SYNTACTIC AND SEMANTIC FEATURES OF IDIOMS CONTAINING THE WORD CAT IN ENGLISH AND mèo IN VIETNAMESE

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
HANOI OPEN UNIVERSITY

M.A THESIS

SYNTACTIC AND SEMANTIC FEATURES OF
IDIOMS CONTAINING THE WORD "CAT" IN
ENGLISH AND "MÈO" IN VIETNAMESE
ĐẶC ĐIỂM CÚ PHÁP VÀ NGỮ NGHĨA CỦA THÀNH
NGỮ CÓ CHỨA TỪ "CAT" TRONG TIẾNG ANH VÀ
"MÈO" TRONG TIẾNG VIỆT

NGUYỄN THỊ THANH THÙY
Field: English Linguistic
Code: 8.22.02.01
Supervisor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Hoang Tuyet Minh

HaNoi, 2020


CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY
I, the undersigned, hereby certify my authority of the study project report entitled
“Syntactic and semantic features of idioms containing the word cat in English and
mèo in Vietnamese” submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
degree of Master in English Language. Except where the reference is indicated, no
other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgement in the text of the
thesis.
Hanoi, 2020

Nguyễn Thị Thanh Thùy

Approved by
SUPERVISOR

ASSOC. PROF. DR. HOANG TUYET MINH
Date: / /2020

i


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am grateful to those who have contributed to this thesis and proud to acknowledge
their help.
I would like first and foremost to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to
my supervisor, Ms. Hoang Tuyet Minh, for her inspiring and invaluable guidance,
advice, encouragement and everything that I learnt from her throughout my work.
Without her, this thesis would not have been possible.
My sincere thanks also go to all lecturers and the staff of the Faculty of Post
Graduate Studies at Hanoi Open University for their useful lectures, assistance, and
enthusiasm during my course.
Special acknowledgment is also given to my lecturers at Hanoi Open University
for their precious knowledge, useful lectures in linguistics, which lay the foundation
for this study.
Last but not least, I am greatly indebted to my husband and my family for their
understanding, patience, and support during the entire period of my study.
There are many others I should mention here, people who helped me along the way
and provided me support. Listing all of them would fill a book itself, so I merely will
have to limit myself to a few words: I thank you ALL!

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY ..........................................................................i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................ iii
ABSTRACT ...............................................................................................................vi
List of abbreviations ..................................................................................................vii
List of tables and figures ......................................................................................... viii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................... 1
1.1. Rationale ............................................................................................................. 1
1.2. Aims and objectives of the study ......................................................................... 3
1.3. Research questions .............................................................................................. 3
1.4. Methods of the study ........................................................................................... 3
1.5. Scope of the study ............................................................................................... 4
1.6. Significance of the study ..................................................................................... 4
1.7. Structure of the study .......................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................ 6
2.1. Previous studies ................................................................................................... 6
2.1.1. Previous Studies of English Idioms ............................................................. 6
2.1.2. Previous Studies of Vietnamese Idioms ...................................................... 7
2.2. Theory of syntax .................................................................................................. 9
2.3. Theory of semantics .......................................................................................... 12
2.4. Overview of idioms ............................................................................................ 14
2.4.1. Definitions .............................................................................................. 14
2.4.2. Features of idioms ................................................................................. 17
2.4.2.1. Syntactic features ............................................................................ 17
2.4.2.2. Semantic features ............................................................................ 19
2.4.3. Types of idioms ...................................................................................... 21
2.4.4. The similarities and differences between idioms and proverbs ............. 22
2.5. Summary ........................................................................................................... 24

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ........................................................................ 26
3.1. Research approach ............................................................................................ 26
3.1.1. Quantitative research ................................................................................. 26
3.1.2. Qualitative research .................................................................................... 26

iii


3.1.3. Descriptive method ..................................................................................... 27
3.1.4. Contrastive method ..................................................................................... 28
3.2. Methods of the study .......................................................................................... 28
3.3. Data collection and data analysis ....................................................................... 29
3.4. Summary ........................................................................................................... 30
CHAPTER 4: SYNTACTIC AND SEMANTIC FEATURES OF IDIOMS
CONTAINING THE WORD CAT IN ENGLISH AND MÈO IN VIETNAMESE
................................................................................................................................... 32
4.1. Syntactic features of idioms containing the word cat in English and mèo in
Vietnamese ................................................................................................................ 32
4.1.1. Syntactic features of idioms containing the word cat in English ............... 32
4.1.1.1. Noun Phrases ....................................................................................... 32
4.1.1.2. Verb Phrases ........................................................................................ 33
4.1.1.3. Adjective Phrases ............................................................................... 34
4.1.1.4. Preposition phrase .............................................................................. 34
4.1.1.5. Interjection ........................................................................................... 34
4.1.2. Syntactic features of idioms containing the word mèo in Vietnamese ....... 35
4.1.2.1. Noun Phrase ....................................................................................... 35
4.1.2.2. Verb Phrase ....................................................................................... 36
4.1.2.3. Adjective Phrase ................................................................................. 36
4.2. Semantic features of idioms containing the word cat in English and mèo in
Vietnamese ................................................................................................................ 37

4.2.1. Semantic features of idioms containing the word cat in English .............. 38
4.2.1.1. Expressing good points ....................................................................... 38
4.2.1.1.1. The personal characters and status of people ............................... 38
4.2.1.1.2. Convenient conditions and good things ....................................... 39
4.2.1.2. Expressing bad points .......................................................................... 39
4.2.1.2.1. The personal characters and status of people.............................. 39
4.2.1.2.2. Inconvenient conditions and bad things....................................... 40
4.2.1.3. Expressing neutral points .................................................................... 41
4.2.2. Semantic features of idioms containing the word mèo in Vietnamese ....... 43
4.2.2.1. Good personal characters and status of people ................................... 43
4.2.2.2. Expressing bad points .......................................................................... 43
4.2.2.2.1. Bad personal characters and status of people ............................. 44

iv


4.2.2.2.2. Inconvenient conditions and bad things ....................................... 44
4.3. A comparison between the syntactic and semantic features of idioms containing
word cat in English and mèo in Vietnamese ............................................................. 45
4.3.1. In terms of syntactic features ...................................................................... 45
4.3.2. In terms of sematic features ........................................................................ 48
4.4. Implications for teaching and learning idioms containing word cat in English and
mèo in Vietnamese .................................................................................................... 51
4.5. Summary ........................................................................................................... 53
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION .............................................................................. 54
5.1. Recapitulation of the study ................................................................................ 54
5.2. Concluding remark of the study ........................................................................ 55
5.3. Limitation of the study ...................................................................................... 56
5.3. Suggestions for further studies .......................................................................... 56
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................... 58

APPENDIXES ......................................................................................................... 63

v


ABSTRACT
This study focuses on syntactic and semantic features of idioms containing the
word cat in English and mèo in Vietnamese with the aim of helping Vietnamese
learners of English understand the syntactic and semantic features of idioms
containing the word cat in English and mèo in Vietnamese effectively. In order to
achieve the aims given, descriptive and comparative methods are used in combination
with the qualitative and quantitative ones. Through their syntactic and semantic
features, we find out the similarities and differences between idiomatic expressions
containing the word cat between two languages in terms of syntactic and semantic
features. Data used for analysis in this study were mainly collected through reference
books, dictionaries, and the internet websites. The data collected in the two languages
are then aggregated and compared in details to determine the similarities and
differences between them. Through analysis of forms of idioms containing the word
cat in English and mèo in Vietnamese, it is deduced that idioms are really important
in communication. Idioms are used to express ideas in figurative styles. They bring
the vividness and richness to the speakers' speeches. This is the reason why the more
skillfully a person uses idioms in his conversations, the more effectively he can
establish his communicative relationship. The findings of the thesis illustrate some
implications for teachers and learners of English from the use of linguistic features
of idiomatic expressions containing the word cat in English and focus on the
meanings of the English idioms containing the word cat and a comparative analysis
with Vietnamese ones. Hopefully, the study may help learners and teachers of English
avoid difficulties in teaching and learning idioms.

vi

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Adj

: Adjective

Adj.P

: Adjective phrase

N
NP

: Noun
: Noun Phrase

Pre.P
V

: Prepositional Phrase
: Verb

VP

: Verb phrase

vii

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
Table 4.1. Summary of syntactic features of idioms containing the words cat in
English ................................................................................................................. 34
Table 4.2: Summary of syntactic features of idioms containing the word mèo in
Vietnamese .............................................................................................. ……….36
Table 4.3: Summary of semantic features of idioms containing the words cat in
English .................................................................................................................. 41
Table 4.4: Summary of semantic features of idioms containing the words mèo in
Vietnamese ........................................................................................................... 44
Table 4.5: Summary of syntactic features of idioms containing the word cat in English
and mèo in Vietnamese ........................................................................................ 45
Table 4.6: Summary of semantic features of idioms containing the words cat in
English and mèo in Vietnamese ........................................................................... 47

viii


CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1. Rationale
Language, a system of conventional spoken, manual, or written symbols by means
of which human beings, as members of a social group and participants in its culture,
express themselves. The functions of language include communication, the
expression of identity, play, imaginative expression, and emotional release. Each
language also conveys a particular aspect of its culture which prevents people from
communicating with each other effectively and clearly.
Language is used to show not only the way of each people perceives the world
around but also the way each people reacts towards that world. In “General
linguistics”, Robins (1989) almost concurred, saying “A language [is a] symbol
system … based on pure or arbitrary convention … infinitely extendable and
modifiable according to the changing needs and conditions of the speakers”. The

American linguists, Bernard Bloch and George L. Trager formulated the following
definition: “A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a
social group cooperates.”
Each nation’s language lies in itself similar and different concepts on many fields
of life such as humane values, ways of thinking, behavior standards, religious beliefs,
customs and traditions, social conventions, etc. Words and expressions including
idioms have formed the vocabulary system of a language. Idioms are considered as
special factors of a language’s vocabulary system because they reflect culturally
specific characteristics of each nation, including material and spiritual values.
Therefore, a lot of researchers have long shown their concerns for idioms.
Idioms were formed along with the development of national language capital,
closely related to proverbs, folk songs... They occupy a large number in the treasure
in English and in Vietnamese. For a long time, idioms have been a means of
communication in people's daily life, moreover, idioms have been used by many
writers and poets in the literature to contribute to the content of the work. It can be
said, idioms are "The jewel of the nation" by its common use-value is crystallized
from the language, quintessence of national culture.
Idioms are used to express ideas in figurative styles. They bring the vividness and
richness to the speakers’ speeches. This is the reason why the more skillfully a person
uses idioms in his conversations, the more effectively he can establish his

1


communicative relationship. One more important thing is that the general present
tendencies are towards idiomatic usage; therefore, knowing how to use idioms
effectively in the right situations is becoming essential. Moreover, the most
distinguished advantage of idioms is that they do provide users with a whole new way
of expressing concepts linguistically. It can be said that idioms are the color and
vitality of a language.

Several linguists have given a lot of definitions about an idiom basing on its fixed
characteristics. For example, "An idiom is a fixed group of words with special
different meaning from the meaning of several words" (Longman Dictionary of
English Idioms (1979). Sharing the same point of view, Hoang Van Hanh (1994)
considered an idiom as a fixed group of words which is firm in terms of structure,
complete and figurative in terms of meaning, and is widely used in daily speaking.
Nattinger, De Carrico cited in Tajali &Tehrani (2009) considers idioms as "most
important subcategory of the lexical phenomenon of formulaic language". David
Crystal (1991) presents one view on idioms and defines them as having two prime
characteristics. First, the meanings of the individual words in the expression cannot
be used to understand the meaning of the expression altogether. Second, the
expression is also fixed both in terms of its grammar and its lexicality. For example,
the words in the idioms raining cats and dogs cannot be placed in another order, or
be changed to synonyms, without losing the idiomaticity in the process.
Idiomatic expressions are characterized by unpredictable meanings or unusual
grammatical patterns, and they often convey specific connotations. Sometimes nonnative speakers lack confidence in using figurative language, especially idioms
because of their unpredictable meanings. Consequently, people may misinterpret
what the other person is saying if they are not acquainted with the special meaning of
a particular expression.
Theoretically, there have been so far a lot of studies and investigations into idioms
concerning animals, plants, colors, causes, and results, etc. Nevertheless, due to a
certain gap in syntactic and semantic perspectives, the idioms containing the word
cat have not received enough attention from linguists in both English and
Vietnamese, especially in terms of syntactic and semantic features.
Practically, idioms are used a lot in communication, but many people don’t know
the real meaning of idioms, so this study is conducted in the hope to help Vietnamese
learners of English improve their understanding of idioms and apply idioms in

2

communication so that their speech is more adequate, natural, interesting and
imaginative.
For the reasons above, I would like to carry out this thesis titled Syntactic and
semantic features of idioms containing the word cat in English and mèo in
Vietnamese.
1.2. Aims and objectives of the study
The study is aimed at helping Vietnamese learners of English understand the
syntactic and semantic features of idioms containing the word cat in English and mèo
in Vietnamese effectively.
With the aim mentioned above, this study has three main objectives as follows:
1. To identify the syntactic and semantic features of idioms containing the word
cat in English and mèo in Vietnamese.
2. To point out the similarities and differences between the idioms containing the
word cat in English and mèo in Vietnamese.
3. To provide some implications for teaching and learning idioms containing the
word cat in English and mèo in Vietnamese.
1.3. Research questions
To fully achieve these above aims, the study should answer the following questions:
1. What are the syntactic and sematic features of idioms containing the word cat
in English and mèo in Vietnamese?
2. What are the similarities and differences between the idioms containing the
word cat in English and mèo in Vietnamese?
3. What are implications for teaching and learning idioms containing the word cat
in English and mèo in Vietnamese?
1.4. Methods of the study
In order to achieve the aims given, descriptive and comparative methods are used
in combination with the qualitative and quantitative ones.
Firstly, the descriptive method is used to describe in detail the syntactic and
semantic features through the examples of idioms containing the word cat in English

and mèo in Vietnamese collected from dictionaries, reference books, and the Internet
websites.
Secondly, contrastive and comparative methods are used to find out the similarities
and differences in the syntactic and semantic features through the examples of idioms
containing the word cat in English and in Vietnamese.

3


Finally, some techniques are used as data collection and data analysis. A number
of data relating to idioms containing the word cat in English and in Vietnamese
publications are collected from dictionaries, reference books, and Internet websites.
Data collected will then be analyzed in order to find out the similarities and
differences between idioms containing the word cat in English and mèo in
Vietnamese.
1.5. Scope of the study
In the framework of the study, the thesis only focuses on idioms containing the
word cat in English and those containing the word mèo in Vietnamese, namely,
linguistic features of idioms containing the word cat in English and mèo in
Vietnamese are semantic and syntactic features. 102 idioms containing the word cat
in English are found and 51 idioms containing the word mèo in Vietnamese are
collected from reference books, dictionaries and Internet websites.
The English and Vietnamese idioms in this study are collected from dictionaries,
reference books, and the Internet websites; therefore, this research may not cover all
idioms containing the word cat in English and mèo in Vietnamese.
1.6. Significance of the study
Idioms as a special form of language which makes people feel at a loss in
understanding conversations when they cannot guess the true meaning of idioms in
normal ways. From a dynamic view, learning English through idioms is one of the
effective ways to improve your English because idioms carry a large number of

cultural features. Therefore, thanks to this research, language learners can get a lot of
advantages.
Theoretically, this research provides a detailed view of idioms containing the word
cat in both English and Vietnamese in terms of syntactic and semantic features. The
findings, then serve as a foundation for other researches on idioms in English and
Vietnamese under other perspectives.
Practically, the results of the study provide valuable implications for efficient
teaching and learning English as a foreign language in Vietnam in general, and
teaching and learning idioms the word cat in English and mèo in Vietnamese in
particular.
As a whole, it is hoped that along with the understanding of the semantic and
syntactic features of these idioms in English and Vietnamese, this study can be a
useful material for learning and teaching of language through idioms containing the

4


word cat in English and those containing the word mèo in Vietnamese.
1.7. Structure of the study
This study consists of five chapters, excluding the appendixes and the references.
Chapter 1, Introduction, presents the reason why the topic is chosen, the aims, the
objectives, the scope, the significance and the structural design of the study are given
Chapter 2, Literature review, includes three parts: previous studies, theoretical
background and idioms and proverbs distinguishing. This is also devoted to the
presentation of major linguistic features, the definitions of language and idioms,
overview of idioms.
Chapter 3, Methodology, describes the research methodology in detail and
comprises the information of the subjects, and methods of data analysis.
Chapter 4, Findings and Discussion, presents syntactic and semantic features of
idioms containing word cat in English and mèo in Vietnamese, a comparison between

the syntactic and semantic features of idioms containing word cat in English and mèo
in Vietnamese and implications for teaching and learning idioms containing word cat
in English and mèo in Vietnamese.
Chapter 5, Conclusions, restates the aims and summarize how to conduct the
research to the objectives. Furthermore, this chapter also presents the limitations of
the research and some suggestions for further studies.
References and Appendix come at the end of the study.

5


CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
The literature review is divided into three main parts. The first part presents and
discusses the previous research works on idioms in English and Vietnamese. The
second one gives the theoretical background of idioms in English and Vietnamese on
which the whole research has been based. The last one provides some similarities and
differences between idioms and proverbs.
2.1. Previous studies
2.1.1. Previous Studies of English Idioms
Idioms are considered as special units of each language. They are expressions that
demonstrate human behaviors, reactions on certain things, social traits, habits, and
traditions. Idioms have attracted many language researchers all over the world. They
are an important factor in native-like discourse by English as well as a foreign
language speaker.
Idioms Organization by Wright (1999)
Jon Wright is co-founder and Director of Studies of The Language Project, Bristol,
a small school with a special focus on developing innovative learner-centered
materials. He has many years' experience as a teacher, a teacher trainer, a materials
writer, and an examiner. In his book, the idiom is expressed as an expression that has
some features. Firstly, it is fixed and recognized by native speakers. Secondly, it uses

language in a non-literal way - metaphor. He writes about the idioms organized by
metaphor, topic, and keyword
The American Heritage Dictionary of Idioms by Christine Ammer (1997), idioms
are carefully collected and categorized into the alphabetical arrangement. Their
meanings and examples of usage in English are also mentioned. These are the books
that every linguistic or teacher of linguistics have to keep a look if they want to do
research or a study on idioms.
A Course in Modern English Lexicology, Ginzburg (1979) points out that nonmotivated word-groups whose lexical meaning is not deducible from that of their
components are described as idioms. Also, he gave the assumption that nonmotivated word-groups have functioned as word equivalents because of their
semantic and grammatical inseparability.

6


Idiomatic Creativity by Langlotz (2006) argues that “idioms are peculiar linguistic
constructions that have raised many eyebrows in linguistics and often confuse
newcomers to a language” (Langlotz 2006)
The Oxford Companion to the English Language by McArthur (1992) defines
idiom is a combination of words which have a figurative meaning owing to their
common usage.
In their book English Idioms and How to Use Them, Seidl and McMordie (1978)
stress that, even though some idioms may be completely regular and logical, “an
idiom is a number of words which, taken together, mean something different from
the individual words of the idiom when they stand alone. The way in which the words
are put together is often odd, illogical or even grammatically incorrect” (Seidl and
McMordie 1978)
Webster's New World Dictionary by Neufeldt (1991) offers a more detailed
definition of an idiom which is seen as “a phrase, construction, or expression that is
recognized as a unit in the usage of a given language and either differs from the usual
syntactic patterns or has a meaning that differs from the literal meaning of its parts

taken together” (Neufeldt 1991).
A Syntactic Study of Idioms by Anna Dąbrowska (2018) shows that idiomatic
expressions are often treated by linguists the same way as lexical units which function
as one semantic entity and have one meaning.
To conclude, idioms in English are studied in several aspects such as syntax,
semantics, culture, pragmatism, etc. and are studied from different perspectives.
However, most scholars pay attention to the structures and semantics of idioms.
When studying the idiomatic structures, idioms are described in terms of one or more
structural properties. When studying semantics, scholars study the hidden concept of
idioms. Such an approach leads to the nature of cognition and thus has valid
psychology.
2.1.2. Previous Studies of Vietnamese Idioms
There are a lot of books and dictionaries which have brought us great benefits of
idioms. It can be seen that idioms are carefully collected and categorized into the
alphabetical arrangement. In Vietnam, Vietnamese researchers have paid great
attention to idioms. Hoang Van Hanh (1973), Do Huu Chau (2006), Nguyen Thien
Giap, Le Nhu Tien (1988), Nguyen Khac Hung (1988), Hoang Van Thang (1992),
Trinh Duc Hien (1995), Phan Van Que (1995), Dang Anh Dao (1997) showed their

7


concerns for the ways how to use idioms in literature and in different kinds of
activities.
Here are some studies conducts to find out features and related aspects of idioms.
Từ vựng ngữ nghĩa tiếng Việt by Do Huu Chau (1981) studied quite carefully
about idioms (he did not call idioms; idioms are called fixed expressions). The author
compares idioms with complex words and phrases, freedom to highlight the content
and composition of idioms and at the same time, he also conducted idiomatic
classification. He considered symbolism an important feature of idioms.

Hoạt động của từ tiếng Việt by Dai Xuan Ninh (1978) went into research issues of
content and form of idioms. In particular, in which he proceeded to make a distinction
between idioms and proverbs.
Thành ngữ học tiếng Việt by Hoang Van Hanh (2004) went into search to
understand and analyze the origin and composition of idioms quite clearly. The author
based on the symbolic morphology that divides idioms into two main types of idioms:
comparative metaphor and idiom. From there he introduced the model and analyzed
in detail the two categories idiom above.
Gà, Khỉ, Chuột, Ngựa trong thành ngữ và tục ngữ tiếng Anh và Tiếng Việt by Phan
Van Que (2000) has raised different symbolic meanings of animal images between
England and Vietnam. The author also attached many examples for comparison and
comparison of animal images in the minds of Vietnamese and English are different.
Thereby, we see the specificity in idioms.
An investigation in English idioms relating to fruits with reference to Vietnamese
equivalent by Dang Thi Thanh Huong (2016). In the minor thesis, she presented,
described and analyzed the English and Vietnamese idioms relating to fruits and then
investigated the similarities and differences in semantic and syntactic features of
English idioms relating to fruits with reference to the Vietnamese equivalents.
A minor thesis is Idiomatic expression containing the word "dog" in English and
Vietnamese by Dao Thanh Tu (2017). In her research paper, Dao Thanh Tu (2017)
studied the idiomatic expressions containing the word dog in English and compare
with those in Vietnamese and then showed the specific features of English and
Vietnamese cultures about the dog lying behind the similarities and differences
between English and Vietnamese idioms containing the word ‘dog’. She analyses 120
idioms containing the word "dog" in English and Vietnamese in terms of the literal

8


meaning and idiomatic meaning and indicates the distinction between idioms'

meanings by native speakers of English and Vietnamese.
A study is A contrastive analysis on animal-based comparison idioms in English
and Vietnamese (Nguyen Thi Nga, 2003, VNU-CFL). In this study, the author dealt
with the features of English idioms and made a contrastive analysis of animal-based
comparison idioms in English and Vietnamese counterparts. The author found that,
though the animal-based comparison idioms in both cultures use different animal
images to express ideas, they semantically reflect the personal characteristics and
status of people in the society during the course of the historic development of the
two nations. According to her, many animals are positive in English, but negative or
neutral in Vietnamese and vice versa, which creates a lot of interest for learners in
accessing and analyzing them.
In the minor thesis A contrastive analysis of English and Vietnamese idioms of
comparison (Do Quynh Anh, 2004, VNU-CFL), the author gave out some theoretical
background about idioms and made some comparisons with other concepts such as
proverbs, slang, and quotations. In the development, the author made a contrastive
analysis of English and Vietnamese idioms and then pointed out some similarities
and differences between these two languages. Due to the findings, the author stated
some difficulties in learning English in terms of idioms and raised the awareness of
culturally related factors that should be put into consideration in the teaching process.
In Vietnamese, although some idiomatic studies exist, most scholars focus on
semantic and cultural characteristics of idioms in both English and Vietnamese.
In conclusion, the above findings serve as the framework of this study, which is
the premise for future research on teaching and learning idioms effectively and
efficiently to Vietnamese learners of English.
2.2. Theory of syntax
One of the branches of linguistics that talks about sentences or clause is syntax.
The syntax is the study of how the order of elements in a sentence affects its meaning.
English Syntax was concerned with how we studied sentences. Syntactics not only
related to the structure of sentences, but also to the structure of phrases and clauses.
Baker (1989) says, “By the Syntax of a language, we mean the body of rules that

speakers of the language follow when they combine words into sentences.”.
According to Moris (1938), syntax is the grammar, structures or order of the
elements in the language statement (semantic is the meaning of the element). Syntax

9


applies to computer languages as well as to natural languages. Usually, we think of
syntax as "word order." However, the syntax is also achieved in some languages such
as Latin by inflectional case endings. in computer languages, syntax can be extremely
rigid as in the case of most assembler languages or less rigid in languages that make
use of "keyword" parameters that can be stated in any order. Linda (1993) states,
“Syntax describes the way words fit together to form sentences”. She adds one way
to study syntax is to look at sentences which are already known to be considered
syntactically ‘well-formed’ sentences to the speakers of that language.
John Lyons (1981) states, “Syntax deals with the distribution of words (i.e wordforms)”.
Jim Miller (2002) states, “Syntax has to do with how words are put together to
build phrases, with how phrases are put together to build sentences.”
Andrew Carnie (2001) states, “Syntax is the cover term for studies of this level of
language.”
In terms of the syntactic category, a syntactic category is a type of syntactic unit
that theories of syntax assume. Word classes, largely corresponding to traditional
parts of speech (e.g. noun, verb, preposition, etc.), are syntactic categories, in phrase
structure grammars, the phrasal categories (e.g. noun phrase, verb phrase,
prepositional phrase, etc.) are also syntactic categories.
According to Angela Downing and Philip Lock in English Grammar (2007), and
Victoria Flomklin, Robert Rodman, Peter Collins and David Blair in An Introduction
to Language (2012), words are classified grammatically according to the traditional
terminology, which includes noun, verb, adjective, preposition, pronoun, article, and
conjunction. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs make up the largest part of the

vocabulary.
In terms of characteristics of phrases, according to the Oxford Advanced Learner’s
Dictionary (2005), “A phrase is a group of words which have a particular meaning
when used together”. It is a syntactic structure that consists of more than one word
but lacks the subject-predicate organization of a clause.
In the book Syntax for EFL Students (2008), Ilić states, “A phrase can be
considered the lowest syntactic unit. It can be defined as a syntactic unit that contains
more than one word and lacks the subject – predicate relationship. The phrase
contains one word which is more important than the others (Head) and some other

10


single word or word group elements that specify, modify or complete the headword
in various ways.”
In everyday speech, a phrase may refer to any group of words. in linguistics, a
phrase is a group of words which form a constituent and so function as a single unit
in the syntax of a sentence. A phrase is lower on the grammatical hierarchy than a
clause.
In the book The Oxford English Grammar (1996), Greenbaum, S. defines :
Noun phrases, “a noun phrase has as its head a noun, a pronoun, a nominal
adjective or numeral” (p.208). For examples, a wonderful spinach cheese, a citizen
of her own class ,etc.
Verb phrases, “a verb phrase has as its head a main (or lexical) verb. The main
verb may be preceded by up to four auxiliaries (or auxiliary verb)” (p.246). For
examples, was sank, has been sunk, etc.
Adjective phrase, “a adjective phrase has as its head an adjective, which may be
preceded by premodifiers, and followed by postmodifier” (p.288). For examples, fond
of steak, very happy, etc.
Adverb phrase, “a adverb phrase has as its adverb, which may be by premodifiers

and (less commonly) followed by postmodifier.” (p.295), for example, much more
easily than I could count.
Prepositional phrase, "a preposition consists of a preposition and the complement
of the preposition. The preposition may be pre- modified by an intensifying adverb.
The prepositional complement is chiefly a noun phrase, an –ing participle clause or
wh-clause". (p.300). For instance, under the weather, etc.
In the book, An Introduction to the Grammar of English: Syntactic arguments and
socio-historical background (2002), Elly van Gelderen states:
Noun phrases, “a noun phrase is built around a noun which is called the head of
the noun phrase. In addition to the head, a noun phrase can contain determiners and
adjectives as well as other elements” (p.31). For example, the nice unicorn. a piece
of paper, etc.
Verb phrases, “ a verb phrase is built around a verb, which can indicate an action,
a state, or a sensation. Verbs can be in the present or past tense” (p.35). For example,
washed the dishes, wrote the letter, etc.
Adjective phrase, “an adjective phrase is built around adjectives, which indicate
properties of nouns.” (p.35). For instance, so nice, interested in music, etc

11


Adverb phrase, “an adverb phrase is built around adverbs which indicate qualities
of verbs, adverbs, and adjectives” (p.35). For instance, very quickly, quite difficult,
etc.
Prepositional phrase, " a prepositional is built around a preposition. Prepositions
indicate relations in space and time. A prepositional phrase includes a preposition and
an noun phrase.” (p.36). For example, on the moon, the man with glasses, etc.
All the definitions given above are different in some respects, but in general, the
syntax is the grammar, structure or order of the elements in the language statement.
They are therefore important criteria that are used in this thesis when analyse the

syntactic features of idioms containing the word cat in English and mèo in
Vietnamese.
In fact, though each school of grammar gives different names to each type of
phrases, the thesis is based on the viewpoint of Sydney Greenbaum in The Oxford
English Grammar.
2.3. Theory of semantics
Whereas syntax is the grammar, structure, or order of the elements in a language
statement, semantics is the meaning of these elements. According to Palmer (1976),
"semantic is generally considered as the study of meaning in a language". It is
considered as a study of meaning in language. It deals with the expression of
linguistic objects such as word, phrases and sentences. It does not pay attention to the
syntactical arrangement or pronunciation of linguistic object. It concentrates on the
similarities between languages, rather than on the differences. Semantics theory is a
part of a larger enterprise, linguistic theory, which includes the study of syntax
(grammar) and phonetics (pronunciation) besides the study of meaning. Semantics is
concerned with the meanings of non-sentences, such as phrases and incomplete
sentences, just as much as with the whole sentences. It is the study of meaning that is
used for understanding human expression through language.
As states by Katz (1972), “Semantics is the study of linguistic meaning. It is
concerned with what sentence and other linguistics object express, not with the
arrangement with their syntactic parts or with their pronunciation.” Semantics has
long been an object of study within the philosophy. It is said that the term semantics
itself was introduced into English at the end of the 19th century. Based on etiology,
the word semantics originally comes from Greek word semantikos means
‘significant’ ; semainein means ‘to show, signify’ or ‘indicated by sign’; from sema

12


means ‘sign’. However the word ‘meaning’ has a wide range of perceptions and there

is no general agreement among expert about the way in which it should be described.
There are some term semantics in various definition by some experts, they are:
Palmer (1976) says, “Semantics is technical term used to refer to the study of
meaning”. Semantics looks at these relationships in language and looks at how these
meanings are created, which is an important part of understanding how language
works as a whole. It is concerned with what sentences and other linguistics objects
express, not with the arrangement of their syntactic parts or with their pronunciation.
Hornby (1972) has defined “Semantics is branch of linguistics concerned with
studying the meaning of words and sentences.”
Lyons (1977) defines “Semantics is generally defined as the study of meaning.”
Siregar (1992) states “Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases, or
sentences in the language or semantics is the study of meaning in language.”
Saeed (2003) states, “Semantics is the study of meaning communicated through
language.”
Semantics has developed and became worthy study. There are two factors that
make semantics become important and worthy study. First, meaning is strictly
connected with communication. A certain meaning can be delivered through
communication plays an important role in human life. Second, the process of human
attempts to comprehend the nature of meaning involves the mental ability by the use
of reasoning and perception. As stated by Leech (1974), “Semantics is central to the
study of communication; and as communication becomes more and more crucial
factor in social organization, the need to understand it becomes more and more
pressing. Semantics is also at the centre of the study of the human mind-thought
process, cognition and conceptualization.”
Ridwan (1997) in Saleh (2008) states that there are some terms of semantics, such
as semasiology, semology, semiotics, sememis, and semics. Beside having some
terms, semantics also has some close relations with some disciplines, such as
philosophy, psychology, anthropology and sosiology
Akmajian (1979) says, “Semantics is generally considered to be the study of
meaning (and related notions) in language, semantics is generally considered to be

the study of reference (and related notions) in languages".
All of these meanings given above are different in some respects but mainly
semantics is a division of linguistics dealing with the meaning of words, it is a study

13


concerned with the meaning of the linguistic string. It means the analysis must be
concentrated on what sentences or other linguistic objects convey not to the
arrangement of their syntactic part of their grammatical form.
2.4. Overview of idioms
2.4.1. Definitions
Idioms are one of an expression whose meaning does not seem to follow logically
from combination words of meaning. It is also called a group of words which has a
meaning that is not to be found in the analysis of its part in idiom, the word or the
combination of words cannot be meant literally meaning but it must be meant in a
group of words and it is meant contextually. Idioms express a particular sentiment,
but they do not literally mean what the individual words themselves mean. As a
language form, idioms have its own characteristic and patterns and used in high
frequency whether in written language or oral language because idioms can convey
a host of language and cultural information when people chat to each other. In some
senses, idioms are the reflection of the environment, life, historical culture of the
native speakers and are closely associated with their innermost spirit and feelings.
They are commonly used in all types of languages, informal and formal. That is why
the extent to which a person familiarizes himself with idioms is a mark of his or her
command of language.
Idioms are composed of more than one word: their constituents show to some
extent the sort of internal cohesion that we expect of single words. An idiom typically
resists interruption and re-ordering of its constituents. For example, the idiom ‘kick
the bucket’ will lose its idiomatic meaning if it is re-ordered into ‘the bucket which

is kicked’. The exceptions lie in the idioms such as ‘to lay down the law’ (meaning
‘to say with real or assumed authority what should be done’) and ‘spill the beans’
(meaning ‘reveal secret information deliberately’), which have passives: ‘the law is
laid down’ and ‘the beans are spilled’, respectively, though this still raises
controversy.
Up to now, there are many definitions of idioms.
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (1988) defines an idiom as “a
phrase which means something different from their meanings of the separate words
from which it is formed”.
The Free Dictionary (Dictionary, Encyclopedia and Thesaurus), which defines
idiom as “a speech form or an expression of a given language that is peculiar to itself

14


grammatically or cannot be understood from the individual meanings of its elements,
as in keep tabs on,” as well as “the specific grammatical, syntactic, and structural
character of a given language ".
Webster’s New World Dictionary of the American language (2nd college edition,
1970) gives this definition “an accepted phrase, construction, or expression contrary
to the patterns of the language's having a meaning different from the language or
having different from the literal”.
Collins Co-build Learner’s Dictionary (1996) defines an idiom as “an idiom is a
group of words which have a different meaning when used together from the one they
would have if you took the meaning of each word individually”.
New Simplified English Dictionary (1966) gives an idiom such a definition as “a
group of words which have a special meaning when used together”.
Many linguists such as Palmer (1990), states that "an idiom is an expression whose
meaning cannot be inferred from the meanings of its parts".
Jackson, Amvela and Palmer (2000), share the similar viewpoints on idiom

definition, “an idiom may be defined as a phrase the meaning of which cannot be
predicted from the individual meanings of the morphemes it comprises”.
Seidle and Mordie (1978) who considers “an idiom is a number of words which,
taken together, mean something different from the individual words of the idiom
when they stand alone”.
Laval (2003) states: “Idiomatic expressions are expressions where there is a
considerable difference between what said (literal interpretation) is and what is meant
(idiomatic interpretation). In other words, the meaning of an idiomatic expressions
depend largely on a convention that relates a given linguistic form to a given
meaning”.
Collins has a different way to define idioms but shares the similar idea. To take the
definition by Collins (1996) to consider, an idiom is "a special kind of phrase". It is a
group of words which have a different meaning when used together from the one it
would have if the meaning of each word were taken individually […] idioms are
typical metaphorical: they are effective metaphors which have become “fixed‟ or
“fossilized".
As for the linguistic sources, Saeed J. in his Semantics (2011) describes idioms as
“expressions where the individual words have ceased to have independent meanings”.
He draws attention to problems with pinning down word meaning, as do most of the

15


sources. One of the problems is also that with every speaker, the meaning of words
and their intentions differ slightly, therefore, the contextual meaning in particular is
very important in this case.
According to Palmer (1990), idioms as consequences of words whose meaning
cannot be predicted from the meaning of the words themselves. Semantically, idioms
are single units, but they are not single grammatical units like words. He also printed
out some restriction in syntactic features and noted that the problem of idioms was

involved with the much wider issue of word formation, by which what would appear
to be new and more complex lexemes can be formed from single ones.
According to Asher and Simpson (1994), idiom, habitual collocation, is a phrase
or other sequence of words which has a meaning beyond or other than the sum of the
meaning of the individual words, e.g., throw over the traces (= free oneself of
restrictions); fly off the handle (= be come angry), and which do not participate in the
usual possible range of variation, e.g., He threw over the traces but He threw over the
trace.
In Vietnam, idioms have also attracted a lot of the interest of researchers.
Hoang Van Hanh defines in “Kể chuyện thành ngữ, tục ngữ” (1994) that idioms
are "set expressions which are stable in their morpho – structure, complete and
figurative in their meaning, used widely in daily communication, especially in
speech".
Mai Ngoc Chu, Vu Duc Nghieu and Hoang Trong Phien (2008) in "Cơ Sở Ngôn
Ngữ Học Tiếng Việt" affirm that “idioms are groups of words which are syntactically
restricted and have a particular meaning. Their meaning are often imaginative and
figurative”.
Phan Van Que in “Ngữ nghĩa của thành ngữ, tục ngữ có thành tố chỉ động vật trong
Tiếng Anh” (1996) defined idiom as “a group of words combined together to express
something whose meaning is different from its constituent”.
Hoang Phe (1997), an idiom is considered to be “a set of expression whose
meaning is generally inexplicable simply through the meaning of individual word it
contains”.
Although idioms are defined in different ways, they still have things in common
that can help us understand what an idiom is. These definitions are clues for us to
identify idioms in using and studying. With the aims of syntactic and semantic
analysis of idioms in both English and Vietnamese, I intend to adopt the definition of

16