1/ p ^ 1 2 )

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188 /.ÍÍIUỈ^' Q uỵnh Tranỵ, Nị^uị/cĩỉ Thi Mai Hoa / VNU lứurm ỉ o f Sciencc, Foreign inìĩ<^ua<^i 24 (2()í)8) Ĩ84‘ H97

o u r s tu d y investigates tho w ritin g process of
an ESL s tu d e n ts w riting his real academ ic
assig n m en t in Ù long period of time m akes
th ink -alo u d protocols alm ost im possible io

conduct. Last b u t not least, a prelim inary
investigaHon of ESL w ritin g research has
revealed that few studies p ù v attention to
V ietnam ese ESL learners w hile writing.

Bearing these lim itations in m ind, we
c o n d u c te d ỉhe present s tu d y to explore the

w ritin g process of a V ietnam ese ESL
un iv ersity s tu d e n ỉ stu d y in g at an A ustralian
un iv ersity w hile co m p o sin g his real academ ic
essay w ith th e h o p e that it will m a k e a very
little con trib utio n to the c u rre n t w riting
process research.

6. M e th o d o lo g y

6.1. The subject and his w i t i n g task

T he subject involved in this stu d y is a
secon d -y ear Vietnam ese s tu d e n t of
A rchitecture. H ai (noi his real nam e) spen t
o n e y ear ta k in g ihc fo u n d a tio n COUĨ5C
Trinity College before en terin g th e University
of M e lb o u rn e to s tu d y A rchitecture. Besides
English, he can use Japanese quite fluently. Hai
app eared to be suitable ior the stu d y becuase at
the time to begin the study Hai h ad to write his
2000-w ord assignm ent for the subject called
"Asian Architecture B: China, Korea, Japan".
H e w a s given a h andout w ith eight topics for
the assignment an d had to choose on e to write
about. In addition, he was pleased to take part
in o u r mvestigarion.

6-2. Approach o f the stud'^

A d o p tin g the case stu d y ap p ro a c h of the

q u alitativ e tradition, the stu d y aim s at
ex p lo rin g h o w this particular ESL stu d e n t

copes w ith w riling his acadcm ic e s s a y in
English. The stu d y specifically a d d r e s s e s
three major questions: (1) H ow d o e s the
stu d e n t perceive ỉhe re q u ire m e n ts of the
academ ic essay? (3) W h at do es he a c tu a lly do
in the process of w ritin g ? (2) W h a t are the
problem s an d strategics he uses ÌO so Ive the
problem s d u r in g th e p roccss of writiing the
essay in English?

T he s tu d y a d o p te d the post-pcỉsitivist
tradition an d case s tu d y as the generdi
ap p ro a ch for so m e reasons. To b e g i n with,
the s tu d y aim s to explore the subjeci's
w riting process in real co n d itìon s,
c o rresp o n d in g to the p u r p o s e o f q u aiiỉa ỉiv e
research w hich is to "explore, ex p la in , or
describe the p h e n o m e n o n of in terest"
(Marshall a n d R o ssm an ịl6]) in '"natural
settings" {Denzin a n d Lincoln [17]).
M oreover, the stu d y is n o t "theory b u ild in g "
(Stake [18]) a n d does n o t try to g en eralize the
findings; w hich m ak es the q u a lita tiv e case
s tu d y a suitable a p p ro ac h to follow acco rd in g

to N u n a n [19], Also, o u r subject's p ro b le m s
a n d percep tio n s typify th e a b s tra c t and

u nquantifiabic n a tu re o f d a ta f ro m a
q u alitative s tu d y (M crriam Ị2DỊ). F o r this
very reason, the case s tu d y design w h ic h can
p ro v id e insights as w ell a s result in a "rich
a n d holistic account of a p h e n o m e n o n "
(M erriam [20]) in real-life situatio ns p r o v e s to
be ap p ro p riate. Last b u t not l e a s t t h e case
s tu d y ap p ro a ch is particularly a p p r o p ria te if
researchers are interested in process (Merriam
[20]). That is the reason w hy m any studies
mvesHgating the process of ESL w riting (Zamel
(21); Zâmel [5]; Raimes |7J; Kelly Ị8]; Jones and
Tetroe [22]; Silva Ị23]; Sanoi [24J; Bosher [10])
have ado p ted the case stu d y design.

6.3. Data collection

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Luotìiỉ Qíỉyĩỉh Tríĩtỉị*, N^uycỉì Thi Mai ììo a ! VNU lourn/ìì ứf Science, Foreign Lmgua^es 24 (Ĩ(X)8) Ĩ84-Ĩ97 189

recall, ãn d interpretation of tho stu d ent's
w ritten products. It is realized that each of
the three techniques has iỉs o w n strengths
a n d weaknesses; however; if triangulated
w ith other techniques, ỉhey can provide
extensive d a ta to prcxluce u n d e r s ta n d in g of
the entity b eing investigated,

The d ata p ro c e d u re started with the
subject being inỉcrvievved to probe his
experiences in wriHng essays in English as

well as to u n co v er his p roblem s of w riting
academ ic essays in general. Right after the
subject finished writing, another i n t e m o w was
conducted to get information on the shadent's
vvritìng process as well as the aspects the
subject paid altenHon to w hen

writing-Secondly, his p lan s of w ritin g an d his
first d raft w e re exam ined. In terp retin g these
d o c u m e n ts w as the s u p p le m e n ta ry m ethod
to triangulate w ith o th e r two m e th o d s of data
collection. The d o c u m e n ts w ere used later as
stim u lu s for follow -up recalls. Also, I he
in fo rm a tio n g a in e d fro m I lit' in te r p r e ta tio n of

the w ritin g co uld lend to more

u n d e rsta n d in g of th e w riting proccss. It was

d c c i J c d llu ^ l u i i l y li»L* iirrit d i i i f l o f t h e

s l u d e n f s w r itin g VV<1S cx*iminod b c c a u s e H ai
revealed that he diwavs won! th ro u g h
revision stage w ith o n e of his friends.

T w o sHmulilted rccalls w ere carried out.
D u rin g [he first recall sossion, Ihe stu d ent
looked tit ihe topic pnpcr p r o v id e d bv his
iccturer and reflected on any percep tion s of
(he req u irem en ts of th e assignm ent. Right

after Ihe s tu d e n t finished writing; another
rocall session w as ad m in istered to reveal
m ore ab o u t th e process of his w ritin g as well
as any p ro b le m s he had d u r in g this process.
The recall also u n co v e re d the solutions the
subject u sed to o vercom e his problems.

T h e interview s a n d stim u lated recall
sessions w e re c o n d u c te d in English an d were
iape-recorded an d tTiinscribed for analysis

p u rposes. These tw o techniques w ere piloted
w ith another Vietnam ese s tu d e n t before they
w e re u se d w ith ỉhc subject of the stu d y . We
also h ad tw o informal talks w ith Hai in
V ietnam ese before and after h e w ro te the
p a p e r to get inform ation ab o u t him self a n d to

m a k e c l e a r s o m t* p o i n t s .

6.4. Q uestions fo r the ifitervieios and the coding 
scheme for data analysis

T h e first interview w as co n d u c te d in an
u n s tru c tu re d w ay wilh no fixed questions.
T he second interview w a s stru c tu re d in
n a tu re w iih p re p a re d q u estio n s a d a p te d
from Bosher [10Ị- The q u e stio n s u se d in
Bosher's s tu d y ap p ea re d to b e detailed an d
could p ro v id e relatively co m p reh e n siv e

in form ation on \h c subject's process of
w riting. To explore the aspccts of w ritin g
focused in the w riting process, th e co ding
schem e w as n d a p tr d from G u m m in g Ị9).
M o re details of the coding schem e can be
found in A p p e n d ix A.

M ore d ata of the w riting process as well
as fhe prohlom s w hile writinp. cind ‘ĩtra todies
to deal w ith these p roblem s w ere collected
d u r in g sUmulatod recalls. T h e subject's
resp o n ses w ere catcgorizod according to
w h a t strategics h e em p lo y ed to help gen erate
a so lution to a pcrceived p ro b le m in his
writing- C u m m in g 's coding s y ste m w a s u se d
in this s tu d y b eca u se C u n im in g is considered
to b e a notable theorist in ihe field (Sasaki
Ị12Ị). T he coding schcmc w a s app lied in
Bosher (10] an d seem ed to p r o d u c e desirab le
results. As for us, the c o d in g schem e w as
easy to follow a n d convenient io analyze the
data. Explanation of the c o d in g sch em e is
p ro v id e d in A p p en d ix

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190 Trang, Nguyen Thi Mai Hoa / VhJU Ịoumaỉ of Sáence, Foreign LatiỊỊUữỊỊes 24 <2(XW 184-797

database, an d a chain of e vid en ce (Yin [25])

an d adopting a system atic and

com prehensive d ata analysis schem e has
helped increase Ihe reliability a n d validity of
the study.

7. Results

The d ata collected w e re a n aly zed and
interpreted u n d e r four m ajo r headings: the
subject's experiences a n d p ro b le m s w hen
w riting essays in English, h is percep tio n s of
the requirem ents of this p a rtic u la r essay, ỉhe
process of w riting th e assignm ent, a n d {he

problem s arising d u r in g the process of
w riting this essay a n d strategies to deal w ith
them. T he techniques of d a ta collection
su p p lem en ted an d trian g u lated o n e another
to produce the results of th e study.

Hai's experiences and problems when 
writing academic assignments.

A lthough the research q u estio n s d o not
include th e subject's experiences and
problem s w h e n w ritin g acad em ic essays in
general; il b wunliwl»ile to k n u w w h e th er Ihe
subjcct is experienced o r skilled in academ ic
w riting o r not. T h e reaso n is th<it other
studies h av e revealed there are differences
betw een skilled an d unskilled writers. We

w o u ld like to see if the subject has any
characteristics of the skilled o r unskilled
vvriỉers Ì0 com pare o u r findings w ith o n es 0Í

other studies. In ad d itio n, it is good to
un cover w hether H ai's p ro b le m s w h en
vvriỉing this essays are Ihe sam e as Ihe
problemb he ui>ually en cuunterb w h en
w riting in general.

T he first interview s h o w e d that Hai did
not have m uch experience in academ ic
w riting as d u rin g the first y ear at the
university he h ad to w rite only o n e essay.

This year h e is s tu d y in g Asian Architcct B as
an elective subjcct w hich req u ire s the
stu d e n ts to s u b m it tw o w ritin g assignm ents.
This is th e th ird time he h as d ealt with
academ ic w ritin g at tertiary level. It ca n be
said that H a i is a "novice" (Sasaki Ị12Ị), or
"u n skilled " (R aim es (7]) s tu d e n t writer.
While w ritin g academ ic a ssig n m en ts in
English at th e u niv ersity the subject m et such
diificulties as n o t being able to find the
sources o f inform ation, b e in g late for
b o rro w in g b o o k s from the library, reading
too m u c h a n d forgetting w h a t w a s read, and
not re m e m b e rin g w h e re the ideas cam e from.
He th en s p e n t a lot of time re a d in g ihe books

again a n d again. H ai also revealed in the
iniorm al ta lk after this interview that he did
not have e x p erien ce in w ritin g academ ic
essays like th is o n e in Vietnam ese. H e jusi
received s o m e w ritin g instruction w h en he
atten d ed Trinity College.

Hat's perceptions o f the requirements o f 
this assignment

T he first stim u la te d recall w ith the topic
p a p e r as th e s tim u lu s gave inform ation on
the subject's percep tio n s o i ih e requirem ents
of the essay. H ai chose topic six to write
about becau se he th o u gh t that each of the
o th er topics ju st focused on o n e aspect of the
u rb a n structures. O n the o th e r h a n d , topic six
reflected all a sp ects of ih e city which
oUractod h im th e most. Specifically in ihis
class p ap er, he ch o se to w rite a b o u t Edo, the
old n a m e of Tokyo, in the process of
dev elo p in g fro m a small village to a capital
city in the 17*^ cen tu ry .

" I f you can ptclurc the city so y o u can ịyicture

aỉỉ that aspect sm all aspcct $0 garden how you

develop and how you plan a palace or hơuĩ 
domestic house in a partiailar c ity so i f ỊỉOU can

picture the whole c itỵ you can.. - it means you can

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Luon^ Quyìĩh Trang, N<ịuycti Thi M oi ỉìo n ! VNU journal o f Science. Foreigu iauỊỊUiĩges 24 (200$) ĨH4-Ĩ97 191

The e.ssay or class p a p o r that Hai was
d o in g required him to describe a n d a n a ly ze

the characteristics of an ideal capital. In his
porccpHon, it m ean t th a t he h ad to read the
books to get the sim ilar o p in io n s ã b o u ì the
city lo s u p p o rt the m ain ideas of iho essays.

th e qt4cstion sa y t h n f n 'q u ir c to a m lỵ ^ e 
or describe the characteristics of one ideal capital 
<iỊcm'rallụ \fOu read the book and you describe

what [/our uĩìdcrstandÌHịỊ and reinforcc that

ỉiica ỈHỊ coilcctin\* more Sũi4rce that soy the same 
thinỵ''

He th o u g h t lhal m o st of th e m ain ideas in
th e essay w e r e taken fro m the books as
hisiory in cluded facts. In his opinion, history
d ep en d e d o n old sources, so so m etim es the
informtiHon m ight be right o r wrong.
Thert’fort?, h v hnd to read m a n y sources to
com pare a n d l a com bine ideas.

'7 b d i c v c t h a t o f c o u r i i e t h e h i a t o n f iilt i s n o t 
l O r n x t h u t i f y o u c o m p a r e a l o t o f : > o u r c c ĩ i tO ỉ ị c t h c r

Ịỉỉ Ciìn fitui out what is wrofi*^ iifui wluit ;s
íOítỉ f r o m t h a t y o u t h e i i i c a "

"You compare w ith other >ourcci> do thcụ say

t h e $ i i m c t h i n s Ị o r n o t i f t h c } / Sđỉ/ t h e s a m e thiti>ị it

f i u ư t t ĩ > t ỉ ĩ V ị f t i f v Ì . V Ĩ U Ì . Ỉ o r t l ỉ v ự i . o r f t v f ĩ u t ĩ i i h v Ĩ » U I Ỉ I C

Sí»i/ra'"

"AĩUỈ of course if people differcntli/ it tficans

t h e n ' i s f W t a c c u r a t e s o u r c e a u d t h e r e i s

asỉiumpíioĩì so you hiivc to nuĩki' ĩ/our own

a s s u m p t i o n o f t h a t a s p e c t "

TciIking ab o u t the w ritin g conventions, he
snid that his tu to r preferred footnotes.
The re fore, h e w o u ld u se foolnoics a n d follow
the co n v en tio n s as explciined in Essay and

Report W rith i'f pu b lish ed by the Faculty of

Architecturo-The p ro c ess of w ritin g a n d aspects
focused on d u r in g this process

A nalysis of th e second interview

p ro v id ed a lot of in fo rm atio n on H ai's
proccss of w ritin g an d aspocts he focused on

d u r in g ỉhis process. The second stimulilted
recall and Ihe interpretaHon of the stud en t's
plan an d iirst d r a i t also g av e o u t additional
insights. Inform al discussions as well
p ro d u c e d so m e information. The s tu d e n t's
w ritin g stages are usually characterized as
pre-wriHng, wriHng/ an d revising (Zamel
Ị5Ị); how ever, H a i's w riting b eh av io u rs w ere
not entirely am en ab le to ỉhis breakdow n.

D u rin g Ihe pre-w riting stage, after
choosing th e ỉopic Hai b o rro w e d m any books
from the library an d k ept reading. He
ch a n g e d the topic a little an d decided to
discuss w h y p eo p le chose Edo as th e capital
city. It d id not sim ply describe the
characteristics o f the city. At first he did not
k n o w w h a t to b e included in the paper, so he
w ro te d o w n the m ain p o ints of w h a t he was
read in g an d e v e ry th in g related to ih e topic.
T h e n he m a d e a plan for the essay.

" I c h a n ^ c d t h e top'>ic i s w h y t h e y c h o o s e t h a t 
p a r t i c u l a r c i t y a s t h e c a p i t a l c i t y b e c a u s e i t i s i d e a l

city, ideal capital and I w nnt to fiiu i out wluit is

t h e r e a s o n h e h u u i ’'

" A c t u a l l y w h e n I r e a d t h e U yp ics I j u $ t d i d u ' t

k í t o í ự w l i u i i/jc i Ị U C ữ t i v n / j t i > t k v v ^ f a i d i n ' ^ , I

j u s t clĩOỉie o n e c i t x f a m i j u s t r e a d a b o u t t h a t c i t y "
W h en ex a m in in g Ihe plan of his w riting
at differcnl p o ints of ỉimo w e realized Ihtit he
h ad m o re th a n ono outline for the p a p e r and
asked him ab o u t thnt. Hai revealed that as he
kep t w riting h e finally found o u t w h at ho
liked to w rite about. Therefore, he decided to
c h an ge the p lan of th e writing.

" Ỉ j u s t k e p t w r i t i n g ( ĩ f ĩ d i d o t i ' t k m y w t h a t I ' m

w riting. A n d at the end oh that's interestitig

t h a t ' s t h e i s s u e t h a t I w r i t e Ỉ ĩ ư í t n t t o w r i t e a b o u t .

So at last I fo u n d out ivhat I w ant to w rite and I 
chartịỊcdt''

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192 Q uynh TrauỊi, Nỹ^uxỊcn Thi Mai iioa / VNU lournnl of Sciencer Foreign iatỉỊiiuaỵcs 24 (2(X)S) 184-Ỉ97

revising a n d vice versa. As h e con tin u e d his
w ritin g process, ho explored ỉhe d irc ch o n he
h ad to follow a n d m a d e necessary global
revision. T he second s i m u l a t e d recall
p re se n te d interesting in form ation on H ai's
w ritin g th e introduction.

"N onnallif the ifilnniuction is the Ịỉaragrayh 
that shows w hat you're ^oing to saự in the body 
so as I m entioued that Ì had no idea w hat i'm 
going to say so Ị ju s t introduced the the aspect of

that c ity and and Ỉ have no introduction o f w hat 
Vm ỊỊOÌng to w r ite the body p a rt so Ỉ ju s t leave 
it after Vve done the body part and I know w hat 
ưm goitìỊỊ to say and come back to the 
introduction"

H ai basically took th e ideas from the
b o o k s h e h a d read. He fo u n d w ritin g this
p a p e r q u ite h a r d as he w a s n o t s u re w h a t to

w rite about. H e k ept c o m p la in in g iibuuỉ that
He revealed that h e often got stuck as "thi

w ord doesn't come o u t” a n d h e w as confused

To g et m o re energy for w ritin g , h e "leave the

dc$k, go fo r a drink, or listen to m usic or do 
somethin<ị else not related to the

essay"-D u rin g th e process O Í vvriỉing, H ai paid

attention to different asp ects o f the writing.
G u m m in g [9] presents five asp ects of w riting
p e o p le m a y fo c u s t h e ir a tte n tio n ÍO w h ile
com posing: la n g u a g e use, discourse
organization, gist, intentions, a n d p ro ced u re
of wriH ng (see A p p e n d ix A for explanation).
Table 1 belo w lists the frequency of v arious
aspects the subject p aid focuscd on d u rin g
his w ritin g process as w ith d r a w n from the
second interview data. E x am ples of the
aspects are p r o v id e d in A p p e n d ix A,

Table 1. Aspects of writing

Language use Discourse organization Gist Intention Procodurc Alton I ion to two or more

(LU) (DO) (C) H) (P) aspccts

0 4 7 3 5 2 P+G; 1 G+DO: 1 c^l; 1 r+l;

\C*\*P: 2 P+DO; 1 P^C+DO

It can be seen that Hai a tte n d e d to gist in

h i o w r i l i n g m o r t l h a n l u a n y o l h c i I n

o th er w o rd s h e cared m u ch ab o u t the points
o r m a in ideas of th e paper. T he p ro c e d u re for
w ritin g w a s also usually p a id attention to.
Interestingly, h e d id not a tte n d to language
issues in the w riting. The stim u la te d recall
also revealed n o th in g a b o u t lan g u ag e use.
H o w e v e r the informal discu ssio n after the
second recall s h o w e d th a t h e w o u ld correct
g ram m a tic a l e rro rs and v o cab u lary usage
w ith o n e of his friends to g et the final
version. It w a s realized th a t Hai atten d ed to
m o re th a n one aspect in h is w riring m ore
th a n to each in d iv id u a l aspect.

T he e x am in a tio n of his first d ra ft show ed
th a t H ai w as co m m itted to th e task an d the
re q u ire m e n ts o f his tutor. H e followed the
w ritin g co n v e n tio n s set u p b y his Faculty.

H is w ritin g w as also well s u p p o rte d by

i L ' i c v a i i l l U d p d a n d p k t u i c b t u b U u n ^ d i c i i l)it'

m ain ideas. T he m ain ideas of ihe p a p e r were
ralh er clearly org anized . H o w ev er, there are
q uite a few erro rs in te rm s of g r a m m a r and
vocabulary usage, w h ic h m a d e his ideas
so m etim es not easy to follow.

7.1. Problems and probleni'Solving strategies

H a i's second protocol w a s aOiilyzed for
the p roblem s and strategics h e h ad used
d u r in g the w ritin g process to h e lp generate
solutions to perceived problem s.

Problems

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Luong Quỵnh TraĩiịỊ. NỊỊuyen Tfù Mai H o a ỉV N U loumnì o f Science, Foreign iarĩgĩtíì<Ịe$ 24 (2008) 154-197 193

had a hard ttm c fo r like w hat to be inirodiiccd for 
the ones w ho fir st rcữd about Edo a» a city. What 
aspects $houlJ I ahow ift order to in a short 
parasỊraph and you can ỊỊet imaỊỊC o f w hat the city

lik e '\ Secondly, he d i d not h av e th e direction

to follow w h e n h e w ro te ih e b o d y of ihe 
p a p e r a n d just k e p t repeating the w o rd s from
ihe books he h a d read. He h a d this problem
three tim es d u r i n g th e p ro cc ss until he
m oved to th e m id d le of the essay.

"A t the beginning I ju s t like repeat the words,

rq^eat like I read. A n d the problem is as /

m entioned I ju s t w rite down the aspect, I don't 
huno, i ju s t w rite dow n the fact"

"So... (ĩt the tuiddle part o f the essay I know 
what I'm <Ị0ÌHịỊ to w rite''

Also, Hai lacked w o rd s to express his
exp lan atio n b ecau se he did not w a n t to m ake
so m u c h repetition, He, as well, sometim es
found that his a r g u m c n is w e re not "stron<Ị 
L'Hou'^h". It W iis interesting to k n o w that Hai
h ad read bo o k s in Japanese to w rite th e essay

as he fo u n d th a t b o ok s in English w ere nol

"tlw best hooks to read'' an d "unfortunately

EĩĩỊỊlish doesn't mean Irauslate everything every 
aspect o f the rcỊỊÚm or the citv, it is not in a iltu re 
y v o p lt >f)cuktns^ T h i a f u e l al:>u

presen ted a difficulty for him because
so m etim es h e co uld not find th e direct
translation fro m Ja p an ese to English.

"So I had a hard tim e how to translate this, 
how to translate''

"So Ỉ cannot have direct translation, it's very 
hard"

T he in ỉerp reỉatio n of H a i's first draft

s h o w e d that h e used a lot of pictu res an d
m a p s to s u p p o r t his ideas, H ow ever, Ihis did
n o t p re se n t â p ro b le m to him.

T he stim u la te d recall p ro v id e d m o re
pro b le m s Hai m e ỉ while h e w a s w ritin g this
essay th a n the general p roblem s h e u su ally
en c o u n te re d w h e n w ritin g as reflected in th e
first interview (see the p a rt on H ai's
experiences a n d problem s w h en w ritin g
academ ic assignm ents). Besides the lack of
w o rd s to explain, he h a d to deal w ith the
difficulty of w ritin g the introduction, th e lack
of ideas, an d th e p ro b lem of translating from
Japanese to English.

7.2. Problem-solving strategies

To solve th e p roblem s in w riting, Hai
used a n u m b e r o f strategics. G u m m in g [9]
pro v id e s fo u r m ain types o f strategies, an d

type 4 consists of six sub-categories

c o rre sp o n d in g to Ihe six h eu ristic search

'• ♦ r n to g ip q T h o H o t a i U o f th i« i r n d i n g

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recall-194 l.uonịỊ Quyĩili Trnfĩ<ị, Nguyeìỉ Thi Mai ĩioa / VNU lourvnỉ o f Scicĩice, r orei'^Ji Lứtigua^^es 24 (2008) ĨH4-T97

Table 2- Subject's problem-solving strategics

Str.ìtegv Frcquencv

No soarcb, no resolution 1

82 No scarch, ru'solution 7

S3 Scarch, no resolution 0

•4 Soarch and resolution

»4a Scarch routine 6

ff4b Directed translation or codc-switching 1
Í 4cGenerating and assessing alternatives 1

9 Criterion, standard, explanation, or ruli; 1

Relating parts to whole 1

ff4f Sotting or adhering to a goal 2

Successful straU'gies (í4a-*4f) 12

Automatic solutions to problems (#2) 7

Unresolved problems (ifl, ff3) 1

T h e analysis sh o w ed th a t io solve the

p ro b le m s Hai u sed a lot of successful
h eu ristic search strategies (12/20 times). O f
th e se strategies H ai seem ed to prefer using
search routìne. It m ean t th a t h e retu rn e d to
ỉhe so u rc es of inform alion, his o w n em ergin g
a s s i g n m e n t en g ag ed his m e m o ry , an d used
th e dictionary as a source text to deal with
th e problem s. H e also identified the problem s
th en quickly resolved them ; w ith o u t
a p p ly in g an y heuristics searches. T here w as
only o n e tim e he m en tio n e d th e problem
w ith o u t fin din g a soluHon to it.

A s H ai also read b o o ks in Jap an ese to
w rite this pap>er, an d this p resented a
p ro b le m to him as m en tio n ed above, w e w ere
especially in terested in the strategies to deal
w ith this problem . H e revealed:

"E very dim ension o f every word is not 
consistent, there is no eíỊuivalent in English. So I 
had a hard tiìììc how ic translate this, how to

translate. So / take out the dictionary, the

electronic dictionary and ok Ị p u t in C hinese... no 
Japanese btit no w ord coming out. So lohat I do is 
ju s t quote it quote it and explain w hat it means. 
So I cannot have direct translation, iVs very hard.

So I p u t the fapartese, how to read it alphabet

and explain zohat it means''

This extract s h o w e d th a t to deal w ith this
specific problem , Hai u s e d both strateg ies #4a
an d l*4h. In m y opinion, h e has ap p lied very
ap p ro p ria te strategies. T h e e x am in a tìo n of
his first d raft fo u n d ihat there w e re ten cases
in w hich H ai q u o te d Jap anese w o rd s an d
g av e ex p la n atio n s in English.

From the analysis of the p ro b le m s a n d Ihe
solutions to the problem s, ii can be said that
to deal w ilh a p ro ble m H ai len d ed to u se

m o r e t h a n o n e r .tr a lc g y .

6. D isc u ssio n

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Luoỉig Quyĩỉĩt Trnĩi>^, N\^uven Tỉĩi Mai H oa! VNU ]oumaỉ o f Sàeĩtce, foreign ÌẨtỹua^ịes 24 (2008) ĨS4-197 195

such as gram m atical e rro rs o r spelling
mistakes an d quiiC co m m itted to the given
assignm ent (Raimes [7]; Sasaki [12Ị), He just
paid attention to global revisions such as
changing th e ideas of the w h o le parag rap h, u
is possible th a i h e relied on the last revision

t i m e w h e n h e w o u l d g o t h r o u g h t h e f i n a l

draft with his friend. H e a p p e a re d to
consider the req u irem en ts of th e tu to r a lot
a n d try h ard to co m p lete the essay.

However; there are som e differences in
findings b eiw ecn o u r s tu d y an d earlier
studies that sh o u ld be m en tio n ed . In the first
placo, o u r subject is co n sid ered to be
"'novice", "unskilled", o r "basic" according to
definitions by Sasaki ([12], p. 56); Raimes ([7|;
p. 234); an d G u m m in g ([9Ị, p.88) respectively.
According to Zam el [5], Raimos [7Ị, Roca de
Larios, M u rp h y , a n d M an ch o n [11], and
Sasaki [12Ị, unskilled L2 w riters tend to plan
less and revise m o re at the w o rd a n d phrase
level. It is n o t corrcct in m y subject's case.
A lthough h e is an unskilled writer, ho did
m uch p la n n in g before an d e v e n d u rin g the
time he w ro te Uie essay. In ad d ition , h e paid

m u r h A i-tp n tin n \ i t or^’ a n Ì7 a H o n

which m e a n s that ht? iocused on the
o rg a n i/n tio n of his written discourse an d its
siructure b e y o n d th e clause level (sec Tabic 1
in RESULTS). It h as been co n clu d ed that
skilled L2 w rite rs h av e ihc ten den cy to plan
more, revise m o re cit the d isco urse level, and
spend m o re time fin d in g th e m o st effective

Wciy to d o the task (e.g, Zamel [5]; Kelly [8);
C u m m in g [9]; Roca d e Larios, M u rp h y , an d
M anchon [11]; Sasaki [12])- T h e d a ta analysis
has sh o w n th a t Hai h as so m e characteristics
of the skilled w rite r as well.

D iscussing the strategies u sed to deal
w ith p ro b le m s w hile w ritin g C u m m in g (9]
concluded th a t basic w riters p a id only 2 to 16
percent o f their decision statem en ts to
heuristic search strategies. N evertheless, in

o u r stu d y Hai m ostly u sed these strategies
(12/20 times) to solve his problem s.
C u m m in g h as fo u n d the b eh a v io u r th a t the
particip an ts identified p ro b le m s th en quickly
resolved th e m w ith o ut a p p ly in g any heuristic
searches accounted for 29 to 49 percent 0Í the

to t i i l s t a t e m e n t s r e g a r d l e s s o f w h p t h e r thf^y

were basic o r expert writers. O u r study has
come u p w ith a similar finding. Hai used this
strategy 7 out of 20 times.

T he differences in findings b e tw e e n o u r
s tu d y an d earlier research m a y be d u e Ì0 the

application of the skilled/unskilled

distinction. T h e re h av e existed p roblem s
related to th e notion of skill in L2 w ritin g
(Roca d e Larios, M u rp hy , a n d M arin Ị1]).
Raimes (7] h as su ggested th a t the notion of
skill in L2 w ritin g m ig h t be host c ap tu re d as a
com bination of variables, in each of w hich
w rite rs couid be ju d g ed as m o re o r less
skilled: lan g u ag e proficiency^ p ro d u c t
quality^ self-evaluation of LI an d L2 w riting
ability; k n o w le d g e of w ritin g d e m a n d s ,
w ritin g b ac k g ro u n d an d teaching experience.
W e think this notion sh o u ld b e m a d e clearer

i n f n h i r p A n r> th < 'r t h i n g {'> t h . i t t h o

w ritin g task that o u r subject has to carry out
in this s tu d y is q u ite different in n a tu re with
the tasks in o th er studies. This m ay b e a
reason for Ihc differences m en tio n e d above.
It is necessary to con d u ct m ore research
u sin g real v\TÌtìng tasks in real situ ation s to
h av e m o re co m p reh en siv e conclusions.

9. C o n c lu s io n

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196 Quyith N<ịityeìt V ù Mat Hon / VhJU lourual of Science. Foreign LatiỊ^ua<;cĩỉ 24 <2(K)8) Ĩ84-Ì97

L2 at tertiary IcvL'l. The s tu d y has m a d e a
liitle coniribuHon to th e c u rre n t research of
L2 wriiing in the sense that it w a s con d u cted

w ith a real w riting task a n d it helps increase
the n u m b er of studies investigating w riting
processes of Vietnam ese stu d en ts. A lth o u gh
ihe results of this small case s tu d y w ere not
intended to b e generalized; it is necessary for
other Vietnamese s tu d e n ts stu d y in g at
Australian universities to b e a w a re of h ow
on e of their peers copes w ith w riling
academ ic assig nm en ts in English. Also, the
findings have given the ESL s u p p o rt unit
with som e im plications if they are to help
Vietnamese ESL s tu d e n ts w ith their academ ic
writing- Last b u t not least, this s tu d y can be
use d as the basis for o u r fu tu re research in

w hich we intend to investigate more

Vietnamese EFL tertiary s tu d e n ts in the
process of w ritin g academ ic assig n m en ts at
universities in Vietnam.

O n the o th er hand, it is realized th ai the
s tu d y has som e limitations. W e th in k that the
findings are not co m p reh en siv e e n o u g h in
term s of the "thick" an d '"rich" d a ta g athered
from the research. It w o u ld h a v e b een better
if we h ad b een ablu lo inierview Ihe subject's
lecturer o r tu to r on the percep tio n s of the
requirem ents of the p a p e r This could set up
the basis for a c o m p a riso n b etw een the

s tu d e n t's a n d lechircr's perceptions. Also, if
the subject h a d had m o re lim e to sh are the
know ledge of architecture w ith us, the
interpretation of his w ritin g w o u ld have
resulted in m o re desirable findings.

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2003-Nghiên

C Ú X I

trường hợp về quá trình viết, nhận thức,

các vâh đề mắc phải và các chiến lược trong khi viết bài

uận bằng ngôn ngữ thứ hai

L ư c ì n g Q u ỳ n h T r a n g , N g u y ễ n T h ị M a i ỉ ỉ o a

K/u)íi N \ị ơ h >ĩ<;Ịữ Dà V ă ĩ ĩ h ó a A ì ĩ h - M v, T n r ờ n g D ạ i h ọ c N<^oại rì^ịử,

D i ì i h ọ c Q i i o c 'ịiii l i à N ộ i D ư ờ ĩ ỉ ị i P h ạ m V ã ì ĩ Dõfĩ>^, C ẵ u G i â y , H à N ộ i , N ỉ u u

S i n h v i õ n lìiK K n ^ o à ĩ ncSi c h v i n g S'à c i n h v i c n V i ẹ l N j> m n ó i r i c n g k h i t l õ n ú c K ọ c g ặ p t i r o n g

đòi nhiỂu khcS khcỉn tro n g c!ỏ phái kê đ ế n khó kh ăn khi viê't các bài luận/bài tập kVn (assignment)
b a n g ticng Anh. N g h iên cúu n à y d ư ợ c ihực hiện theo p h u ơ n g p h á p đ ịn h tinh (qualitative) n hằm
tim h iế u n h ữ n g khó k h ã n cù n g n h ư qu á ư in h viết bài tập lỏn b ằ n g ỉicng Anh cú a m ộ t sinh viên
Việỉ Mam cụ the đ a n g hi>c tộp íại ú c . Dựcì trơn cơ s ị n g hiên cứ u của C u m m in g (1989) và Bosher
(1998) n g hiên cứii này tập tr u n g vào 3 câu hịi chính: (1) Đ61 ỉư ự n g nghiên cứu hicu các yêu cẩu
cùa bài tộp n h u the nào? {2) ĐÒI lư ợn g n ghiên cú u th ự c sự làm gi ư o n g quá trin h vie't? (3) N h ử n g
khỏ k h ă n đôi Uiọng n ghiên cứ u g ặ p phãi và các chiến lược giải quyé't khỏ khản đ ư ọ c s ử d ụ n g khi
viêl b ài lập b a n g tieng Anh lâ gì? Sơ* liệu cho nghiên cứ u này đ ư ọ c thu th ậ p th ô n g q u a phỏng
vâh, hổi tư ở n g và n g h iê n cứu bài viô't v à yẽu cẩu bài viẽV của dòi tư ợn g n ghicn cứu, Kết quà
n g h iên cứu c h o thây đóì tư ợ n g nghiên cứ u không q u a n lâm lắm tới các lỏi n g ư p h á p và chính tả,

đ ổ n g t h ờ i g ặ p n h i ổ u k h ỏ k h ă n I r o n g q u á t r ì n h v ie 't v à đ â s ử d ụ n g n h i ẽ u c h i ô h ỉ h u ậ l đ ế g i ả i q u y e t

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