Common grammatical errors in essay writing made by thirdyear English majors at Thuongmai University and suggested solutions

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my gratitude to my extraordinary instructor Mrs. Vu Thi Thu
Trang, thank her for mentoring me. She inspired me to pursue this topic and gave me the
confidence and tools I needed to do it. Without her direction and constant encouragement, I
would not have learned so much and would not have been able to complete this research
project. I am greatly indebted to her insightful comments on my work. In addition, I am also
grateful to all teachers at Thuongmai University for their useful lectures and contribution
which help me get steady foundation with great ideas in this thesis writing process.
A special gratitude also goes out to the third year English majors who were involved in
the study. Thanks to their help, I was able to conduct my research.

Hanoi, December 2020
Tong Ngoc Minh

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...................................................................................................i
TABLE OF CONTENTS......................................................................................................ii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS...............................................................................................v
LIST OF TABLES................................................................................................................vi
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION........................................................................................1
1.2. Aims and objectives of the study...................................................................................2
1.3. Scope of the study........................................................................................................... 2
1.5. Methods of the study......................................................................................................3
1.6. Design of the study.........................................................................................................3
CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW...........................................................................4
2.1. Academic writing............................................................................................................ 4
2.1.1. Definitions of writing...................................................................................................4
2.1.2. Definitions of Academic writing..................................................................................5

2.2. The importance of writing.............................................................................................7
2.3. Essay writing..................................................................................................................8
2.3.1. Definitions of essay......................................................................................................8
2.3.2. Classification of essay..................................................................................................8
2.3.2.1. Narrative essay..........................................................................................................9
2.3.2.3. Cause and effect essay.............................................................................................11
2.3.2.4. Process analysis essay.............................................................................................11
2.3.2.5. Argumentative (Persuasive) essay...........................................................................11
2.3.2.6. Expository essay......................................................................................................11
2.4. Structure of English essay...........................................................................................12
2.4.1. Introduction................................................................................................................ 12
2.4.2. Main Body.................................................................................................................. 12
2.4.3. Conclusion.................................................................................................................. 13
2.5. Assessment criteria.......................................................................................................13
2.6. Grammatical errors.....................................................................................................15
2.6.1. Definitions of grammar..............................................................................................15
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2.6.2. Definitions of grammatical error...............................................................................16
2.6.3. Common grammatical errors.....................................................................................16
2.6.3.1. Word choice.............................................................................................................16
2.6.3.2. Word form................................................................................................................ 18
2.6.3.3. Wordiness................................................................................................................. 18
2.6.3.4. Subject- verb agreement..........................................................................................19
2.6.3.5. Word order............................................................................................................... 20
2.6.3.6. Verb tenses...............................................................................................................20
2.6.3.7. Not parallel..............................................................................................................21
2.6.3.8. Choppy.....................................................................................................................22
2.6.3.9. Run-ons................................................................................................................... 22

2.6.3.10. Fragments..............................................................................................................22
2.6.3.11. Semi- colons........................................................................................................... 23
2.6.3.12. Comma splices.......................................................................................................23
2.7. Mother tongue’s influence...........................................................................................23
2.7.1. Overgeneralization.....................................................................................................23
2.7.2. Mother tongue’s interference.....................................................................................24
2.7.3. Interlingual and intralingual.....................................................................................25
2.8 Organization..................................................................................................................25
2.8.1. Thesis statement.........................................................................................................25
2.8.1.1 The Statement is Unclear.........................................................................................25
2.8.1.2. The Statement is Too Complicated..........................................................................26
2.8.1.3. The Statement has no real purpose.........................................................................26
2.8.2. Support.......................................................................................................................26
2.8.3. Layout......................................................................................................................... 26
2.8.3.1. Pay attention to detail..............................................................................................27
2.8.3.2. Avoid unclear hierarchy..........................................................................................27
2.9. Summary....................................................................................................................... 27
CHAPTER III: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS...........................................................28
3.1. Subjects......................................................................................................................... 28
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3.2. Survey questionnaires..................................................................................................28
3.3. Data collection and analysis........................................................................................28
CHAPTER IV: SOME SUGGESTIONS TO IMPROVE ESSAY WRITING................40
4.1. Self-correction..............................................................................................................40
4.2. Teacher-correction.......................................................................................................43
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION..........................................................................................45
REFERENCES.................................................................................................................... 46
APPENDIX.......................................................................................................................... 47

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
MTI: Mother Tongue Influence
ESL: English as a Second Language
L1: First language
L2: Second language

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Assessment criteria..................................................................................................15
Table 2. Word form...............................................................................................................18
Table 3. Verb tenses..............................................................................................................21
Table 4. Layout.....................................................................................................................27
Figure 1: Students find the most difficult skills.....................................................................28
Figure 2: Students interested in English writing...................................................................29
Figure 3: The importance of English essay writing...............................................................30
Table 5. Figure 4. Students feeling about English essay.......................................................30
Table 6. Figure 5. Student’s knowledge about organization of an English essay..................31
Figure 6: The reason why the students make grammatical errors..........................................32
Figure 7: The importance of grammar in English essay writing............................................33
Figure 9: Kinds of grammatical errors..................................................................................34
Figure 10: The habit of checking grammatical structures.....................................................35
Figure 11: The frequence of using dictionaries.....................................................................36
Figure 13. Strategies to improve...........................................................................................37
Figure 14: The habit of making outline.................................................................................38

Figure 15: The importance of getting feedback.....................................................................39

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CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION
1.1. Rationale
English is described as the "language of opportunity". It is one of the most widely used
languages in the world. In addition to the UK, 60 out of 196 countries consider English as
the official language. It is estimated that 1.5 billion people speak English globally, and about
another billion are in the process of learning it. This is why English is more beneficial than
languages that are less likely to be used. It means that English is the language that will give
you the best results for your efforts. After all, intellectual challenges aside, there are few
points that put a great deal of time and effort into learning a language that you will almost
never have the opportunity to use.
Even in a country where English is not an official language, English is still considered
a "lingua franca" - a common language for people of different origins. Many people come
from different lands and will benefit you one day when you need a job. When traveling, you
will not need to worry about getting lost in an unfamiliar country, having confidence in
ordering food and being able to talk to the locals about their lives. With English, you have
more options to work in industries that require employees to be fluent in this language such
as aviation, travel, movies...
Nowadays, English becomes a compulsory subject in many schools, colleges and
university. Students are taught four skills which are listening, speaking, reading and writing
from their primary school to university. Students often find that writing is the most difficult
skill that requires the writer to master and use a complex combination of language skills,
from vocabulary and spelling to the ability to organize ideas logically. Many native speakers
of English when writing on topics they have known well; they must try very hard to write
correctly. Therefore, when writing English, students who are from non- native English
speaking countries must make a lot of effort to do things that a normal native speaker also

finds difficult.
Essay writing is one of the important contents of writing syllabus for the English
majors. Like other students, the third- year students at Thuongmai University have also some
difficulties in writing although they can speak and read quite well, hardly they write
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correctly. They often do not take much serious consideration into grammatical usage in
writing, consequently numerous of them actually make many grammatical mistakes.
Normally, they will solve the problem themselves by looking for documents as well as
asking friends. However, the problem will be more difficult if they do not know deeply
about the problems which related to grammar. That is the reason why the title “Common
grammatical errors in essay writing made by third-year English majors at Thuongmai
University and suggested solutions” is carried out. Reviewing and improving students’
study skills will not only enhance their confidence and help them succeed in the future, but
will also enable them to work more effectively in the time available for study.
The thesis aimed at detecting some common grammatical errors in writing English
essay, recognizing the importance of writing, showing factors that influence the writing of
students' essay. Then, it also gives some solutions to enhance their essay writing.
1.2. Aims and objectives of the study
The study aims at analyzing common grammatical errors in essay writing of third-year
English majors at Thuongmai University and propose some appropriate recommendations
and solutions in the hope of improving essay level. The study is intended to address the
following issues:
- Give an overview of academic writing and essay writing;
- Figure out the grammatical errors made by third- year English majors;
- Propose the solutions to enhance writing skills.
1.3. Scope of the study
In order that the study can be deeply examined, the writer needs to limit the study on
writing essay for the third-year English majors of Thuongmai University, course 2017-2021.

The research focuses on discovering the common grammatical errors of the third- year
English majors in essay writing, showing the results as well as suggesting some effective
solutions to enhance their skills.
1.4. Research questions
With the aims to figure out some solutions to help the third-year English majors of
Thuongmai University improve and enhance their essay writing skills, the research questions
were addressed as follows and this thesis was hoped to answer them:
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- What are the difficulties that the third-year English majors at Thuongmai University
face in essay writing?
- Which grammatical errors do the third-year English majors often make?
- What are the factors affecting on those difficulties?
- How to improve the quality of essay writing for the third-year students at Thuongmai
University?
1.5. Methods of the study
To make the aims of the study clearly, the author will use questionnaires to identify the
differences between before and after of survey. Then the data will be synthesized and
analyzed to help figure out student’s problems and the tips for improving their weakness.
The author also uses information in books which were written by both English and
Vietnamese authors who had research in essay writing. The writer hopes to find out the
common grammatical errors in essay writing made by the third-year majors at Thuongmai
University and suggest the ways to deal with them.
1.6. Design of the study
The study consists of five main chapters:
Chapter I: The introduction includes the rationale, aims and objectives of the study,
scope of the study, research questions, methods of the study and design of the study.
Chapter II: Literature review supplies the readers with the theoretical background
including the theory of academic writing, essay writing, assessment criteria and grammatical

errors.
Chapter III: Findings and discussions includes methods, subjects, survey tests and
questionnaires which are used, data collection and analysis. Then, it shows common
grammatical errors as well as the major causes in essay writing.
Chapter IV: Some solutions to improve essay writing plays an important role to find
out solutions to help students solve the problems.
Chapter V: The conclusion summarizes the main point of the whole study.

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CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Academic writing
Writing has been with us for several thousand years, and nowadays is more important
than ever. Not everyone knows about its theories deeply. So, this chapter gives an overview
of the previous studies, the general viewpoint on essay writing as well as theories related to
it.
2.1.1. Definitions of writing
There are many definitions of writing given by famous linguists.
According to Nunan (2003), writing is physical and mental act, it’s about discovering
ideas, thinking about how to communicate develop them into statements and paragraphs
that will be comprehensible to a reader. Writing has dual purpose: to express and impress.
Writers must select the most advantageous dedium for their writing. Each types have a
different level of difficulty which determined by its objectives. Writing is a process and also
a product. The writer creates, plans, writes various drafts, revises, edits and publishes. The
audience reads are a product.
Berninger (2002) also defined writing is considered an active creation of text envolves
on the one hand lower- order transcription skills such as hand-writing, punctuation and
spelling, and on the other hand, higher- order self-regulated thinking processes such as
planning, sequencing and expressing the content. It requires the writers to express the

content of writing into a good composition by considering the aspects of writing to be
understood the readers.
Byrne (1988, p.1): Writing is the act of forming graphic symbols such as letters or
combination of letters which relate to the sounds we make when we speak. It is somehow
like “making marks on a flat surface of some kind”. Nonetheless, at higher level, writing is
not only the “production of graphic symbols”. It is the process of “arranging symbols
according to certain convention, to form words and words have to be arranged to form
sentence”. In this way, any act relating to the forming, with or without meaning, of letters
can be considered writing.
The definitions of writing are variously stated by some experts. According to White
and Arndt (1991) in Hammad (2003, p.1), writing is a thinking process which demands
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intellectual effort, and it envolves generating ideas, planning, goal setting, monitoring,
evaluating what is going to be written as well as what has been written, and using language
for expressing exact meanings. It means that writing consists of some stages that should be
done by the writer in conveying the message of writing.
Besides, in the opinion of Chakraverty and Gautum (200), writing may be defined as
“reflective activity that requires enough time to think about the specific topic and to analyze
and classify and background knowledge. Then, writers need a suitable language to structure
these ideas in the form of a corehent discourses”.
Another definition of writing skills is also defined by Wikipedia that writing is a
medium of human communication that represents language with signs and symbols. For
languages that utilize a writing system, inscriptions can complement spoken language by
creating a durable version of speech that can be stored for future reference or transmitted
across distance. Writing, in other words,is not a language, but a tool used to make
languages readable. Within a language system, writing relies on many of the same structures
as speech, such as vocabulary, grammar, and semantics, with the added dependency of a
system of signs or symbols. The result of the activity of writing is called a text, and the

interpreter or activator of this text is called a reader.
In addition, according to Henry Rogers, Writing Systems: A Linguistic Approach,
Blackwell (2005), writing is not language, language is a complex system residing in our
brain which allows us to produce and interpret utterances. Writing involves making an
utterance visible.
Based on explanations, it can be concluded that writing is an effort to express the
writer’s thinking, feeling, or ideas in a written form by considering writing aspects and
writing stages to be clear understood by their readers.
2.1.2. Definitions of Academic writing
In contrast to personal writing, Academic writing is different because it deals with the
theories and causes of a given topic, as well as exploring alternative explanations for these
theories or events.
According to Hartley, James in Academic writing and publishing: A practical guide,
New York: Routledge (2008), academic writing refers to a style of expression that
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researchers use to define the intellectual boundaries of their disciplines and their specific
areas of expertise. Characteristics of academic writing include a formal tone, use of the
third -person rather than first-person perspective (usually), a clear focus on the research
problem under investigation, and precise word choice. Like specialist languages adopted in
other professions, such as, law or medicine, academic writing is designed to convey agreed
meaning about complex ideas or concepts for a group of scholarly experts”.
Andrew (1995, p.2-3) claim that academic writing is “logical and formal reasoning”, “a
process of reasoning” and “proof and evidence”. Academic writing follows a particular tone,
which uses concise, formal, and objective language. Academic writing also adheres to
traditional conventions of punctuation, grammar, and spelling. “In most forms of Academic
writing, a detached and objective approach is required. An academic argument appeals to
logic and provides evidence in support of an intellectual l position. It is important to present
your arguments in logical order and to arrive at conclusions. However, Academic writing

can take many forms. In Academic writing, writers always interact with each other’s’ texts
and so there will be frequent references to the ideas, thinking or research of other authors
writing in the field. Also, in Academic writing, it is important that when a claim is made, it is
backed up by reasons based on some form of evidence. It is expected that the author takes a
critical approach to the material being explored” (Crème & Lea, 2003)
Besides, in the opinion of Burke (2010, p.40 -41), Academic writing is “a mental and
cognitive activity”, since it is a product of mind. The image of an individual working alone
in a quiet environment has furthered the review of writing as mental and cognitive activity.
However, as has been pointed out, “writing can be understood only from the perspective of a
society rather than a single individual”. Academic writing “is expected to address an
intellectual community in which the students engage in active learning”. Some basic or rules
must be established. Using information to one’s advantage is a key part of learning. Success
at the postgraduate level depends on “the students’ ability to access, evaluate, and synthesize
the words, ideas, and opinions of others in order to develop their own academic voice”.
When presenting what they have learned, it is therefore vitally important that students are
able to show clearly what they have drawn from others and what is their own (Bristol, 2010,
p.3).
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Talor (1984, p.2) also expresses that “in Academic education, writing is a complex
process in which writers use language as a tool to discover and clarify meaning on
experience in order to say exactly what they mean”.
In conclusion, Academic writing in English is a challenge even for most native English
speakers. However, it is particularly difficult for ESL graduate students. They face many
difficulties and stresses such as difficulty distinguishing between spoken and written
English, identifying the skills needed for successful writing or avoiding plague words and
phrases. Therefore, they need to give more efforts as well as practice regularly to be master.
2.2. The importance of writing
There is no doubt writing is an essential public relation skill.

According to Walsh (2010), writing is important because it’s used extensively in higher
education and in the workplace. If students don’t know how to express themselves in
writing, they won’t be communicating well with professors, employers, peers, or just about
anyone else. Much of professional communication is done in writing: proposals, memos,
reports, applications, preliminary interviews, e- mails and more are part of the daily life of a
college student or successful graduate.
Maley (2009), for example, emphasizes the following benefit of creative writing:
- It aids language development at all levels: grammar, vocabulary, phonology and
discourse; it requires learners to manipulate the language in interesting and demanding ways
as they attempt to express uniquely personal meanings;
- It requires a willingness to play with the language;
- It concentrates more on the right side of the brain, with a focus on feelings, physical
sensations, intuition and musicality; it also affords scope for learners who in the usual
processes of formal instruction are therefore often at a disadvantage.
Harmer (2004, p.33-34) states that there are some the importance of learning writing.
Writing is often not time-bound in the way conversation is. It means that in writing activities
the students have longer time to think rather than in speaking activities. Thus, the students
can choose the appropriate word that will be used to express their ideas. They can also have
longer time to check their grammar. Writing encourage students to focus on accurate

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language use because they think as they write. It may provoke well development as they
resolve problems which writing puts in their mind.
Writing is a way to explain, educate, inform, entertain one’s natural, social behavior,
professional and personal point of view or philosophy or expertise to the specific or broad
audience by using words and appropriate vocabulary in a systematic method and flow. By
learning writing, the students will get knowledge how to write effectively, how to express
ideas, how to share their thoughts with anyone else through writing.

2.3. Essay writing
2.3.1. Definitions of essay
“Essay is a short of writing about particular subject, especially one written by a
student and writing itself is the skill or activity of producing words on a surface”
(Cambridge Learner’s Dictionary: 2007). It means that essay writing is the activity of
producing short of written text that can be understood by the readers.
In the Preface of Collected Essays by Huxley (1923), the author commented “The
essay is a literary device for saying almost everything about almost anything”, and added
“by tradition, almost by definition, the essay is a short piece”.
Zemach also describes that an essay is a group of paragraph written about single topic
and central main idea. It must have at least three paragraphs, but a five paragraph essay is
common length for academic writing. Therefore, creating an essay which there is overall
thesis statement consist of three supporting paragraphs begin with a topic sentence is
required for making an essay.
In brief, essay writing is an activity to produce a group of paragraph written about
single topic. It serves as a way to assess the writer’s understanding of specific ideas and their
ability to explain and argue these to answer a given question. Essays are independent pieces
of work, which involves the use of materials as well as the writer’s researches into the
question.
2.3.2. Classification of essay
When the students write an essay, it is very important for them to know what type of
essay which they are writing. Each type has different way to write as well as different ideas
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to support. Each subject has specific requirements for the essays to be written. Some
subjects need longer essays, while others need shorter ones, such as a five-paragraph essay.
Essay writing has been divided into several types. Langan (2001) has divided essays into the
following types.
2.3.2.1. Narrative essay

As a mode of expository writing, the narrative approach, more than any other, offers
writers a chance to think and write about themselves. They all have experiences lodged in
our memories, which are worthy of sharing with readers. Yet sometimes they are so fused
with other memories that a lot of the time spent in writing narrative is in the prewriting
stage.
A narrative essay means telling a story. Narrative essays are told from a defined point
of view, often the author's, so there is feeling as well as specific and often sensory details
provided to get the reader involved in the elements and sequence of the story. The verbs are
vivid and precise. The narrative essay makes a point and that point is often defined in the
opening sentence, but can also be found as the last sentence in the opening paragraph.
Since a narrative relies on personal experiences, it often is in the form of a story. When
the writer uses this technique, he or she must be sure to include all the conventions of
storytelling: plot, character, setting, climax, and ending. It is usually filled with details that
are carefully selected to explain, support, or embellish the story. All of the details relate to
the main point the writer is attempting to make.
2.3.2.2. Comparison and contrast essay
To compare is to examine how things are similar, while to contrast is to see how they
differ. A comparison and contrast essay emphasizes how two things are alike or how they
differ. Comparison and contrast are two thought processes constantly in everyday life. When
comparing two things, we find how they are similar, when contrasting two things, we show
how they are different. The purpose of comparing or contrasting is to understand each of the
two things more clearly and to make judgments about them.
This essay type is common at university, where lecturers frequently test student
understanding by asking them to compare and contrast two theories, two methods, two

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historical periods, two characters in a novel, etc. It is also possible, especially for short exam
essays, that only the similarities or the differences, not both, will be discussed.

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2.3.2.3. Cause and effect essay
The best essays are often written about a topic that the author genuinely cares about. In
everyday life, there are many actions that do not occur without causes. It is realized that
those actions have good or bad effect. When constructing an explanation text, it may be
necessary to show a cause and effect relationship. By examining the causes or effects of an
action, it explains someone to understand things that happened.
2.3.2.4. Process analysis essay
A process essay is used for an explanation of making or breaking something. Often, it
is written in chronological order or numerical order to show step-by-step processes. It has all
the qualities of a technical document with the only difference is that it is often written in
descriptive mood, while a technical document is mostly in imperative mood.
2.3.2.5. Argumentative (Persuasive) essay
An argumentative (persuasive) essay is a critical piece of writing, aimed at presenting
objective analysis of the subject matter, narrowed down to a single topic. The main idea of
all the criticism is to provide an opinion either of positive or negative implication. As such, a
critical essay requires research and analysis, strong internal logic and sharp structure. Its
structure normally builds around introduction with a topic's relevance and a thesis statement,
body paragraphs with arguments linking back to the main thesis, and conclusion. In addition,
an argumentative essay may include a refutation section where conflicting ideas are
acknowledged, described, and criticized. Each argument of argumentative essay should be
supported with sufficient evidence, relevant to the point.
2.3.2.6. Expository essay
Expository writing's main purpose is to explain. It is a subject-oriented writing style, in
which authors focus on telling about a given topic or subject without voicing their personal
opinions. These types of essays or articles furnish with relevant facts and figures but do not
include their opinions. This is one of the most common types of writing. It is always seen in

textbooks and how-to articles. The author just tells about a given subject, such as how to do
something.

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2.4. Structure of English essay
An essay is a piece of continuous, flowing, paragraphed text that is usually
uninterrupted by headings, so it can appear to be instructed. In fact, good essays need to be
very carefully structured indeed. A basic essay consists of three main parts: introduction,
body and conclusion.
2.4.1. Introduction
The introductory section is supposed to do three things:
First, the writer uses it to introduce the subject of the essay, and more specifically, the
issue with respect to the subject. The subject might be, say, the ethics of sport hunting. The
issue might be whether hunting with bow and arrow is more or less humane than rifle
hunting.
If the issue is somewhat complex or unfamiliar, the writer may need to spend a bit of
time on this introductory section, providing enough background and context for the reader to
understand, in rough outline, what the issue is.
Second, the writer states the thesis of the essay. The thesis is the position or stance that
the essay is going to take, on the issue in question.
Third, it’s often recommended that the writer says something about how the rest of the
essay is going to be organized, so the reader has some idea of what to expect and how the
argument is going to unfold. This becomes increasingly important as essays become longer
and more complicated.
2.4.2. Main Body
The structure of the main body will differ depending on the kind of essay the writer is
writing.
The main body will be made up of several paragraphs; the number of paragraphs will

depend on the word count and the complexity of the argument.
The paragraph should start with a topic sentence which states the point of the
paragraph clearly. Usually this is the first sentence in the paragraph (although sometimes it
can be the second sentence, with the first being something that links it to the previous
paragraph). A good way to plan an essay is to write out a list of topic sentences. This will
enable to see how the argument develops and where extra ones are needed etc.
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The topic sentence should be followed by sentences containing evidence to back the
point up. The writer cannot just say that something is true without any supporting
information.
Evidence will usually be in the form of information from other sources like books,
academic journals or reputable websites. This could be a direct quotation but is usually best
written in the writer words. When providing information from other sources, the writer must
provide in-text citations that link to bibliography (or footnotes if using).
The primary goal of the main body is to present the central argument of the essay.
There are many ways of doing this, but an essential part of any argumentative essay is to
consider natural objections to the main argument, and then present replies that defend the
argument against those objections.
2.4.3. Conclusion
In the concluding section of the standard academic essay, the writer is expected to
restate the main thesis, review and summarize the key argumentative in the essay. These
elements of the concluding section become more important and more prominent as essays
become longer and more professional.
2.5. Assessment criteria
In the field of education, there is no complete agreement among researchers as to what
is meant by assessment. Based on the work of Poehner (2007), assessment is defined as a
process for documenting, in measurable terms, the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and beliefs
of the learner. There is a general consensus about what assessment can mean and therefore

some researchers have tried to establish a definition of exactly what it might be. According
to Graham et al (2011), assessment is the only method that tutors use to identify their
students' weaknesses or strengths in writing. Tutors use assessment to identify spelling,
grammar and punctuation problems in writing.
An effective assessment process needs criteria, which are considered an essential
element. Some researchers provide general definitions of assessment criteria as highlighted
by Foxman et al (1989) where criteria are seen as a description of the knowledge and skills
possessed by the teacher to ensure that all students achieve learning.
This is assessment criteria for essay writing:
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All points covered with some
Content

expansion. Minor omissions
accepted. The writing is of an
appropriate length.
The writing is consistently formal,

TASK ACHIEVEMENT

Register

Effect on
target
render

General
organizati

on
ORGANIZATION

informal or neutral as dictated by
the task.
The reader clearly understands
the message, is fully informed. The
writing satisfactory achieves the
desired effect.
The organization is well-structured
with a clear beginning, middle
and end. It is divided into
paragraphs. In letters and reports,
the appropriate layout and writing
conventions are observed.
Information and ideas are clearly
organized through the use of a

Cohesion

reasonable to good variety of
cohesive devices. There is very
little repetition of the same phase
The grammar is accurate in

ACCURACY

simpler structures. The may be
Grammar

some mistakes, especially with
complex structures but they do not

Vocabular
y

cause difficulty for the reader.
Vocabulary is used appropriately
for the topic. The student
demonstrates his/her ability to
convey the message effectively
though word choice may

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occasionally lack precision.
Repetition is generally avoided.
A good range of simple and a
reasonable range of complex
structures and vocabulary required
for academic writing is used. The
RANGE

Range

student is able to describe
diagrams, processes and data
contained in charts and tables as
well as write an essay presenting a

clear overview of their arguments.
Table 1. Assessment criteria
Each category is marked, points awarded and then scores totaled. However, if the
writing fails to address the topic – only ACCURACY will be marked.
It is really important for students to determine their assessment criteria. There are many
different types of writing skills, so they will need to select a few to focus on. Decide exactly
which skills they want to evaluate, since this will determine the nature of the assignment and
how they evaluate it. For example, the student might focus on:
- The use of proper writing conventions, such as good spelling, grammar, syntax,
capitalization, and punctuation.
- The writer’s mastery of written vocabulary.
- The clarity and fluency with which the writer presents their arguments.
- The use of clear and logical structure within the text.
2.6. Grammatical errors
2.6.1. Definitions of grammar
Grammar is defined in several different ways. The Oxford American Dictionary, for
example, defines grammar as: "the study of words and the rule for their formation and their
relationships to each other in sentences; the rules themselves; speech or writing judged as
good or bad according to these rules" (1980, p.282).
Even these definitions appear to be too constraining. Although these definitions reveal
a range of meanings for grammar, they presuppose that grammar does not have a more
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global meaning. The definition that will be adhered to in this essay is the one created by
Janice Neuleib who defines grammar as: "The internalized system that native speakers of a
language share" (1987, p.349). This definition allows grammar to take on several forms
beyond the linguistic and formal writing processes.
Broadly, according to Palmer (1976), grammar is the set of rules that the speakers of a

language observe when speaking or writing it.
John Dawkins writes that there should not be a right or wrong way of practicing
grammar. "According to the handbooks there is a right-or-wrong approach. Such instruction
is negative in that it tells students what not to do and how not to do it; better instruction in
any skill, I assume it is going to tell students what to do and how to do it" (1995, p.534).
This right or wrong approach does not encourage students to study and improve their writing
skills. This type of negative reinforcement may teach students how to use grammar rules, but
it will not promote exploration of grammar and writing.
2.6.2. Definitions of grammatical error
Hsu (2013, p.514), asserts that grammatical errors thus means inaccurate form,
semantics meanings, and use. ESL will use ESL accurately, meaningfully, and appropriately
after mastering these three dimensions, these errors belong to local errors which are
linguistically, morphological, lexical, syntax, and orthographic errors, while global errors
means communicative errors which show ESL misinterpret conversational messages.
Besides, error is different from mistake. According to Zawareh, “Mistakes as a failure
which learners neglect on correctly utilizing a known system and learners can self-correct
once concentrating, errors can reveal learners' insufficient competence in producing
sentences with correct grammar” (2012, p. 280).
2.6.3. Common grammatical errors
2.6.3.1. Word choice
a. Words with similar sounds or meanings
Using a word that sounds similar to the intended word but has a different meaning is
one of the most common errors in word choice. Among native speakers, such an error is
often just a slip of the tongue. Among non-native speakers, however, it could be the result of
genuine confusion.
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In many cases, similar-sounding words may have similar (but not the same) meaning,
which adds to the confusion.

Example: Attained and obtained
Incorrect: The sensors attained steady state readings at high temperatures.
Correct: The sensors obtained steady state readings at high temperatures.
Attain means reach and is mostly used when talking about a condition or stage (e.g.,
“the larva attains maturity”), while Obtain simply means get (e.g., “he obtained data from
hospital records”).
b. Spelling errors due to differences in pronunciation
Sometimes, the cultural aspects play a role in spelling errors. For instance, our editors
have noticed a common case of confusion among Japanese authors, which most of you must
already be aware of. It is the classic confusion between the letters “l” and “r.” This, as you
know, is because of the phonemic differences between English and Japanese.
For instance, spell check won’t recognize the problem when an author says “correct”
instead of “collect,” “arrow” instead of “allow,” or “rock” instead of “lock.” The only way to
avoid these errors is to be extra careful when writing them, looking up spellings of at least
the “r/l” words you use most frequently in a paper, and doing a thorough proofread at the
end, once you have completed writing the entire manuscript.
Example
Incorrect: The poles were displaced in the direction of the applied pressure.
Correct: The pores were displaced in the direction of the applied pressure.
c. Words with negative connotations
If the writer wants from marketing collateral is to accidentally offend the audience, be
sure that the word choice the writer uses doesn’t have double meanings or negative
connotations that might confuse readers.
For instance, the word “youth” has positive overtones relating to both childhood and
vitality. Meanwhile, “juvenile” may technically mean the same thing, but it can also have
negative connotations relating to immaturity. If you were advertising a health and beauty
product, you would talk about how it leaves you with a “youthful appearance,” not a
“juvenile appearance;” the latter would simply imply that you look childish.
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2.6.3.2. Word form
A word form error occurs when a writer uses the wrong part of speech. In English, a
word can have several forms, depending on whether it is being used as a noun, verb,
adjective, or adverb.
Example: I am interesting in physics.
- The past participle interested should replace interesting, the present participle.
Word form errors are very obvious to the reader and papers with these errors will
appear flawed. Therefore, the writer should use a dictionary to look up the word and its
forms, uses textbooks, magazines, or general literature to practice identifying nouns, verbs,
adjectives, and adverbs, understands the grammar of some common endings.
Noun suffixes
-ment
Verb suffixes
-ate
Adjective suffixes -ous
Adverb suffix
-ly

-ness
-en
-ful

-tion
-ify
-less

-ity
-ize
-ive

-ence

-ism

-ist

-ship

-able

-ent

-ic

-al

-y

Table 2. Word form
2.6.3.3. Wordiness
If the writer has something to say to readers, spit it out (figuratively, not literally).
Inflating sentences with unnecessary words or pointless filler only muddles what the writer
means to say. Wordy sentences also frustrate readers, so get to the point. Streamline the
sentences by using strong verbs and nouns instead of trite adjectives and adverbs.
Don’t overuse words such as “that,” “just,” and “very.” Proofread the work to keep the
prose tightened and toned.

Example
Incorrect: It has come to our attention that your tax returns are overdue and we urge

you to file them at your earliest convenience.
Correct: Your tax returns are overdue. Please file them now.
2.6.3.4. Subject- verb agreement

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Subject verb agreement refers to the fact that the subject and verb in a sentence must
agree in number. In other words, they both must be singular or they both must be plural. The
writer can’t have a singular subject with a plural verb or vice versa. The tricky part is in
knowing the singular and plural forms of subjects and verbs. Failing to make the subject of
sentence agree in number with the verb is a common error.
Here are some more guidelines for subject- verb agreement.
Rule 1: When two singular subjects are joined by the words or or nor a singular verb is
in order.
Example: He or she is going to the school.
Rule 2: Two singular subjects joined by either/or or neither/nor also need a singular
verb.
Example: Neither you nor your dogs know how to behave.
Rule 3: When the word and connects two or more nouns or pronouns, use a plural
verb.
Example: Sam and Dan are best friend.
Rule 4: When a compound subject contains both a singular and a plural noun or
pronoun joined by or or nor, the verb should agree with the part of the subject that is nearer
the verb.
Example: The coach and his friends buy this for me. / His friends and the coach buys
this for me.
Rule 5: When two singular nouns joined by ‘and’ refer to the same person or thing, the
verb is singular.
Example: The captain and coach of the team has been sacked.

In case these were two different individuals, two articles need to be used: The captain
and the coach of the team have been sacked.
Rule 6: When the percentage or a part of something is mentioned with plural meaning
the plural verb is used.
Example: 40 of every 100 children are malnourished.
Rule 7: When any of “few, many, several, both, all, some” is used with an uncountable
noun, the verb is singular.
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