Factors affecting to students’ behaviors on GHGs emission mitigation case study in hanoi and ibaraki

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
VIETNAM JAPAN UNIVERSITY

VU KIM DUYEN

FACTORS AFFECTING TO STUDENTS’
BEHAVIORS ON GHGs EMISSION MITIGATION:
CASE STUDY IN HANOI AND IBARAKI

MASTER'S THESIS


VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
VIETNAM JAPAN UNIVERSITY

VU KIM DUYEN

FACTORS AFFECTING TO STUDENTS’
BEHAVIORS ON GHGs EMISSION MITIGATION:
CASE STUDY IN HANOI AND IBARAKI

MAJOR: CLIMATE CHANGE AND DEVELOPMENT
CODE: 8900201.02QTD

RESEARCH SUPERVISOR
Prof. Ito Tetsuji
Dr. Takeuchi Ryo

Hanoi, 2020

PLEDGE
I assure that this thesis is the results of my own research and has not been
published. The use of other research’s result and other documents must comply
with regulations. The citations and references to documents, books, research
papers, and websites must be in the lists of references of the thesis.

AUTHOR OF THE THESIS

VU KIM DUYEN

i


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank JICA, Vietnam Japan University and Ibaraki University
and MCCD program. Moreover I appreciated my suppervisor professor Ito Tetsuji,
Dr.Ryo Takeuchi and all professors, all staffs at Ibaraki University and ICAS who
helped me alot and took care me everyday. They gave me advices and a chance to
experience to be more mature. I had data both for my thesis topic and my life.
I have accumulated a lot of knowledge, skills, and opportunities to develop and
change myself ever since I became a graduate student of MCCD.
First of all, it is the fundamental and in-depth knowledge about climate change
and policies, climate change adaptation, and mitigation models that is extremely
useful scientific knowledge which professors and the MCCD program offered me. I
have a background in psychology and had a period of time working directly with
vulnerable groups in Vietnam. I used to be very vague about the field of climate
change. But today, after two years of studying and practicing, I have been able to
confidently explain to everyone about the impacts of climate change on ecosystems
and human life, and at the same time, I can accompany vulnerable groups in climate
change adaptation and mitigation efforts. Specifically, in October 2019, with the

support from lecturers, MCCD students and the online community raised money to
plant 10,400 woody plants (Melaleuca and Erythrophleum fordii) in Nghi Xuan
District, Ha Tinh Province. This activity is the foundation for future afforestation and
sustainable livelihood development projects.
In addition, the study program of MCCD also gave me a lot of opportunities to
learn and connect with Vietnamese and Japanese professors, experts, which helps me
gain more perspectives on professional science and policy so that my future path can
be more clearly defined. Thanks to the advice and support from experts of MCCD,
2020 is my pivotal year for the goal of establishing a social-business enterprise with
the orientation of consulting and designing sustainable livelihood models.
Sustainable development (ecological forest gardens, mangrove development, etc.) to
support people in climate vulnerable areas to have sustainable livelihoods adaptable
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to climate change, and to contribute to the development of zero-emission livelihoods
towards climate change mitigation.
Moreover, the research results of my thesis have created the fundamental axioms
that help me develop future in-depth studies to build models that promote behavior
and attract students - intellectual and energetic young people to participate in climate
change adaptation and mitigation projects in Vietnam. Firstly, I can absolutely expect
a team full of intellect, enthusiasm and energy to accompany on the projects of the
social enterprise that I am cherishing. Here, students will be the ones who speak their
voices to the government, advocate with local authorities and also spread the fire, and
stand side by side with Vietnamese farmers and fishermen who are currently
participating in emission-free sustainable livelihood models. This is a completely
feasible scenario that personally, with all my passion, enthusiasm, and efforts, and
the knowledge and skills accumulated after two years of working with MCCD, I am
determined enough to realize this scenario.
Finally, thanks to the research shared by the professors, the valuable resources

from the study program, and the opportunities to participate in international
conferences on climate change, I realized that the practice of ecological lifestyle is
one of the positive and effective contributions to the goal of reducing GHG emissions.
Therefore, since October 2019, I have chosen a vegan macrobiotic lifestyle with a
diet of no meat, fish, no animal protein. It's also the thought of being responsible to
contribute even the smallest efforts to control the global climate crisis that has formed
my habit of teaching my children to recycle, separate waste and make organic
detergent from composted soapnuts and organic waste by themselves. I understand
that what I do is very small and has not contributed much. However, that is all the
value and spirit that I accumulated after two years of studying and practicing at
MCCD as well as the time of studying diligently the resources for my thesis. I believe
that it is better to do something than doing nothing. And I would like to once again
express my gratitude to Vietnam Japan University, Ibaraki University, the MCCD
program and all the professors, lecturers and experts who have created values for me

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and inspired me to continue my passion for implementing climate change mitigation
projects in the future - a future starting with MCCD.

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TABLES OF CONTENTS
PLEDGE
i
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ii
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

1
1.1. Problem statement ....................................................................................1
1.2. Research question .....................................................................................5
1.3. Hypothesis ................................................................................................5
1.5. Research objectives ..................................................................................6
1.6. Scope of the research................................................................................6
1.7. Expected results........................................................................................7
1.8. Literature review ......................................................................................7
1.8.1. The effort of the world ......................................................................7
1.8.2. The effort of Vietnam ......................................................................11
1.8.3. Studies related to the issue of factors that impact students' climate
change mitigation behaviors .............................................................................15
CHAPTER 2. THEORIES AND METHODOLOGIES
20
2.1. Theoretical basis .....................................................................................20
2.1.1. The theory of foundations ...............................................................20
2.1.2. The concept and structure of behavior ............................................25
2.1.3. Concepts and psychological characteristics of students .................27
2.1.4. Climate change mitigation behavior of students .............................32
2.1.5. The theoretical framework ..................................................................32
2.2. Methodological approach .......................................................................32
2.2.1. Methods ...............................................................................................34
2.2.1.1. Exploratory Factor Analysis ........................................................34
2.2.2.2. Social Psychology Experimental ..................................................35
2.2.2.3. In-depth interview method ...........................................................36
2.2.2.4. Method of experts.........................................................................36
2.2.2.5. Group work ..................................................................................37
CHAPTER 3. FINDING AND DISCUSSION
39
3.1. Case study in Hanoi................................................................................39

3.1.1. Students’ awareness of global warming and climate change ..........39
3.1.2. Students' behavior of reducing global warming ..............................47
3.1.3. Analyzing the factors that influence students' GHGs emission
reductions ..........................................................................................................53
3.2. Case study in Ibaraki ..............................................................................60
3.2.1. The factors affecting Ibraki student’s behaviors .............................60
3.2.2. Analysis of expert opinions .............................................................69
CHAPTER 4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
76
4.1. Conclusion ..............................................................................................76
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4.2. Recommendations .................................................................................84
REFERENCES
87
APPENDIX
89

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1. Study sample size ……………………………………………………… 34
Table 2.2. group work activities …………………………………………………...38
Table 3.1. Students' perceptions of climate change and global warming ................ 41
Table 3.2. Data encrypt …………………………………………………………… 49
Table 3.3. Correlation between student readiness and frequency of GHGs mitigation
behavior ……………………………………………………………………………50
Table 3.4. Variables of non-correlated variable values ……………………………52

Table 3.5. Describe the 36 observed variables that apply to the EFA model ……..53
Table 3.6. Factor matrix with Varimax rotation method …………………………. 58

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1. Global investment trends and capacity of wind and solar energy ……. 10
Figure 1.2. GHGs emission trends based on some sectors in Vietnam period 19942005 ………………………………………………………………………………. 13
Figure 2.1. Paradigm of Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) …………...................20
Figure 2.2. Paradigm of Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) – new model ………. 21
Figure 2.3. The factors affecting students behaviors model (by author) …………. 25
Figure 2.4. Framework of research (by author) …………………………………... 32
Figure 2.5. Process of approaching sequential mixture ………………………….. 33
Figure 2.6. The Main Methods of research ……………………………………….. 34
Figure 3.1. Average point of observed variables …………………………………. 40
Figure 3.2. Students' perception of global warming - students' different education. 45
Figure 3.3. Global warming awareness - student's income ……………………….. 46
Figure 3.4. Readiness to take action for reducing GHGs ………………………… 48
Figure 3.5. Frequency of practicing reducing GHGs behaviors ………………….. 48
Figure 3.6. KMO and Bartlett’s Test results in EFA analysis ……………………. 56
Figure 3.7. Result of the principal component with varimax rotation ……………. 56
Figure 3.8. Screen plot of six largest factors ………………………………………59
Figure 3.9. EFA result- case study in Ibaraki ……………………………………..61
Figure 3.10. Factors effect to students’ behaviors in Ibaraki ……………………...61
Figure 3.11. Group work activities results ………………………………………. 65
Figure 3.12. Main pledges and targets of Japan …………………………………...71
Figure 3.13. The path towards future framework in Japan ……………………….. 73
Figure 4.1. Factors affecting to students’ behaviors on GHGs emission mitigation in
Ibaraki.......................................................................................................................81

Figure 4.2. Factors affecting to students’ behaviors on GHGs emission mitigation in
Hanoi.........................................................................................................................82

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LIST OF ACRONYMS

Acronyms

Meaning describe

GHGs

Green House Gas

EFA

Exploratory Factor Analysis

KMO

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin: Index is used to consider the
appropriateness of factor analysis

CC

Climate Change

NDCs

Nationally Determined Contributions

UNFCCC

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

IPCC

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Problem statement
Climate change is now a focus of local, state, and national attention around the
world. According to Germanwatch’s report in COP 24, Vietnam ranked the first
ASEAN and sixth in the world in terms of vulnerability under climate change.
Therefore, the Vietnamese government had many policies and actions to handle
issues, such as the National target program to respond to climate change.
According to UNFCC, Paris Agreement’s target is limiting global mean temperatures
to 2 degrees above pre industry levels and 1,5 degrees for a better scenario. On the
way toward Agreement, 192 countries submitted their Intended Nationally determined
Contributions (INDCs) for global GHGs emission reduction/mitigation. Each nation
has their background and issues attached; there for Nationally Determined
Contributions (NDCs) is customized appropriately with their various approaches.
Some nations set absolute/fixed targets of GHGs mitigation, while others set
targets below estimated business as usual (BAU) scenarios or emission intensity
[Briner and Moarif, 2016]. Each nation designed its NDCs system as a bottom-up

process on the basis of self-determination and trust in collective action. [Deprez et
al., 2015]. As result, both differing emphases between sectors and diffẻing levels of
specificity of mitigation actions are reflected NDCs. Countries are foreseen that they
will upgrade their NDCs and make , more robustpledges toward their long-term goals
[Deprez et al., 2015; Höhne et al., 2017]. Agreement expects NDCs to update in 5
years starting in 2025, while countries are able to gain their pledged contributions
anytime.
Back from 2020, feedback and suggestions are received by participating
countries with the Talanoaa dialogue to develop their NDCs [UNFCCC, 2015; Höhne
et al., 2017]. Nonetheless, this process faces specific problems, such as the limited
data available on costs and its and the mitigation potential of different options. These
challenges are particularly acute for the agriculture, forestry, and other land-use
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sector [Kunreuther et al., 2014]. An iterative refining process of available mitigation
options and their consequences is fundamental to ensure the overall success of the
Paris Agreement.
In this condition, Vietnam’s government was committed to reducing 25% GHGs
with international support and the reduction emission index will be 8% with domestic
resources only. However, the mitigation measures analyzed do not achieve their
targets immediately but reach them progressively, which reduces the total amount of
mitigation in the short term. Moreover, most of the mitigation options that were
assessed had no feasibility assessments on their adoption potential.
Moreover, Vietnam and other countries do not have a long time to address
climate change issues. In the special condition of developing countries like Vietnam,
government and citizens must take actions instead of thinking. Therefore, priority
tasks are finding how to promote GHGs emission reduction behavior. It is important
to identify the factors that influence GHGs emission mitigation before completing the
task.

The question is, will humanity rely on what and whom to accomplish its goal of
climate change mitigation? Or will humanity continue to trade and wait for
intervention that is supposed to be "natural purification" by the Corona-Covid 19
virus? According to new satellite data published by the European Space Agency
(ESA), air pollution from nitrogen dioxide has decreased by about 40% in three
European cities during the blockade on a large scale to limit the spread of the corona
virus that causes the COVID-19 pandemic.
Dealing with life and global socio-economic values for "reducing greenhouse
gas emissions by pandemic" is probably not an option that governments can risk
recklessly. Therefore, action, action, and action are all that humankind must do
immediately, from the smallest actions such as saving electricity to global-scale
action as developing renewable energy and eliminating fossil energy on the world
energy production map, etc. All actions now need synchronizing to take place from
an individual scale to a global scale. However, how to promote social and personal
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behavior in an effort to reduce GHGs? The problem is not only for natural scientists,
who always try to find technological solutions and application techniques to mitigate
climate change, but also a challenge for social scientists. It is necessary for social
scientists to optimize and realize the inventions and innovations of science and
technology, forming a pincer to break the key of the fence that hinders it, which has
been a process of reducing greenhouse gases for decades.
Therefore, in order to help fill the gaps in social research projects on climate
change mitigation, this study focuses on exploring the psychosocial aspects that are
assessed as motivations or barriers to climate change mitigation action. Because of
the limitations of the researcher's condition as well as the duration of the project, the
research emphasizes the analysis of factors affecting student behavior to mitigate
climate change. The reason for choosing students as the target group is that the
researcher expects in the near future, it will be applied the intervention model - the

impact of changing behavior of students; the target group is considered easy to access
to knowledge, means on climate change and environmental issues. Simultaneously,
students are also vanguard group, able to inspire and spread the message of reducing
GHGs to other social groups such as adults, the elderly, and children. More
specifically, developmental psychology theory also emphasizes that student-young
people are a relatively stable age of psychological development, as well as a golden
stage in research study and strong decision-making to change behaviors if appropriate
stimulus is met. Contrary to them is the elderly group, who is difficult to access and
receive new information as well as facing many barriers on conditions and time to
change behaviors. Meanwhile, children can easily acquire and learn new knowledge
but also easily change perceptions of behavior in the process of psychosocial
development, and children are also dependent groups of parents.
Therefore, behavioral change education for children is a goal that cannot be
ignored but will be suitable for long-term plans to reduce climate change. With the
expectation of an immediate contribution to the goal of reducing GHGs with
significant effects in the near future, the student group is the most potential group that
the author is aiming for. On the other hand, with favorable conditions for fieldwork
3


in Japan and Vietnam, the author wishes to shorten the period of seeking solutions to
promote climate change mitigation behavior of Vietnamese students by studying the
successes and failures lessons from Japan - a developed and assessed country with
relatively good control of GHGs [OECD, 2012].
Japan's GHGs emissions have been relatively stable since 1990. The Kyoto
Protocol target of a 6% reduction on average by 2008-2012 has been achieved (taking
into account carbon absorption by forest and the credit mechanism). CO2 emissions
grew faster than the OECD average despite relatively weak economic growth and a
stable population. However, Japan's carbon intensity remains below the OECD
average.

Finally, with basic psychological knowledge and more than 5 years of working
with disadvantaged groups, who are poor and ethnic minorities in Vietnam, the
researcher realizes the serious impact of CC on people's material and spiritual lives
in disaster risk areas. Moreover, even people do not realize that their living and
farming activities also contribute to increasing climate change, which means that
unforeseen hazards and natural disasters from CC will increasingly affect their lives
more seriously. Therefore, in parallel with adapting to climate change to prolong time
and survival opportunities, reducing climate change is an urgent requirement for the
government and people, especially in the developing countries under pressure from
economic development and risks of the climate crisis, like Vietnam. In fact, there are
many ways to mitigate CC (according to European Environment Agency); and reduce
carbon footprint (Carbon footprint) is one of the positive ways for GHGs reduction
efforts to become actual soon. From the researcher's perspective, the reduction of
carbon footprint in living activities (production, consumption) is extremely urgent
and can be implemented on a large scale. Therefore, the researcher expects that
students will be the pioneering forces in reducing carbon footprint in their daily living
activities. This is actual basis for students to spread these practical actions to the
community, contributing strongly to reducing GHGs drastically on a domestic and
international scale. For all the above reasons, the author chooses to study on the topic:

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“Factors affecting students’ behaviors on GHGs emission mitigation: Case study in
Vietnam and Japan”.
1.2. Research question
Based on the foundations of behavioral psychology, many determinants are
leading to behavioral choice. In which, awareness and belief are important
psychological and social factors that cannot be ignored. At the same time, personal
such as gender, age, and income (living conditions) and environmental impacts also

contribute to human behavior. On that basis, the researcher built a model with five
hypotheses corresponding to five research questions to identify the actual problem.
Q1. How did belief in the existence of CC influence student's behaviors?
Q2. How did the student's perception of CC affect their GHGs mitigation
behavior?
Q3. How did students' perception of CC Risk influence their behaviors?
Q4. What did personal factors influence students' GHGs reduction behavior?
Q5. What did social factors influence students' GHGs reduction behavior?
1.3. Hypothesis
H1: There is a positive correlation between Belief in CC and student’s behavior
on GHGs mitigation.
H2: There is a positive correlation between students' CC Risk awareness and
GHGs mitigation behaviors.
H3: Policies, laws - influence groups, and empowerment are three social factors
that influence students' GHG reduction practices.
H4: Students with different personal characteristics (gender, income, lifestyle)
tend to behaviors differently.
H5: Policies, laws - influence groups and empowerment are three social factors
that influence students' GHG reduction practices.
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1.4. Purpose of the study
The study aims to get two main targets. The first is building up and developing
the theoretical basis of behavior theory and GHGs emission mitigation behaviors of
students who represent the youth in developing countries like Vietnam and developed
countries like Japan.
On the other side, this study measures what factors affect GHGs emission
mitigation behaviors in Vietnam and Japan and compare Vietnamese and Japanese
people's behaviors on climate change mitigation. Based on this background, the

solutions will be found to consolidate and promote climate change mitigation
behavior – directly related to mitigate GHGs emissions.
1.5. Research objectives
The study aims to complete these below targets:
Create the theory system about students' behavior for GHGs emission mitigation
and contribute to climate change mitigation. This system includes definitions,
characteristics, structures, behavioral mechanisms, and behaviors of students under
climate change response.
- Analyze the specific students’ behavior for GHGs emissions mitigation and the
factors impacting their behavior and compare Vietnam and Japan.
- Find out the main factors that affect students’ behaviors in GHGs reduction
and climate change mitigation based on considering featured conditions of each
region and demographic characteristics.
- Identify and create action plans for mitigating GHGs emissions in Vietnam
with the support and lesson learned from Japan.
1.6. Scope of the research
- Scope of the research area: The research is conducted in Hanoi - a special city
- the leading center of cultural-economic-social development in Vietnam with

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800,000 students. And the same research model will be applied in Ibaraki is one of
the moderately developed Japanese cities with 21,474 students.
- Scope of research content: The research focuses on understanding reduction
behaviors and the GHGs emission mitigation behaviors of Vietnamese and Japanese
students.
- Scope of research object: The research was conducted with 399 students living,
studying, and working in Hanoi and 99 students in Ibaraki.
1.7. Expected results

The study expects to complete the theoretical framework for students’ GHGs
mitigation behavior characteristics as well as the psycho-personal and social factors
affecting students' GHG reduction behavior.
On the other hand, the study seeks to explore practical aspects to describe and
analyze students’ GHGs mitigation behavior and independent factors - depending on
its influence. Thereby, the author draws on behavioral trends and proposes
appropriate solutions to create positive changes in students, contributing to reducing
GHGs emissions in particular, controlling global warming and climate change in
general.
1.8. Literature review
1.8.1. The effort of the world
22 May 2017: From a report on Norway’s energy policy to a partnership to raise
awareness of air pollution and a financial app that reduces the carbon footprint of
consumers, many recent developments have focused on climate change mitigation,
including the reduction of emissions from energy consumption. These initiatives
contribute to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 7 (clean and
affordable energy) and 13 (climate action).
To achieve a low-emissions pathway, awareness-raising and behavioral changes
will be key. Two recent developments are aiming at educating citizens on their carbon
footprint. The UN Environment has entered in a multi-year partnership with Formula
7


E, the world’s first fully-electric single-seater racing series, with the aim of improving
inner-city air quality by raising the profile of alternative energy solutions and
increasing the uptake of electric vehicles. According to the UN Environment, the
partnership will also educate future consumers of electric cars and “challenge major
cities and governments to take action to tackle pollution.” This partnership will
thereby contribute to efforts to reach SDGs 3 (good health and well-being), 7
(affordable and clean energy), 11 (sustainable cities and communities), and 13

(climate action).
In other awareness-raising news, UN Environment has reported that
approximately 200 million Chinese citizens use an app that tracks purchases made
through a payment platform to award “green energy points” in the Ant Forest
Program. The app, developed by Ant Financial, a leading digital financial services
company, uses a scoring system based on how environmentally friendly a purchase
is, for example buying a metro ticket instead of fuel for a car. The points allow users
to grow virtual trees and compete with friends. UN Environment pointed to the
untapped power of digital finance to “mobilize people in support of sustainable
development and the fight against climate change” The app will contribute not only
to achieving SDG 13, but also SDG 12 (responsible production and consumption), in
particular, target 12.8 (By 2030, ensure that people everywhere have the relevant
information and awareness for sustainable development and lifestyles in harmony
with nature)
A key element of climate change mitigation is the shift to zero-carbon energy.
Recent news from Africa and Norway has focused on the issue of increased
renewable energy uptake. The Government of India has reported that four African
countries – Djibouti, Cote d’Ivoire, Somalia, and Ghana – have signed the framework
agreement to join the International Solar Alliance (ISA). According to the Indian
Government, there are 31 signatories to the ISA framework agreement, and six
countries have ratified. The ISA will come into existence as a legal entity once 15
countries ratify and deposit the framework agreement.

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The ISA is a common platform for cooperation among sun-rich countries lying
fully or partially between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn seeking to massively
ramp up solar energy, thereby helping to bend the global GHG emissions curve while
providing clean and cheap energy. The ISA activities will contribute to achieving

SDG target 7.2 (By 2030, increase the share of renewable energy in the global energy
mix substantially). The initiative was launched at the UN Climate Change Conference
in Paris, France, in December 2015 by the President of France and the Prime Minister
of India. [Government of India Press Release, ISA Website].
The increasing uptake of renewables implies a decrease in fossil fuels, which
will significantly affect the economies of countries exporting this type of energy. This
was one of the messages of the International Energy Agency (IEA) report on
Norway’s review, which warns that as the world looks to cut its reliance on fossil
fuels, the Norwegian Government should consider measures to prepare for a future
with lower oil and gas revenues. [IEA Press Release, Energy Policies of IEA
Countries – Norway 2017 Review]. The keys to unlocking a low-carbon future:
effective public policy, business innovation, public support.
Change at the speed and required scale will take political will, economic
transformation, and public support. Determining government action with locally,
nationally, and globally is central to these efforts. Public policy shapes markets and
industries by creating standards, norms, incentives, and investment opportunities.
Business innovation creates new products, processes, and markets; drives consumer
expectations; and paves the way for further advances. The following graphic shows
how rapidly wind and solar energy investments and capacity have grown in the past
decade. This growth is supported by a virtuous cycle that includes the adoption of
supportive policies, the growth of renewable energy investments, and consumer
adoption of new technologies and practices.

9


Figure 1.1. Global investment trends and capacity of wind and solar energy
(sources: Bloomberg New Energy Fina)
Besides supportive policies on renewable energy and sustainable economy,
action programs also promote voluntary participation in environmental philanthropy,

integrating environmental activities with climate change issues, which contributes
significantly to the goal of reducing GHGs.
Philanthropy has a critical role to play in the transition to a prosperous, lowcarbon world. Philanthropy has already made significant contributions in the drive to
prevent dangerous climate change – supporting research and analysis, educating
stakeholders and policymakers, building greater awareness in the general public, and
mobilizing critical constituencies for action. However, it is not enough, the world has
not been on track to solve the climate crisis yet. The severity of this challenge, and
the fact that climate change compromises progress toward other philanthropic goals
such as poverty reduction and better public health, calls for philanthropy to do more.
Moreover, efforts to reduce GHGs emissions receive a small portion of total
philanthropic spending in the U.S. and globally. Philanthropy can make a difference:
More resources, smart investments, and greater collaboration will help accelerate
change and strengthen our collective efforts to solve the climate crisis and ensure a
prosperous future.

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1.8.2. The effort of Vietnam
According to the evaluation report of Working Group I of the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) issued in early 2013, climate change is one of the
biggest challenges of humankind. The effects of climate change on people and
changes in climate systems have also been documented since the 1950s. The main
cause of climate change is GHGs emissions, mainly from human life and production
activities. GHGs are defined as components of the atmosphere created by nature and
human activities. They are capable of absorbing the longwave radiation reflected
from the Earth's surface when illuminated by sunlight, then dispersing heat back to
the Earth, which causes the greenhouse effect. Continuing GHG emissions will
aggravate global climate change as well as create negative impacts on nature and
humans.

GHGs emissions sources
Based on derivation, absolute emission level, emission trend as well as affecting
level to total potential GHG emission of countries, the emission sources are divided
into four main groups (see more at table 6.1 in appendix 6)
Energy: is one of the largest sources of GHG emissions nowadays. This
sector often contributes to over 90% of CO2 and 75% of other GHG emissions in
developing countries. 95% of emissions from the energy sector are CO2, the rests are
CH4 and NO at the same level. Emissions in the energy sector are divided into three
groups: emissions from burning fossil fuels (in energy industries, transportation
activities, etc.); instantaneous emissions (amount of gas and steam emitted from
compressors due to leakage, unwanted or infrequent emissions from the process of
mining, processing, transporting fuel, etc.) and carbon recovery and storage activities.
In which, emissions from burning fossil fuels contribute up to 70% of total emissions,
typically from power plants and refineries.
Industrial processes and product use (IPPU): Emissions from the IPPU sector
are emitted in industrial treatment processes; the use of GHGs in products and the use
of carbon in fossil fuels do not aim at generating energy. In which, the main source
of emissions come from industrial processes to handle material in chemical or
11


physical way. During these processes, many types of GHGs are generated, including:
CO2, CH4, N2O, HFCs and PFCs. IPPU sector contributes about 7% of the emissions
generated from Annex I countries (UNFCCC, 2008) and approximately 6% in nonAnnex I countries (UNFCCC, 2005).
Agriculture, forestry, and other land use (AFOLU): The main sources of
emissions include CH4 and N2O emissions from livestock, wet rice cultivation,
agricultural

land,

burning

activities

in

agricultural

production,

CO2

emission/absorption in agriculture, forestry, and land-use change. Generally, the
AFOLU sector contributes about 30% of global GHGs emissions, mainly due to CO2
emissions from land use changes (mostly from tropical deforestation) and CH4, N2O
from crop production and raising cattle.
Waste: Types of GHGs can be generated in the waste sector, including CO2,
CH4 and N2O. The main sources of GHGs in the waste sector are recognized as solid
waste burial, biological treatment of solid waste, incineration and waste burning,
treatment and discharge of wastewater. Normally, CH4 emissions from solid waste
disposal sites (SWDS) account for the largest proportion of the total GHGs emissions
of this sector. CH4 in wastewater discharge and treatment also plays a relatively
important role. Besides, discharging, treating solid waste and wastewater also create
non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs), NOx, CO, and NH3. NOx is
mainly generated when burning waste, while NH3 is generated during composting.
NOx and NH3 can indirectly generate N2O. However, this amount of N2O accounts
for a small, negligible percentage.
GHG emissions situation in Vietnam
In the period of 2001-2010, Vietnam's economy achieved certain achievements.
All sectors and fields of the economy have developed well. However, with the growth

of the economy as well as development in social life, the amount of GHGs emissions
in Vietnam is increasing more and more in all sectors. Based on the results of national
GHGs inventories in 1994, 2000, and 2005, emissions in Vietnam are shown in Table
1.1, in which, emissions in base years are converted to CO2 equivalent.
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In the energy sector, in Vietnam, GHGs is mainly emitted from the process of
burning fuel and instantaneous emissions in mining and transportation. In particular,
fuel-burning activities are common in the power generation industry, industry and
construction, tran, trade/agriculture/forestry/fishery, and some other industries.
Emissions from GHGs emissions are mainly due to coal, oil, gas mining, and gas
leakage; in which, GHGs from burning fuel accounts for about 85-90%.

Figure 1.2. GHGs emission trends based on some sectors in Vietnam period 19942005
(source: Vietnam environment administration magazine, 2014)
The main types of industrial production that produce emissions in the industry
sector are cement production, lime production, ammonia production, carbide
production, and producing iron and steel.
According to the GHGs inventory results in 1994, the amount of GHGs emissions
in the agricultural sector was 52.45 million tons of CO2 equivalent, accounting for
50.50% of the total GHGs emissions of the country. In forestry, land-use change is
19.38 million tons of CO2 equivalent, accounting for 18.70% of total national GHGs
emissions. By 2005, the amount of GHGs emissions in the agricultural sector was
80.58 million tons of CO2 equivalent, accounting for 49.37% of total GHGs
emissions of the country (in which, emissions from rice cultivation accounted for
44.49%; from agricultural land was 32.22%, from enteric fermentation was 11.54%,

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the rest are from fertilizer management, agricultural by-products burning and
grassland burning). In the forestry sector, land-use change absorbs 36.67 million tons
of CO2 equivalent.
GHGs emissions in waste management are calculated from collection and
treatment activities of municipal solid waste and GHGs emissions from domestic and
industrial wastewater. In Vietnam, in recent years, over 15 million tons of solid waste
have been discharged from different sources each year, of which over 80% are from
urban areas, and the rest are industrial wastes. However, only a part of which is
collected and treated with more than 70% in urban areas and about 20% in rural areas.
Emissions mainly include CH4 emissions from collected solid waste landfills; from
industrial and domestic wastewater; emissions of N2O from sludge in domestic
wastewater drain; CO2 and N2O emissions from waste incineration. In general,
emissions from the waste field account for a small proportion (2.5 - 5.3%) of the total
national emissions structure.
Two sectors that currently have the largest emissions proportion are agriculture
and energy. However, emissions from energy consumption and production will tend
to increase rapidly in the coming years both in terms of total volume as well as the
proportion in emission structure. According to updated data in 2010, greenhouse gas
emissions in the energy sector have reached the limit of 146.2 million tons of CO2.
This figure was further raised to 151.4 million tons in 2013 [MONRE, 2017]. Like
most other countries, energy will be the sector accounting for the largest proportion
of emissions in the national economic structure in the coming years.
Facing challenges on the development path, Vietnam has determined that it is
necessary to respond proactively and effectively to climate change in order to ensure
sustainable development by consulting experiences of countries approaching climate
change as a matter of development rather than a pure environmental matter. Issuing
appropriate policies and investments will help achieve the adaptive goal of enhancing
viability while minimizing contributing to general efforts, taking advantage of
opportunities to develop an economy having resilience on climate change and

responsible participation in the global economy.
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