A study on learners attitudes towards the application of formative assessment to teaching english writing at vietnam usa society english center m a 60 14 10

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY –HOCHIMINH CITY
UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
FACULTY OF ENGLISH LINGUISTICS & LITERATURE

A STUDY ON LEARNERS’ ATTITUDES
TOWARDS THE APPLICATION OF FORMATIVE
ASSESSMENT TO TEACHING ENGLISH
WRITING AT VIETNAM USA SOCIETY
ENGLISH CENTER

A thesis submitted to the
Faculty of English Linguistics & Literature
in partial fulfillment of the Master’s degree in TESOL

By
TRAN NGUYEN BAO HUONG

Supervised by
LE HOANG DUNG, Ph.D.

HO CHI MINH CITY, JANUARY 2015


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to express my special thanks to the people who have helped me
to complete this study.
First and foremost, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Dr. Le
Hoang Dung, my supervisor, for his practical guidance, insightful comments,
valuable assistance and empathy from the beginning to the completion of the
thesis. If it had not been for his support both mentally and emotionally, I would

not have finished the thesis.
I would like to thank all my devoted instructors of the Master course in
TESOL 2012 at Ho Chi Minh City University of Social Sciences and Humanities.
They gave me informative, interesting lectures and academic advice that helped
me form a more scientific approach to my career and pursue my professional
development.
I would like to extend my sincere thanks to all my friends of this Master
course, TESOL 2012, for their useful advice, support, encouragement and
willingness to share their resources and experience.
Another special thanks goes to my colleagues and especially students at
Vietnam USA Society Language Center, Phan Xich Long campus, who were
willing to cooperate in the writing course and data collection for the study.
Without their support, this study would not have been possible.
Last but not least, my heartfelt gratitude goes to my family, especially my
parents for their support and encouragement throughout the course and the
completion of this study. Their endless love, constant care and enormous sacrifice
have always been a great source of encouragement for me to move ahead in my
life.


 

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STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY

I hereby certify my authorship of the thesis submitted today entitled:
A STUDY ON LEARNERS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS THE

APPLICATION OF FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT TO TEACHING
ENGLISH WRITING AT VIETNAM USA SOCIETY ENGLISH CENTER

In terms of the statement of the requirements for the Thesis in Master’s
Program issued by the Higher Degree Committee.
This thesis has not been submitted for the award of any degree or diploma in
other institution.

Ho Chi Minh City, January 2015

TRAN NGUYEN BAO HUONG


 

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RETENTION OF USE

I hereby state that I, Tran Nguyen Bao Huong, being the candidate for the
degree of Master in TESOL, accept the requirements of the University relating to
the retention and use of Master’s Thesis deposited in the library.
In terms of these conditions, I agree that the original of my thesis deposited
in the library should be accessible for the purpose of study and research, in
accordance with the normal conditions established by the library for the care,
loan or reproduction of theses.

Ho Chi Minh City, January 2015

TRAN NGUYEN BAO HUONG


 

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pages
Acknowledgments ………………………………………………………..

i

Statement of originality …………………………………………………..

ii

Retention of use …………………………………………………………..

iii

Table of contents …………………………………………………………. iv
List of tables …………………………………………………………........ viii
List of figures …………………………………………………………...... ix
Abstract …………………………………………………………............... x

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ……………………………………… 1

1.1. Background to the study ……………………………………………..

1

1.2. Hypothesis formulating ……………………………………………… 4
1.3. Aims of the study ……………………………………………………

4

1.4. Research questions …………………………………………………..

5

1.5. Significance of the study ……………………………………………

5

1.6. The organization of the study ………………………………………

6

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ……………………………… 7

2.1. Assessment in teaching and learning ………………………………... 7
2.2. Formative assessment ………………………………………………..

9

2.2.1. Definition of formative assessment ……………………………...

9

2.2.2. Summative assessment vs. Formative assessment ………………

12

2.2.3. Formative assessment and some changes in the roles of teacher
14
and students ………………………………………………………


 

iv
 


2.2.3.1. Teacher ………………………………………………………

14

2.2.3.2. Students ……………………………………………………… 15
2.2.4. The application of formative assessment in classroom ………….

15

2.2.4.1. Feedback through grading …………………………………… 17
2.2.4.2. Self-assessment ……………………………………………… 20
2.2.4.3. Peer assessment ……………………………………………… 21

2.3. Formative assessment and teaching L2 writing ……………………..

22

2.3.1. Some issues regarding to assessing a written work ……………..

22

2.3.1.1. Teachers’ responses to a written work ………………………

22

2.3.1.1.1. The product approach ……………………………………

23

2.3.1.1.2. The process approach ……………………………………

24

2.3.1.2. Assessing a written work ……………………………………

25

2.3.2. The application of formative assessment into teaching L2 writing 26
2.4. Some drawbacks of the application of formative assessment in
teaching L2 …………………………………………………………...

30

2.5. Synthesis of literature review ………………………………………..

31

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ……………………………………

34

3.1. Research design ……………………………………………………..

34

3.2. Research site …………………………………………………………

34

3.3. Participants …………………………………………………………..

35

3.4. Course book ………………………………………………………….

36

3.5. Research instruments ………………………………………………..

36

3.5.1. Preliminary survey ………………………………………………. 37
3.5.2. Experimental course ……………………………………………..

37

3.5.3. Questionnaire ……………………………………………………. 38


 

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3.5.4. Interview …………………………………………………………

40

3.5.5. Teaching diary …………………………………………………...

41

3.6. Procedure of data collection …………………………………………

41

3.7. Procedure of data analysis …………………………………………...

44

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ………………………..

46

4.1. Analysis of data ……………………………………………………… 46
4.1.1. Preliminary survey ………………………………………………

46

4.1.2. Analysis of students’ responses after the experimental course ….

54

4.1.2.1. Feedback through grading …………………………………… 54
4.1.2.2. Self-assessment ……………………………………………… 56
4.1.2.3. Peer assessment ……………………………………………… 59
4.1.2.4. General opinions about this course ………………………….. 61
4.1.2.5. Hypothesis testing …………………………………………… 62
4.1.3. Analysis of students’ interview ………………………………….. 65
4.1.3.1 Students’ general opinions about this course ………………… 65
4.1.3.2. Students’ responses to the application of formative
67
assessment in teaching English writing via three indicators
(feedback through grading, self-assessment and peer
assessment) …………………………………………………...
4.1.4. Analysis of teaching diary ……………………………………….

69

4.1.4.1. Strengths ……………………………………………………..

69

4.1.4.2. Weaknesses ………………………………………………….

71

4.2. Discussion of results …………………………………………………

71

4.3. Major findings ……………………………………………………….. 75
4.3.1. Research question 1 ……………………………………………...

75

4.3.2. Research question 2 ……………………………………………...

76


 

vi
 


CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION …………………………………………

79

5.1. Summary …………………………………………………………….

79

5.2. Pedagogical implications ……………………………………………

80

5.2.1. A supportive classroom culture …………………………………

81

5.2.2. Peer and self- assessment in class ……………………………….

81

5.2.2.1. Peer assessment ……………………………………………… 81
5.2.2.2. Self- assessment ……………………………………………..

83

5.2.2.3. Feedback through grading …………………………………..

84

5.3. Suggestions ………………………………………………………….. 85
5.3.1. Suggestions for the administrations of the center ……………….. 86
5.3.2. Suggestions for VUS teachers …………………………………...

86

5.4. Limitations of the study ……………………………………………...

90

5.5. Recommendation for further study ………………………………….. 90

REFERENCES ………………………………………………………….

92

APPENDICES …………………………………………………………..

97

Appendix A: Student preliminary survey ………………………………..

98

Appendix B: Questionnaire to students ………………………………….

102

Appendix C: Interview questions to students ……………………………

106

Appendix D: Teaching diary (form) ……………………………………..

107

Appendix E: Transcription of students’ responses in interviews ………… 108
Appendix F: Teaching diary ……………………………………………...


 

vii
 

116


LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 :

Comparison between formative assessment and 13
summative assessment (adapted from McMillan, 2007) ..

Table 2.2 :

Formative assessment techniques in teaching writing ...

30

Table 3.1 :

Background of the participants ………………………..

36

Table 3.2 :

Content of five units in experimental course …………

38

Table 3.3 :

Summary of implied purposes from the questionnaire ..

39

Table 4.1 :

Students’ perception towards learning each language 47
skill ……………………………………………………...

Table 4.2 :

Students’
attitudes
towards
learning
writing 48
skill……………………………………………………….

Table 4.3 :

Students’ self-assessment of their English writing skill

49

Table 4.4 :

Students’ problems in learning English writing skill ….

50

Table 4.5 :

Students’ experiences of learning English writing skill in 52
the previous classes …………………………………..

Table 4.6 :

Students’ opinions on giving feedback through grading

55

Table 4.7 :

Students’ opinions on self- assessment ……………….

57

Table 4.8 :

Students’ opinions on peer assessment …….

59

Table 4.9 :

Students’ opinions on the whole experimental course…

62

Table 4.10:

Independent Samples t-Test: Whether gender affected 64
the attitudes towards this application or not …………….

Table 4.11:

Interview result of students’ opinions on this writing 66
course ……………………………………………………

Table 4.12:

Interview results of Students’ attitudes towards the 69
application of formative assessment in teaching English
writing …………………………………………………..

Table 4.13:

Summary of the major findings ………………………

Table 5.1 :

Summary of suggestions for implementing formative 88

assessment in teaching English writing skill ……………


 

viii
 

77


LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1:

Learning, Teaching and Assessment Cycle …………

17

Figure 2.2:

The formative instructional process …………………

18

Figure 2.3:

Model of formative assessment and feedback (Nicol 19
and Macfarlane-Dick, 2004) …………………………

Figure 2.4:

Conceptual framework of the study …………………

32

Figure 3.4:

Data collection procedure ……………………………

43

Figure 4.1:

Students like learning English writing skill …………

47


 

ix
 


ABSTRACT

Formative assessment has been proved to be an effective tool in language
teaching. Researches have claimed its positive effects in improving learners’
using language, especially writing skill. Stemming from these strengths, this
research aimed to investigate the attitudes students’ attitudes towards the

application of formative assessment in teaching writing in the context of
Vietnam USA Society Language Center (VUS). Eighteen participants of a
VUS class (11-14 years old) took part in an experimental five-sessionwriting course using a wide range of formative assessment activities, among
of which were giving feedback through grading, self-assessment and peer
assessment. A preliminary survey, questionnaires, interviews and teaching
diary were employed as research tools to explore the students’ attitudes
towards this application. Data analysis showed the positive attitudes of
students in this course and some noticeable improvement in students’
motivation towards learning writing skill. Nevertheless, a few shortcomings
still existed and thus suggestions for future course were also recorded.
Key words: attitudes, formative assessment, feedback through grading, selfassessment, peer assessment


 

x
 


CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
This chapter offers an overview about (1) background to the study, (2) the
hypothesis, (3) the research purposes, (4) research questions, (5) the
significance of the study and (6) the organization of the study.
1.1.

Background to the study
English has been a dominant language in global communication, and

considered as a world language. Especially, for the goals of industrialization

and modernization of Vietnam in this world integration era, we are supposed to
be good at all language skills, namely listening, speaking, reading and writing.
Therefore, the needs of learning English have been increasing more than ever
before. Indeed, in our country English has been the compulsory subject in
almost every educational institution from lower secondary schools to
universities. Moreover, hundreds of language centers are blooming at every
corner to meet this strong need of learners. Students are taught all language
skills in most curricula since each skill has its own significance in
communication.
As for writing skill, it is necessary for all students because “being able to
write is a vital skill for ‘speakers’ of a foreign language as much as for
everyone using their own first language” (Harmer, 2007a, p.3). Teaching
second language writing, as a result, has become an essential responsibility of
educators nowadays since writing offers learners various benefits on both
practical and pedagogical grounds. The real value of learning writing has been
emphasized by Wingard (1992) via two basic aspects of the learning and
teaching written English, i.e. writing as a channel and writing as a goal. While
writing as a channel helps students reinforce the grammatical structures, idioms
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and vocabulary that our students have been learning, writing as a goal requires
students to communicate with other people in writing. That’s why writing as a
channel has exercises which are introduced to consolidate language already
presented and practiced orally. On the other hand, writing as a channel tasks
helps students develop their communication skills via filling out forms, writing
letters, taking notes, writing telephones messages, etc. These two aspects are

sometimes inseparable, and a written task could contribute to both of them. All
in all, nobody can deny the vital role of acquiring writing skill in learning a
language. As a result, in the field of TESOL researches, teaching and learning
writing skill have been always received much attention of educators from over
the world.
Besides research of techniques and approaches to teach writing skill,
there are a lot of researches of assessing writing papers which are worth being
paid attention. In the last years, educational research has provided ample
support for the assertion that everyday practice of assessment in classroom is
full of problems and shortcomings. First, “giving of marks and the grading
function are overemphasized while the giving of useful advice and the learning
function are underemphasized”, which causes negative impact on lowachieving students (Black & Wiliam, 1998). Second, the managerial role of
assessment is almost neglected by teachers who pay attention to the collection
of marks to fill in records more than the analysis of students’ work to discern
learning needs (Black & Wiliam, 1998). In addition, “most of the available
resources and most of the public and political attention were focused on
external tests”, as a result, “summative assessment have been given some
formal status” (Black & Wiliam, 1998). It can be seen that the practice of
assessment which has been used so far could not help the learners much in
figuring out their strengths as well as weakness in each writing assignments.
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Moreover, students’ learning needs, to some extent, may be ignored, which
prevents students from appreciating the value of teacher’s assessment.
Theoretically, with an effort to improve learners’ enthusiasm for learning
English and the way how to assess students’ written work more exactly, many

researchers have found that formative assessment is really an interesting tool
for teachers to integrate into their English classes. It can help teachers “to
gauge the effectiveness of their instructional practices, modify instructions as
needed, and provide students with feedback on writing strengths and areas in
need of further development” (Graham, Harris, & Hebert, 2011, p. 5). Hence
the application of formative assessment is expected to increase the interest of
students and improve the quality of teaching second language writing
(hereinafter called L2 writing) in the class.
Through two years of teaching at VUS, I have found that there are still
some negative issues regarding to assessing English writing skill. Teachers who
are in charge of general English class often give marks without detailed
comments on the writing so that students cannot see what they have done well
and what they have not. As a result, no revision of writing papers is made
although the writing papers have not satisfied the given criteria. Gradually,
students have formed a habit of caring marks rather than comments since they
cannot get any benefits from teacher’s comments. In other words, students have
not recognized the importance of assessment in learning and often considered it
as teacher’s responsibility only. In short, assessment of writing skill in the
general English program at VUS is mainly summative assessment which serves
for the accountability or ranking the students.
Based on the theory and practical situation, formative assessment is
considered to be suitable to apply in writing lessons at VUS to increase
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students’ involvement in assessment process in learning English writing.
Thanks to that, their achievement in writing skill, to some extent, will be

improved. However, this study will only focus on the attitudes of learners
(teenagers at the age of 11-15 years old) towards the application of formative
assessment to teaching L2 writing in a proposed time since this kind of
assessment is quite strange to students at VUS. Then the advantages and
disadvantages of this application, and some suggestions on how to incorporate
formative assessment into teaching L2 writing to help increase students’
interest in learning writing in the context of VUS will be discussed later.
1.2.

Hypothesis formulating
Based on the practical problems addressed above, this study endeavors to

draw on concepts from formative assessment to propose some possible
solutions to this issue. Due to the fact that summative assessment in the classes
cannot figure out the full picture of students’ achievement as well as their
progress in learning English writing, the scores they receive cannot help them
to recognize their strengths and weaknesses in the learning process. Therefore,
in order to enhance the quality of assessment in teaching and learning writing at
VUS, the researcher would like to apply formative assessment via its specific
techniques in an English writing course. Students after attending a writing
course are hypothesized to have positive attitudes of students towards this
application. Additionally, the researcher could find some pros and cons of this
application in the context of VUS after a course and then some suggestions will
be given to make this application more suitable at VUS.
1.3.

Aims of the study
The aims of this study are:

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(i)

To investigate VUS students’ attitudes towards the application of
formative assessment in teaching English writing;

(ii)

To find out the advantages and disadvantages of this application in
writing lessons in the context of VUS;
Through the data collected and analyzed, the application of formative

assessment in writing lessons will be modified and reinforced to be more
suitable for this context. Thanks to this, some suggestions on how to make
good use of formative assessment in writing lessons in the context of VUS are
also provided.
1.4.

Research questions
In order to achieve the purpose, the study is guided by the following
questions:

(1) What are VUS students’ attitudes towards the application of formative
assessment to teaching English writing skill?
(2) What are the advantages and disadvantages of using formative
assessment in teaching English writing skill at VUS?

1.5.

Significance of the study
The study reviews theoretical foundation for the use of formative

assessment in writing lessons. Moreover, the study results can highlight
students’ attitudes towards the use of formative assessment in writing lessons,
together with the positive and negative aspects of this application in the context
of VUS. Finally, this research offers some suggestions on incorporating
formative assessment more frequently and effectively in writing lessons to
enhance students’ interest in learning this important language skill.
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1.6.

The organization of the study
This thesis consists of five chapters. Chapter 1 presents the rationale of

the study, the research hypotheses, purposes and research questions. Chapter 2
provides some theoretical background on formative assessment, the notion of
assessment in teaching English writing and some principles in applying the
framework in the experimental course. Chapter 3 describes in details the design
of the study, research methodology, research instruments, participants,
procedure of data collection and data analysis. Chapter 4 reports the results of
this study to see the students’ attitudes towards this application in teaching
English writing. The final chapter devotes for the discussion regarding related

issues, pedagogical implications, limitations and suggestions for further
research.

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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter aims to explain (1) the theoretical background of formative
assessment and its implication in teaching English, (2) framework, principles in
applying formative assessment in EFL classroom, (3) the rationale of
incorporating formative assessment into teaching English writing and (4) how
to implement formative assessment into teaching English writing.
2.1. Assessment in teaching and learning
Assessment in teaching and learning has become a favorite topic for
analysis and been extensively studied in recent years. In fact, as the nature of
teaching and learning has changed a lot, the knowledge of assessment in
teaching and learning has a great importance for helping students learn and
improve teaching’s instruction (Shepard & Sheppard, 2000). Teachers need to
consider not just what they are assessing and how they are doing it (particular
which methods and approaches), but also why- their rationale for assessing on
any particular occasion and in any context. Different reasons (to motivate
students, to encourage activity, to provide guidance and feedback for
remediation, grading and selection) will impact on the choice of assessment
instruments. It is necessary to think about the agents who undertake the task
and when is the best time to assess. Brown (2004) believed that assessment
needs to be integral to the learning process and used to rank students or to

certify the end products of learning (Shepard & Sheppard, 2000). However, to
ensure that assessment is part of the learning process, Brown (2004) argued that
it should be learner-centered assessment and should reflect a learner-centered
curriculum. Therefore, assessment methods and approaches need to be focused
on evidence of achievement rather than the ability to regurgitate information.
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The development of this belief has led to the hope that teachers should
concentrate equally strongly on giving feedback and on making evaluative
decisions about performance (Brown, 2004).
Furthermore, the assessment needs to focus as well on what is intended
to be learned (Brown, 2004). Assessment can become valid when assessors use
evidence of achievement, clearly matched against the criteria (Brown &
Glasner, 1999). The assessment criteria need to be clear, explicit, framed in
language that is meaningful to staff and students and available well in advance
of the commencement of activities that will subsequently be assessed (Brown,
2004). From the perspective of assessment fairness in classrooms, students
should be allowed to demonstrate their competence using the particular
conditions that show them to best advantage (at least as one of the ways they
are assessed). However, from the teaching perspective, students should not
always rely on the format that is most comfortable. Good instruction focuses on
areas of weakness as well as strengths and ensures that students’ knowledge
becomes increasingly flexible and robust across contexts of application
(Shepard & Sheppard, 2000).
As a short conclusion of this issue, Black (2004, p.10) has propounded a
concept, i.e. “assessment for learning” to demonstrate his viewpoint on

assessment in teaching and learning. In his opinion, assessment for learning is
any assessment for which the first priority in its design and practice is to serve
the purpose of promoting students’ learning. It thus differs from assessment
designed primarily to serve the purposes of accountability, or of ranking, or of
certifying competence. An assessment activity can help learning if it provides
information that teachers and their students can use as feedback in assessing
themselves and one another and in modifying the teaching and learning
activities in which they are engaged. Such assessment becomes “formative
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assessment” when the evidence is actually used to adapt the teaching work to
meet learning needs.”
2.2.

Formative assessment
The powerful effects of formative assessment on student learning have

been recognized for years, dating back to the work of Black and Wiliam
(1998). In fact, the importance of using formative assessment has a long and
rich history in education. In 1971, Benjamin Bloom described the benefits of
offering students regular feedback on their learning progress through classroom
formative assessment. His work on formative assessment through the
instructional strategies he labeled mastery learning. It was Bloom who initiated
the phrase formative assessment and provided practical guidance for the use of
formative assessment in modern classroom (cited in Guskey, 2005).
It was claimed that formative assessment held the key to success in

teaching (Berry, 2008). Different from other kinds of assessment “designed
primarily to serve the purposes of accountability, or of ranking, or of certifying
competence”, formative assessment is used to enhance students’ achievement
via feedback in “assessing themselves and one another and in modifying the
teaching and learning activities in which they are engaged” (Black, et al, 2002,
p.10). As an illustration, a recent research has proved that frequent assessment
feedback can help low-achieving students and students with learning
disabilities enhance their learning (Black, & Wiliam, 1998). On the basis of the
evidence currently available, it seems fair to suggest that formative assessment
is actually an effective teaching tool which “opens more opportunities for deep
learning” than summative assessment does (Berry, 2008).
2.2.1. Definition of formative assessment

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This part is concerned with the issue of what formative assessment is. In
one article, Black, & Wiliam (1998) put forward the claim that formative
assessment are all activities performed by teacher and his students in assessing
themselves, which are as feedback to “modify teaching and learning activities”
in order to meet students’ needs. Along similar lines, Cowie, & Bell (1999)
defined formative assessment as the process used by teacher and students to
recognize and respond to student learning for the purpose of improving that
learning. Furthermore, Kahl (2005) developed the claim that a formative
assessment is a tool rather than simply as evaluation devices marking the end of
instruction that teachers use to measure student grasp of specific topics and
skills they are teaching. It’s a ‘midstream’ tool to identify specific student

misconceptions and mistakes while the material is being taught. Besides, a
closer look at the data indicates that formative assessment is generally
characterized by five features (Black, & Wiliam, 1998):
(1) It is a process, not simply a specific test or other assessment;
(2) It is undertaken by teacher and students;
(3) It takes during instruction;
(4) It provides feedback to students;
(5) It provides instructional adjustments or correctives.
Among definition of formative assessment, one of the most
comprehensive descriptions of formative assessment has been introduced by
Shepard (2006). She has presented a model of formative assessment as a tool
for helping to guide student learning as well as to provide information that
teachers can use to improve their own instructional practices. Here are the key
characteristics of formative assessment. Formative assessment:
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1. Requires students to take responsibility for their own learning.
2. Communicates clear, specific learning goals.
3. Focuses on goals that represent valuable educational outcomes with
applicability and beyond the learning context.
4. Identifies the student’s current knowledge/ skills and the necessary
steps for reaching the desired goals.
5. Requires development of plans for attaining the desired goals.
6. Encourages students to self-monitor progress towards the learning
goals.
7. Provides example of learning goals including, when relevant, the

specific grading criteria or rubrics that will be used to evaluate the
students’ work.
8. Provides frequent assessment, including peer and student selfassessment and assessment embedded within learning activities.
9. Includes feedback that is non-evaluative, specific, timely, related to
learning goals, and provides opportunities for the student to revise
and improve work products and deepen understandings.
10. Promotes metacognition and reflection by students on their work.
Some characteristics of formative assessment have been listed above;
however, among of them, there are two key features which are necessary to
notice when applying formative assessment in class. First, formative
assessment requires students to identify their learning goals and monitor their
progress towards the desired goals via self-assessment and peer assessment.
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Second, feedback has to be relevant to the learning goals and provides students
with more opportunities to improve their work products or understanding. Thus
for a successful use of formative assessment, it should be expressed via three
main indicators, i.e. feedback through grading, self-assessment, and peer
assessment. The details of three indicators will be discussed in the following
parts.
2.2.2. Summative assessment vs. Formative assessment
In this section, the discussion will point to the difference between
summative assessment and formative assessment. Arends and Kilcher (2010)
defined the difference as, “formative assessment involves collecting
information prior to or during instruction, that could be used by teachers to
make instructional decisions and in-flight adjustments. Students can use this

information to adjust [their] learning strategies” while “summative assessment
involves collecting information after an instructional segment has occurred”
(p.132). In addition, Black and William (1998) saw formative assessment as
“activities undertaken by instructors, as well as by students in assessing
themselves” prior to the summative assessment. Looney (2011) also provided a
similar distinction when she explained, “summative assessments of individual
students may be used for promotion, certification or admission to higher levels
of education. Formative assessment, by contrast, drew on information gathered
in the assessment process to identify learning needs and adjust teaching” (p.5).
In the same vain but more specific, Ewell (2002) saw formative assessment as
being able to identify a “wide range of performance” whereas summative
assessment simply identified how many students have achieved the target. Here
is the table of comparison between summative assessment and formative
assessment adapted from McMillan (2007).

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Characteristic

Formative Assessment
Summative Assessment

Purpose

Student Involvement
Student Motivation

Teacher Role

Provide ongoing

Document student

feedback to improve

learning at the end of an

learning

instructional segment

Encouraged

Discouraged

Intrinsic, mastery-

Extrinsic, performance-

oriented

oriented

To provide immediate,

To measure student

specific feedback and

learning and give grades

instructional correctives
Assessment Techniques
Effect on Learning

Informal

Formal

Strong, positive, and

Weak and fleeting

long-lasting

Table 2.1: Comparison between formative assessment and summative
assessment (adapted from McMillan, 2007)
However, there seems to be no compelling reason to argue that
formative and summative assessments are mutually exclusive because
formative assessment contributes to the necessary dialogue on how well
students perform on the summative assessment, and summative assessment also
can help in identifying gaps and trends in learning, which proves that they are
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complementary approaches to provide a reliable indication of student
achievement. As a result, besides summative assessment, formative assessment
is also encouraged to incorporate into the assessment system in order to collect
information of students’ achievement for the whole course, instead of the marks
only. Both of two kinds of assessment will provide teacher with completed
pictures of students’ performance.
2.2.3. Formative assessment and some changes in the roles of teacher
and students
On the basis of the literature of formative assessment currently available,
it seems necessary to discuss about the “new” roles of both teacher and students
in classroom. They are supposed to be “active, distinctive, yet complementary
roles in enabling learning by consistently working to build and consolidate
student understanding and skills during the course of a lesson” (Heritage, 2011,
p.18).
2.2.3.1. Teacher
Further research in this area has shown the change in teacher’s roles
when formative assessment is applied in the classroom. Black, & Harrison
(2004) proposed that “teacher interact more frequently and effectively with
students on a day-to-day basic, promoting their learning”. They explained more
that the roles of teachers had shifted from traditional role of information
provider and corrector to the other one who can support students’ learning by
shaping their instructions in class so as to meet the learning needs of students.
The foregoing discussion implies that the teacher is like a facilitator and
monitor in a formative assessment class, who can identify students’ needs and
adjust their teaching to help students as well as help them to understand how
well they are learning (Dettling, 2011).
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