A study on the relationship between language learning styles, reading strategies and reading achievement of english language learners at thai nguyen university

THAI NGUYEN UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE

NGUYEN THI BICH DIEP

A STUDY ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
LANGUAGE LEARNING STYLES, READING STRATEGIES
AND READING ACHIEVEMENT OF ENGLISH
LANGUAGE LEARNERS AT THAI NGUYEN UNIVERSITY

M.A. THESIS
Field: English Linguistics
Code: 8220201

THAI NGUYEN - 2020


ĐẠI HỌC THÁI NGUYÊN
TRƯỜNG NGOẠI NGỮ

NGUYỄN THỊ BÍCH DIỆP

NGHIÊN CỨU MỐI TƯƠNG QUAN GIỮA PHONG CÁCH
HỌC TẬP, CHIẾN LƯỢC ĐỌC VÀ KẾT QUẢ ĐỌC HIỂU
CỦA SINH VIÊN KHÔNG CHUYÊN NGỮ
TẠI ĐẠI HỌC THÁI NGUYÊN

LUẬN VĂN THẠC SĨ
Ngành: Ngôn ngữ Anh
Mã số: 8220201

THÁI NGUYÊN - 2020


DECLARATION
The thesis entitled “A study on the relationship between language learning
styles, reading strategies and reading achievement of English language learners at
Thai Nguyen University” has been submitted for the Master of English language.
I, the undersigned, hereby declare that I am the sole author of this thesis. I have
fully acknowledged and referenced the ideas and work of others, whether published or
unpublished, in my thesis.
My thesis does not contain work extracted from a thesis, dissertation or research
paper previously presented for another degree or diploma at this or any other universities.

Thai Nguyen, 2020
Approved by Supervisor

Student

Dr. Dang Thi Thanh Huong

Nguyen Thi Bich Diep

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DEDICATION

I dedicate this research project to my parents. To my Dad, I thank you for
encouraging me to work hard to fulfil this study. To my Mum, thank you for your
encouragement and support throughout my studies. Special dedication goes to my husband

for being there for me when I needed his help most.
I love you all.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am deeply indebted to the individuals that provided support for the completion of
this study.
Dr. Dang Thi Thanh Huong supervised the entire study and, most importantly, read
and discussed every aspect and section of this dissertation with assiduity. Her
recommendations also helped to shape the form and contents of the final version. I am
equally indebted to her for the exceptional friendliness, kindness, and patience that her
demonstrated during my study at SFL-TNU and my research.
In addition, I would like to express my thankfulness to all the participating students
at the International School, Thai Nguyen University who helped me in my preliminary
research, especially the students who accompanied me during a long time of my data
collection time. The results I have achieved today partially belong to them.
Last but not least, I would like to thank my fellows for their dedication and support,
and my family members for their motivation for me to overcome all the difficulties and to
become a better me now.
Thank you.
Nguyen Thi Bich Diep
July, 2020

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ABSTRACT

The study was conducted at the International School, Thai Nguyen University with
152 non-English majored students. The participants come from different cultural settings
and countries. The purely quantitative research design was employed, and the model of
learning style developed by Reid (1987) was used as the theoretical framework for the
study. Two surveys of “Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire” (PLSPQ) and
“Survey of reading strategies” (SORS) were used to collect data. The Statistical Package
for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20 was used to analyse the data. The findings of the
study indicated that (1) the preferred learning styles of Thai Nguyen University students
are Visual and Group. (2) Students who participated in the study use reading strategies at
medium level (M=3.1684). There is a significant difference between major learning styles,
minor learning styles, negligible styles, and the use of reading strategies. The students
majoring in visual use strategies more often (M=3.18). The students whose major styles
were tactile and kinesthetic use strategies at the frequency of (M=3.16). The auditory
learners use the least strategies at (M=3.11). The group learning styles ranked the top of
(M= 3.21). (3) Visual and individual learners attain the highest academic achievement,
while the tactile and auditory learners attain the lowest points. The visual and group
learning styles students use more reading strategies than the other groups.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION .................................................................................................................... i
DEDICATION ....................................................................................................................... ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................................iii
ABSTRACT.......................................................................................................................... iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS....................................................................................................... v
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................... vii
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................viii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................... ix

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION....................................................................................... 1
1.1. Rationales........................................................................................................................ 1
1.2. Statement of the problem ................................................................................................ 3
1.3. Significance of the study................................................................................................. 3
1.4. Aims of the study ............................................................................................................ 4
1.5. Research questions .......................................................................................................... 4
1.6. Scope of the study ........................................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................... 6
2.1. Theoretical framework .................................................................................................... 6
2.2. Definitions and nature of learning styles ........................................................................ 7
2.3. A brief discussion of learning style models .................................................................... 9
2.3.1. Dunn and Dunn Learning Styles Model ............................................................... 9
2.3.2. Kolb‟s Learning Style Model ............................................................................. 10
2.3.3. Honey and Mumford‟s Learning Styles Preferences .......................................... 11
2.3.4. Reid‟s Perceptual Learning Style Preferences .................................................... 12
2.4. Factors affecting learning styles preference ................................................................. 14
2.5. Learning styles and academic achievement .................................................................. 16
2.6. Reading strategies and reading comprehension ............................................................ 18
2.7. Reading strategies and academic achievement ............................................................. 19
2.8 Reading strategies and learning styles ........................................................................... 22
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ............................................................ 25
3.1. Research design ............................................................................................................ 25
3.2. Participants.................................................................................................................... 26
3.3. Data collection instruments .......................................................................................... 27

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3.3.1. Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire ......................................... 27
3.3.2. Survey of reading strategies (SORS) .................................................................. 27

3.4. Data collection procedures............................................................................................ 29
3.5. Data analysis instruments ............................................................................................. 29
CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS ............................................................ 30
4.1. Results of the research question 1................................................................................. 30
4.2. Results of the research question 2................................................................................. 31
4.3. Results of the research question 3................................................................................. 37
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION .................................................... 41
REFERENCES................................................................................................................... 42
APPENDICES .................................................................................................................... 54

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1

Number and percentage of participants by genders ..................................... 26

Table 4.1.

Number and percentage of participants by learning styles .......................... 30

Table 4.2.

The mean score of the reading strategies uses ............................................. 31

Table 4.3.

Mean score of major, minor, and negligible learning styles ........................ 31

Table 4.4.

Test of Homogeneity Variances for visual learners ..................................... 31

Table 4.5.

Sig F of the ANOVA for Visual learning styles .......................................... 32

Table 4.6.

Test of Homogeneity Variances for tactile learners ..................................... 32

Table 4.7.

Sig F of the ANOVA for Tactile learning styles .......................................... 33

Table 4.8.

Test of Homogeneity Variances for auditory learners ................................. 33

Table 4.9.

Sig F of the ANOVA for Auditory learning styles ...................................... 33

Table 4.10.

Test of Homogeneity Variances for Kinesthetic learners ............................ 34

Table 4.11:

Sig F of the ANOVA for Kinesthetics learning styles ................................. 34

Table 4.12.

Test of Homogeneity Variances for group learners ..................................... 35

Table 4.13.

Sig F of the ANOVA for Group learning styles .......................................... 35

Table 4.14.

Test of Homogeneity Variances for individual learners .............................. 36

Table 4.15.

Sig F of the ANOVA for Individual learning styles .................................... 36

Table 4.16.

Descriptive statistic of the relationship between learning styles,
reading strategies and academic achievement .............................................. 37

Table 4.17.

Test of Homogeneity of Variances .............................................................. 38

Table 4.18.

Means of academic achievement and the uses of reading strategies............ 38

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1

The Kolb‟s learning cycle (Güven, 2004, p.27) ............................................. 10

Figure 2.2

Honey and Mumford‟s learning styles associated with learning cycle .......... 11

Figure 3.1. Number and percentage of participants by genders........................................ 26
Figure 4.1. Number and percentage of participants by learning styles ............................. 30
Figure 4.2. Visual learning styles and the use of reading strategies ................................. 32
Figure 4.3. Tactile learning styles and the uses of reading strategies ............................... 33
Figure 4.4. Auditory learning styles and the uses of reading strategies ........................... 34
Figure 4.5: Kinesthetic learning styles and the uses of reading strategies ........................ 35
Figure 4.6. Group learning styles and the uses of reading strategies ................................ 36
Figure 4.7. Individual learning styles and the uses of reading strategies ......................... 37
Figure 4.8

The relationship between learning styles and academic achievement ........... 39

Figure 4.9. The relationship between learning styles and the use of reading strategies ... 39

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

B2 – CEFR :

B2 – Common European Framework of Reference

IELTS :

International English Language Testing System

FCE :

First Certificate in English

IS –TNU:

International School – Thai Nguyen University

PLSPQ:

Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire

SORS:

Survey of Reading Strategies

SPSS:

The Statistical Package for Social Sciences

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
In Chapter I, the researcher presents some of the preliminaries of the study such as
rationales, statement of the research problem, scope and aims of the study, significance of
the study and finally the research questions that the study attempts to answer
1.1. Rationales
In terms of language learning, reading is considered as one of the most crucial
language skills serving as the foundation for other language skills to be developed,
especially for academic achievements at tertiary level. It is thought to be the primary
means for gaining access to various sources of information, providing the basis for
“synthesis and critical evaluation skills” (Celce-Murcia, 2001, p. 187). Anderson (2003)
considers reading as “an essential skill which is most important skill to master for most of
the learners of English in order to ensure success in learning” (p. 2). There are internal and
external factors that contribute to the comprehension process.
Reading strategies and learning styles have been proven to be variables for
successful language readers. Reading strategies are purposeful means of comprehending
the author‟s message (Olshavsky, 1977), or as problem-oriented actions and techniques
used to achieve apprehension or production goals (Wenden, 1987). Oxford and Crookall
(1989) explained reading strategies as learning techniques, behaviors, problem-solving
skills, or study skills that can lead learners to more effective and efficient learning.
Obviously, reading strategies refer to techniques that a person chooses to deal with the
reading texts. Learning styles, on the other hand, belong to personal traits and different
with different individuals so methods and resources will be more effective for some
learners and less effective for others (Burke & Dunn, 2003).
Sternberg and Grigorenko (2001) further highlight the difference between the degree
of consciousness involved in applying styles and strategies: Styles operate without

individual awareness, whereas strategies involve a conscious choice of alternatives. In
specific reference to the field of language learning, Bailey et al. (2000, p. 118) concur:
“Learning styles are not the same as learning strategies. Whereas learning styles represent
unintentional, or automatic individual characteristics, learning strategies are actions chosen
by students that are intended to facilitate learning.”

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Being aware of learning styles of the learners will help teachers, instructors, to
develop learning tasks that address individual learning needs. If a particular approach to
learning is encouraged by a teacher, there is a possibility that some pupils will work and
learn less effectively than others in the class. For this reason, an awareness of learning
styles is important for teachers. Learning style awareness should make an impact on
pedagogy – the ways in which teachers choose to teach – and should help teachers to a
better understanding of the needs of learners, as well as to an awareness of the need to
differentiate materials, not only by level of difficulty but also by learning style (Prichard,
2009, p.42).
Alternatively, students with knowledge of their own preferences are empowered to
use various techniques to enhance learning, which in turn may impact overall educational
satisfaction. Claxton & Murrell (1987) stated that knowledge of individual learning style
preferences will help students see themselves as learners and the awareness of their
learning style preferences can lead to improving performance and learning outcomes.
In Vietnam, English is considered a foreign language. School children spend 6 to 10
years studying English at schools, then another two to three more years at university.
However, the language achievement is quite limited. They are unsatisfactorily to meet the
demand of real communication. That failure is partly due to the mismatch between
teaching styles of teachers and learning styles of the learners, or it may come from
ineffective uses of learning strategies.
Numerous studies have been conducted to measure the effectiveness of reading

strategies on reading comprehension achievement. However, few studies have been done
to investigate the interplay of preferred learning styles, the utilization of reading strategies
and reading outcomes, especially in Vietnamese EFL teaching context. The lack of
literature over the issue inspires us to carry out this study in the context of English teaching
at the International School -Thai Nguyen University. This study is carried out to explore
different learning styles of learners, the reading strategies they employ and their language
achievement in reading comprehension.

“The present study investigated the reading comprehension achievement under
the impacts of learning styles and the uses of reading strategies so that the teachers
may adapt their teaching styles for varieties of language learners‟ learning styles.”

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1.2. Statement of the problem
Learning is the process of obtaining knowledge by studying, teaching, practicing,
and experiencing. Learning is also called process of getting the aim by doing experiences,
those are seeing, observing, and comprehending about something (Rusman, 2011:3).
Studying can not only gained by only sitting and listening to teachers‟ explanation in
schools, but also can be gained from how the learner process the information delivered by
teachers. In learning process, students do many things like reading, researching,
experimenting, and others learning activities to better comprehend what they have been
taught or instructed. Suitable ways of learning may foster or hamper the learning input. It
is beneficial for teachers to know their students‟ learning styles and learning strategies so
that appropriate teaching styles, activities are developed and delivered. Dunn (1990) points
out that teacher awareness of the preferred learning styles of students can help teachers
understand and cope with students‟ course-related learning difficulties and ultimately help
alleviate their frustration levels. Chang (2003) believes that understanding the preferred
learning styles of students has a resounding impact on curriculum design, teacher training,

material development, and student orientation. Macfarlane (2004) contends that polarized
communication exists when teachers misunderstand or lack interest in students‟
educational backgrounds, and that may eventually harm the relationship between teachers
and students. Investigating students‟ language learning style preferences provides teachers
with useful information on developing students‟ language learning strategies, which are
directly related to language achievement. Some researchers (Cotazzi, 1990; Ehrman, 1996;
Felder, 1995; Oxford, Hollaway, & Horton-Murillo, 1992; Jones, 1997; Littlewood, Liu, &
Yu, 1996; Reid, 1987; Peacock, 2001; Stebbins, 1995; Tuan, 2011) propose that a
mismatch between teacher instructional styles and students‟ language learning styles may
lead to negative impacts on students‟ language learning. The present study investigated the
reading comprehension achievement under the impacts of learning styles and the uses of
reading strategies. Learning styles and reading strategies were independent variables while
academic reading achievement would act as dependent variable.
1.3. Significance of the study
On completion, the study is expected to contribute to a comprehension of the
relationship between learning styles and language learning strategies to the academic

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reading achievement. The study may discover some preferred learning styles of language
learners when preparing for the IELTS reading module. From the findings, teachers may
have general guidelines for their teaching practice so that the teaching styles match the
learning styles of language learners. Teaching style refers to the classroom behaviour
associated with the teaching beliefs of an instructor and is not restricted to a teaching
method or a technique (Cooper, 2001; Heimlich & Norland, 2002; Jarvis, 2004). Teaching
styles can affect how teachers present information, interact with students, and supervise
coursework. Many researchers (Giles et al., 2006; Heimlich & Norland, 2002; Soliven,
2003) point out that teaching style is vital for providing students with good learning
experiences and enhancing students‟ academic outcomes. The results of this study are

suggested to make learning process more intensive by finding out the students‟ learning
style, so the teacher could use the best strategies in teaching. Claxton and Murrell (1987)
stated that information on learning styles can help educators “become more sensitive to the
differences students bring to the classroom. It also can serve as a guide to the design of
learning experiences that either match, or mismatch, students' learning style” (p. 77).
Besides, the study can be as a reference for researchers who wish to study about the
impacts of variables such as learning styles, learning strategies on language achievements.
1.4. Aims of the study
This study firstly aimed at finding different preferred learning styles of English
language learners at the International School of Thai Nguyen University so that the
teachers may adapt their teaching styles for varieties of language learners‟ learning
styles. The second aim of the study was to identify the relationship between perceptual
learning style preferences and students‟ reading strategies selection. Finally, the study
tried to find the correlation that might exists between students‟ learning styles,
preferred reading strategies and language reading achievement when students take the
IELTS reading module.
1.5. Research questions
With the aforementioned aims, the study attempts finding answers to the following
research questions.
1. What are the preferred learning styles of the non-English majored students at Thai
Nguyen University?
2. What is the relationship between learning styles and reading strategies uses?

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3.What is the relationship between learning styles, reading strategies towards
academic reading achievement?
1.6. Scope of the study
The study was carried out with 152 second year students at the International School

of Thai Nguyen University. This is the only institution of Thai Nguyen University where
English language is used as the language of instruction for all disciplines. Students come
from many different countries such as Lao, Myanmar, The Philippines, East Timor and
Nigeria. A one-year intensive English course is delivered to first year students so that they
can attend lectures delivered in English. The language achievement to be accepted to enter
the majoring phase is B2 (CEFR), i.e. 5.5 in the IELTS or FCE examination. During the
English course, students practice four macro language skills focusing on exam preparation.
The study was designed along the lines of correlation research to determine whether
and what degree a relationship exists between two or more quantifiable variables. In
addition, it used a purely quantitative method to gather data from the students.
1.7. Design of the study
The study is divided into five chapters.
Chapter 1 - Introduction relates to the rationale for the research. Besides, it shows
the significance of the study, the aims and objectives, research questions, the scope, the
methods and the design of the study.
Chapter 2 - Literature review supplies an overview of theoretical background and
previous studies involved in the research topic.
Chapter 3 - Research Methodology describes the methods used for this study, data
collection instruments, data collection procedures and data analysis procedure.
Chapter 4 - Findings and Discussion provides the findings and discussion of the
research based on results of the action research methodology.
Chapter 5 – Conclusion and Recommendation comes up with the summary,
implications and some suggestions for further studies.
To sum up, in chapter 1, the researcher presents some preliminaries of the study such
as rationales, statement of the research problem, scope and aims of the study, significance
of the study, and finally the research questions that the study attempts to answer. The next
chapter will be focusing on the theoretical framework, definitions of terms used, and
similar work in the field.

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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
In this part of the study, the researcher will discuss the theoretical framework for the
whole study. In the second place, a brief review of models of learning styles, readings
strategies, and reading comprehension achievements will be mentioned. Finally, some
related studies will be included as background for the present research.
2.1. Theoretical framework
The concept of learning styles was introduced in the 1960s. It was based on the
principle that all individuals are capable of learning but vary enormously in the speed and
way they pick up new information and ideas, and the confidence with which they process
and use them. When teachers recognise that students have different learning styles, they
start to become more sensitive to these students‟ individual differences and needs in the
classroom. This could ultimately enhance the teachers‟ teaching practices (Gappi 2013:70).
Unfortunately, when the students‟ learning styles and the teacher‟s learning styles do not
match, the students are likely to become uncomfortable, bored and inattentive in class, do
poorly in tests and ultimately become unmotivated (Felder & Spurlin 2005:103). Teachers
need to help students discover their own learning styles and provide constructive feedback
about the advantages and disadvantages of these various styles. Teachers also need to
respect students‟ learning styles and encourage their development whilst at the same time
creating opportunities for the students to experiment with other ways of learning
(Farajolahi & Nimvari 2014:159). When students are made aware of their learning styles
and strategies, they are not only more prepared for learning, but also more analytic about
their learning styles and the strategies they use. Knowledge of one‟s own learning style is
essential in „learning to learn‟ as it enables students to take control of their learning whilst
still allowing them to maximise their potential for learning (Farajolahi & Nimvari
2014:159). Therefore, learning styles can be seen to be students‟ comfort zones or
educational conditions under which they learn best (Tuan 2011:287).
Learning styles have been defined in several ways which vary according to different

purposes and different approaches. Curry (1991, p. 249) states “there is a bewildering
confusion of definitions surrounding learning style conceptualizations and there is a wide
variation in the scale and scope of learning, school achievement, and other behavior
predicted by the various learning style concepts.”

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Many research works have then explored the types and the nature of strategy use, the
effectiveness (if any) of language learning styles (LLS). However, as stated by Phakiti
(2003, p.7), “To date, there is little empirical evidence to show how language learning
strategies are related to actual strategy use in context.” This opinion was also asserted by
Rees-Millers (1993, p.11) “Until empirical data, particularly in the form of empirical
studies are gathered to answer questions about the usefulness of learner training, teachers
should approach the implementation of learner training in the classroom.” Therefore, it is
necessary to conduct more research work in the field of LLS of EFL language learners in
the specific context in order to help learners choose the proper LLSs in acquiring the target
language, especially in the settings of mountainous areas.
For the EFL context, the present study adopts the concept raised by Reid (1995) as
the theoretical framework for the study in which learning styles are referred to as an
individual‟s natural, habitual, and preferred way(s) of absorbing, processing, and retaining
new information and skills” (p. viii). The concept represents a profile of the individual‟s
approach to learning, a blueprint of the habitual or preferred way the individual perceives,
interacts with, and responds to the learning environment (Dörnyei, 2015, p.108).
2.2. Definitions and nature of learning styles
As stated in the previous part, learning style is defined variously. Below are some
definitions of learning styles:
“The term learning style refers to the general approach preferred by the student
when learning a subject, acquiring a language, or dealing with a difficult problem.”
(Oxford, 2003, p. 273).

“Learning styles are internally based characteristics, often not perceived or
consciously used by learners, for the intake and comprehension of new information.”
(Reid, 1998, p. ix).
“Learning style is a composite of environmental and perceptual preferences, which
influence our physical and sensing needs; cognitive variables, which determine how we
approach, conceptualize, and structure our world; and social preferences, which arise
from cognitive, personality, affective factors and which shape our behavioral tendencies in
learning situations.” (Galloway & Labarca, 1990, p. 113).

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A particular way in which an individual learns; a mode of learning – an individual’s
preferred or best manner(s) in which to think, process information and demonstrate
learning; an individual’s preferred means of acquiring knowledge and skills; habits,
strategies, or regular mental behaviours concerning learning, particularly deliberate
educational learning, that an individual displays. (Prichard, 2009: p. 41).
The wording from the above-mentioned definitions such as „individual, particular‟
suggests the uniqueness of learning styles. In other words, learning styles vary from
persons to persons, and students do not all learn in the same way. Each individual will
adopt an approach to learning with which they are most comfortable and in doing so leave
behind the approaches with which they are less comfortable. Every student has different
learning style. There are students who must study by sitting in a quiet room. In addition,
there are also students who must study by moving their bodies like walking or to study
with pronounce their material loudly.
Like the definitions of learning styles, different researchers have different opinions
towards the nature of styles. Keefe (1982) states that learning styles are relatively stable
when learners interact with the learning environment. Ehrman and Oxford (1990) consider
that learning styles are internally based characteristics which are retained despite the
teaching methods and classroom atmospheres. Learning styles are also used unconsciously

by learners for absorbing and understanding new information (Reid, 1998). However,
Ehrman and Oxford (1990) add that new styles may be acquired with time and the old
styles can be adapted when learners start to become aware of them. Sternberg (1994, p.
174) points out that learning styles “are not permanently determined at birth”. Learning
styles can change in different situations and stages of life, and environmental
reinforcement can result in the shaping of learning styles. For example, rewarding learners
who use certain styles can lead to their preferences for those styles. In addition, designing
learning tasks which are more optimally performed with certain styles can also cause
learners to prefer certain styles. He also adds that one‟s value system is related to the
development of learning styles through socialization. Kinsella and Sherak (1998) explain
that learning styles are not fixed and not fully innate. They found that learning styles can
be reinforced by classroom roles and values and learners tend to prefer the ways that they
are most often exposed to, especially when they experience academic success. That means
learning styles reflect habitual ways of acquiring knowledge.

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2.3. A brief discussion of learning style models
Various classifications exist as a result of both theoretical and practical studies which
are conducted regarding learning styles. 71 models of learning style were listed by Coffield
et al. (as cited in Matheoudakis & Alexiou, 2010) in their review. Hence, there are
different approaches that exist about the classifications of learning styles. These
approaches are based on different characteristics of students in learning process. De Bello
(as cited in Hein & Budny, 1999) points out that some models are multidimensional which
include cognitive, affective, and psychological characteristics, and the others have only one
dimension. Also, each approach emerged provides a source for the next approach related to
learning styles (Güven, 2004). Some of the well-known learning style approaches and the
models which are based on these approaches are as follows:
 Dunn and Dunn Learning Styles Model

 Kolb‟s Learning Styles Model
 Honey and Mumford‟s Learning Styles Model
 Reid‟s Perceptual Learning Style Preferences
2.3.1. Dunn and Dunn Learning Styles Model
Dunn and Dunn Learning Styles Model is one the well-known model within learning
style models. According to this model, both biological and individual developmental
characteristics possessed by an individual and how a person learns new information and
skills are indicated by this peculiar characteristic of that person. Five learning style stimuli
and some elements for each stimulus are identified by Dunn and Dunn (Hawk & Shah,
2007). These stimuli are environmental, emotional, sociological, physiological, and
psychological processing. Also, the elements which are within the stimuli are sound, light,
temperature, and room design which are identified as the environmental stimuli.
Motivation, persistence, responsibility, and structure are identified as emotional stimuli.
Learning alone, in a pair, with peers, with a teacher and such are identified as sociological
stimuli. Perceptual, intake while learning, energy patterns during the day and mobility
needs are identified as physiological stimuli. Global or analytic, hemisphericity and
impulsive or reflective are identified as psychological processing stimuli.

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2.3.2. Kolb’s Learning Style Model
Kolb‟s learning style model which is based on Kolb Experiential Learning Theory
was developed by Kolb. Based on this experiential model, learning is defined by Kolb as
“process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” (as cited
in Baker, Jensen & Kolb, 2002, p.52). In this model, individual‟ learning styles are like a
circle which includes four learning stages. These stages are concrete experience (CE),
reflective observation (RO), abstract conceptualization (AC) and active experimentation
(AE) (as cited in Kaya, Özabacı & Tezel, 2009). The Kolb‟s learning cycle is illustrated in
Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1 The Kolb’s learning cycle (Güven, 2004, p.27)
According to Kolb (as cited in Kolb & Goldman, 1973), the process of learning
contains two primary dimensions. First dimension is reaching from abstract
conceptualization to concrete experience and second dimension is reaching from active
experimentation to reflective observation. Kolb models demonstrate how knowledge is
perceived by an individual through concrete experience and abstract conceptualization and
how knowledge is integrated by an individual through reflective observation and active

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experimentation. An individual learns by “feeling” (concrete experience), “watching”
(reflective observation), “thinking” (abstract conceptualization) and “doing” (active
experimentation). Therefore, knowledge is perceived by an individual through thinking and
feeling. Also, knowledge is integrated by an individual through watching and doing.
Furthermore, Kolb (as cited in Kaya, Özabacı & Tezel, 2009) asserts that, in this model, a
cycle of four learning modes is required for all learning. However, one of the four modes
of the cycles is found as the most appropriate by each person (as cited in Groat, 1998).
Four learning styles which are based on this learning cycle are identified by Kolb. These
styles are converger, diverger, assimilator and accommodator (Kolb & Goldman, 1973).
2.3.3. Honey and Mumford’s Learning Styles Preferences
Honey and Mumford‟s learning styles model is based on Kolb‟s experiential learning
model in terms of description and measurement of learning style (Cassidy, 2004). Honey
and Mumford identified four learning styles. These are activists, reflectors, theorists, and
pragmatists. In the learning cycle, four stages are designated by Honey and Mumford to
show learning style preference of a learner. The Honey and Mumford learning styles which
are associated with learning cycle are shown in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2 Honey and Mumford’s learning styles associated with learning cycle

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Activists prefer to learn by doing, they like to immerse themselves in a wide range of
experiences and activities and like to work in groups so that ideas can be shared, and ideas
tested. This type of learners does not like repetition activities.
Reflectors, on the other hand, like to collect as much information as possible before
making any decisions; they are always keen to „look before they leap‟. They prefer to look
at the big picture, including previous experiences and the perspectives of others.
Theorists like to adapt and integrate all their observations into frameworks, so that
they can see how one observation is related to other observations. Theorists work towards
adding new learning into existing frameworks by questioning and assessing the possible
ways that new information might fit into their existing frameworks of understanding.
Pragmatists are keen to seek out and make use of new ideas. Pragmatists look for the
practical implications of any new ideas or theories before making a judgement on their
value. They will take the view that if something works, all is well and good, but if it does
not work, there is little point in spending time on the analysis of its failure (cited in
Prichard, 2009, p.43).
2.3.4. Reid’s Perceptual Learning Style Preferences
The outstanding model which especially developed for foreign language learners
who enrolled at universities to reveal their preferred learning styles is Reid‟s perceptual
learning style preferences. This model was developed in 1987. Reid (1995) mentions that
perceptual learning styles identify the differences among learners considering their senses
to understand, arrange and remain experiences. Reid (1995) claims that three major
categories of learning styles are sensory or perceptual learning styles, cognitive learning
styles and affective/temperament learning styles. Sensory or perceptual learning style has
to do with the physical environment in which we learn and involves using our senses to
perceive data. In studies on perceptual learning styles, Dunn (1990) has shown that
learners whose preferred learning style is visual may have difficulty learning where the

teaching mode is through lectures (auditory) as opposed to auditory learners who may
prefer them. Reid purports that research generally refers to learning styles as being points
along a continuum. In fact, learners may have more than one learning style and are able to
switch or flex styles depending on the environment or task at hand. Cognitive styles relate
to thinking, problem solving abilities and the ability to organize information. One type of
cognitive learning style research measures field independence and field dependence in

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learners. The field independent students prefer to learn in a context where rules,
instructions, discrete-point tests and imitation are emphasized. The field dependent
students, on the other hand, generally prefer cooperative and experiential learning
environments. Affective learning/temperament learning style takes students‟ emotions,
values and feelings into consideration. The focus is on the learner (i.e. his or her
motivation, level of engagement, interaction and reception to feedback) and how he or she
reacts to learning opportunities.
Mulalic, Shad and Ahmad (2009) state that in this classification, the learning
styles of learners such as visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and tactile are classified
according to their perceptions. The other two social aspects, group and individual
preferences are listed focusing on how learners learn best. According to Reid (1995)
there are six major learning style preferences. These are visual, auditory, kinesthetic,
tactile, group and individual major learning style preferences. Individuals can perform
well by using these learning style preferences.
2.3.4.1. Visual learning styles
Students who prefer visual learning style as their major style preference learn best by
seeing from books, chalkboard, and workbooks. They can easily retain and comprehend
instructions and information through reading (Reid, 1995).
2.3.4.2. Auditory learning styles
Auditory major learning style preference is another learning style. Mulalic, Shad and

Ahmad (2009) reported that auditory learners can learn well through listening information
in lectures. Moreover, Reid (1987) mentions that students who prefer auditory learning
style retain knowledge through reading new material loudly. Audio tapes, lectures and
class discussions are beneficial for auditory learners.
2.3.4.3. Kinesthetic learning styles
The other learning style is kinesthetic major learning style preference. Drama, roleplay and moving around are the examples of active involvement preferences of kinesthetic
learners (Mulalic, Shad & Ahmad, 2009). Hence, kinesthetic learners learn well by
experiencing and involving in classroom practices physically. In this respect, kinesthetic
learners need to take part in the activities such as field trips and role playing to keep in
mind the information (Reid, 1995).

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2.3.4.4. Tactile learning styles
There is one more learning style: Tactile major learning style preference. Reid
(1995) indicates that tactile learners can learn well if they the chance to deal with
hands-on experiences with materials such as experiments in a laboratory, handling and
building models.
2.3.4.5. Group learning styles
In addition, the other learning styles which create the social aspects of the Reid‟s
learning style preferences is group major learning style preference. According to Reid
(1995) students who prefer group learning style as their major preference learn easily when
they study at least with one of their classmates. Also, when they study with other students,
they finish their work more successfully.
2.3.4.6. Individual learning styles
The last learning style which has part in the social aspects of Reid‟s learning style
preferences is individual major learning style preference. Learners with individual learning
style preference gain knowledge best when they study alone. Furthermore, when they learn
on their own, they comprehend new material easily (Reid, 1995).

Reid (1995) categorizes learning styles as major, minor, and negligible. Each student
has major, minor and negligible learning style preferences. Major learning styles point out
the area in which the learner could perform well. Minor learning styles show areas in
which students still can perform well. On the other hand, negligible learning styles show
the areas in which students may have trouble in learning.
2.4. Factors affecting learning styles preference
Learning style preference is said to be affected by several factors, some of which
have more effect on certain learners or in certain stages than others. For example, when
Ramayah et al. (2011) examined the effect of peer, technology, cultural background on
learning style of business school students, they found that peer affected all four types of
learning style, technology affected reading and writing, while cultural background of the
learner affected visual, aural and kinesthetic learning styles of the participants. There have
been several other studies confirming the effect of culture (Charlesworth, 2008; De Vita,
2010; Lee, 2011; Song & Oh, 2011). A study more specific about the cultural effect found

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