Effectively teaching english vocabulary to the 6th graders at quang trung secondary school

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HO CHI MINH CITY
UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES
----------*********----------

EFFECTIVELY TEACHING ENGLISH VOCABULARY
TO THE 6TH GRADERS
AT QUANG TRUNG SECONDARY SCHOOL

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF TESOL

Submitted by TRUONG NGUYEN NGOC THAO

Supervisor

NGUYEN THAI AN, Ph.D.

HO CHI MINH CITY, JULY 2011


CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY
I hereby certificate my authorship of the thesis submitted today entitle:

EFFECTIVELY TEACHING ENGLISH VOCABULARY
TO THE 6TH GRADERS
AT QUANG TRUNG SECONDARY SCHOOL
In terms of the statement of requirements for Thesis in Master’s Programs
issued by the Higher Degree Committee. The thesis has not previously been
submitted for a degree.

Ho Chi Minh City, July 2011

TRUONG NGUYEN NGOC THAO

i


RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS
I hereby state that I, TRUONG NGUYEN NGOC THAO, being the
candidate for the degree of Master of TESOL, accept the requirements of the
University relating to the retention and use of Master’s Thesis deposited in the
Library.
In terms of these conditions, I agree that the original of my thesis deposited
in the Library should be accessible for the purposes of study and research, in
accordance with the normal conditions established by the library for the care, loan
or reproduction of theses.

Ho Chi Minh City, July 2011

TRUONG NGUYEN NGOC THAO

ii


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am indeed grateful to many people for supporting me so that I can make this
M.A. (Master of Art) thesis feasible.
I firstly want to express my deepest gratitude to my respectable supervisor- Dr.
Nguyen Thai An, because of his valuable instructions to my study. I am happy to
have accepted as his student before the TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of
Other Language) course ends. Under his wholehearted guidance, priceless

comments and continuous encouragement during the process of carrying out the
study, this thesis has been accomplished as required.
Besides, I would like to send my special thanks to my loving parents – Mr.
Truong Ngoc Thach and Mrs. Nguyen Thi Ngoc Hoa, as well as my younger brother
Truong Nguyen Thanh Tu, who warmly motivate my spirit to overcome ups and
downs so that I can concentrate on my study working.
Also, I am deeply indebted to my headmaster - Mr. Truong Van Hoa and viceprinciple – Mrs. Nguyen Thi Sinh at Quang Trung secondary school in District 4,
Ho Chi Minh City for their precious help during the time of my experiment.
At last, I would like to sincerely thank to all my teachers of the M.A course in
TESOL, 2007-2010 at Ho Chi Minh City University of Social Sciences and
Humanities, my colleagues in grade 6 in and out of Quang Trung school and my
students, whose contributions into having supplied information for me to seriously
and scientifically research at hands and in future.

iii


ABSTRACT
Recently, the application of innovative and effective techniques for lexical
instruction has not been estimated adequately in Vietnamese secondary schools.
Therefore, the present study aims at proving the effectiveness and feasibility of
teaching English vocabulary through contexts as a good technique.
The study was mainly carried out on the theory of teaching vocabulary for
language growth by Nation (1990, 2001, 2008), which creates a connection between
words previously learned and currently new ones on the students’ progress of
vocabulary learning. Recognizably, the researcher considers the technique of
teaching vocabulary through contexts as a useful way for activating students to
remember and use the words through useful and practical activities on lexis from the
contexts.
Data were collected during a twelve-week experimental teaching from 98

students of the Control Group – class 6A4, and the Experimental Group – class 6A3
in Quang Trung secondary school located in District 4. Also, there were pre- and
post-tests to assess the students’ linguistic performance as well as questionnaires to
explore the reflections from the teachers and students. Next, the T-tests were used to
check if there were the statistically significant differences of means in lexical
knowledge between the Control and Experimental Groups or not. Then figures from
pre- and post-questionnaires were analyzed to clarify the issues in the study.
The outcomes of the study report that the Experimental Group made a
significant progress in the post-test thanks to the treatment, but not owing to chance.
In addition, the students expressed positive attitudes, motivation through learning
activities during the application of the technique, which proves the technique of
teaching English vocabulary through contexts is worthy.

iv


TABLE OF CONTENTS
Certificate of originality ............................................................................................ .i
Retention and use of the thesis................................................................................... .ii
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................... iii
Abstract ..................................................................................................................... iv
Table of contents ....................................................................................................... .v
List of tables .............................................................................................................. x
List of figures ............................................................................................................ xii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Rationale of the study ......................................................................................... .1
1.2 Background of the study ..................................................................................... .3
1.3 Aims of the research ........................................................................................... .5
1.4 Research questions .............................................................................................. .5
1.5 Significance of the study ..................................................................................... .6

1.6 Structure of the thesis .......................................................................................... .6
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Issues concerning vocabulary teaching ............................................................... .7
2.1.1 Why vocabulary should be taught .......................................................... .7
2.1.2 Active and passive words....................................................................... .8
2.1.3 Aspects of knowing a word .................................................................... .9
2.1.4 Process of teaching new words .............................................................. 10
2.1.5 Easy words vs. difficult words ............................................................... 11
2.2 Teaching English to preteens .............................................................................. 13
2.2.1 Characteristics of young learners as living entities ................................. 13
2.2.2 How preteens learn language, including vocabulary............................... 13
2.3 Committing new words to short-term and long-term memories ........................... 15
2.4 Techniques to teach new words .......................................................................... 17
2.4.1 Using visual aids .................................................................................... 17

v


2.4.2 Making mimes, gestures and actions ...................................................... 18
2.4.3 Giving examples .................................................................................... 19
2.4.4 Giving synonyms ................................................................................... 19
2.4.5 Giving antonyms .................................................................................... 20
2.4.6 Giving translation................................................................................... 20
2.4.7 Using definition ..................................................................................... 21
2.5 Teaching new words through contexts ................................................................ 22
2.5.1 Definition of context .............................................................................. 22
2.5.2 New words in contexts........................................................................... 22
2.5.3 Selecting words to teach through contexts ............................................. 25
2.5.4 Texts enriched with contexts.................................................................. 25
2.6 Follow-up classroom activities to consolidate new words ................................... 27

2.6.1 Recognizing aspects of words ................................................................ 27
2.6.2 Eliciting memories ................................................................................. 28
2.6.3 Gap filling .............................................................................................. 28
2.6.4 Using games........................................................................................... 29
2.6.5 Matching words with pictures or definitions ........................................... 29
2.6.6 Using multiple-choice tasks ................................................................... 30
2.7 Roles of the teacher and students when working with contexts ........................... 30
2.8 Basic word lists of previous writers .................................................................... 32
2.9 Previous local studies in teaching vocabulary ..................................................... 32
2.9.1 Theses involved in the 6th graders .......................................................... 33
2.9.1.1 Tran Thi My (2002)......................................................................... 33
2.9.1.2 Nguyen Thi Bich Thuy (2005)......................................................... 33
2.9.1.3 Phan Hong Yen (2007) .................................................................... 34
2.9.2 Theses involved in teaching vocabulary ................................................. 34
2.9.2.1 Huynh Huu Hanh Nguyen (2007) .................................................... 34
2.9.2.2 Nguyen Thi Bich Tran (2009) ......................................................... 35
2.9.2.3 Giang Huong Nguyen Le (2009) ..................................................... 35

vi


2.10 Summary ........................................................................................................... 36
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
3.1 Setting of the research ........................................................................................ 37
3.2 Research method ................................................................................................ 37
3.3 Participants of the research ................................................................................ 38
3.3.1 The Control Group................................................................................ 39
3.3.2 The Experimental Group....................................................................... 40
3.3.3 The 6th-grade teachers ........................................................................... 41
3.3.4 The researcher ...................................................................................... 41

3.4

Instruments of the research .............................................................................. 41
3.4.1 Questionnaires ...................................................................................... 41
3.4.1.1 The students’ pre-questionnaire ..................................................... 42
3.4.1.2 The teachers’ questionnaire ........................................................... 42
3.4.1.3 The students’ post- questionnaire .................................................. 42
3.4.2 Tests ..................................................................................................... 42
3.4.2.1 The test of word recognition in the “Dolch basic words list” ......... 43
3.4.2.2 The pre-test ................................................................................... 43
3.4.2.3 The post-test .................................................................................. 43

3.5 The experimental teaching ................................................................................. 44
3.6 Data collection procedure .................................................................................. 49
3.7 Summary ........................................................................................................... 50
CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 A brief overview on analyzing procedure............................................................ 51
4.2 The analysis of test scores................................................................................... 52
4.2.1 The result of word recognition in the “Dolch basic word list” ............... 52
4.2.2 The pre-test scores of the two groups .................................................... 53
4.2.3 The post test scores of the two groups ................................................... 55
4.2.4 Conclusion............................................................................................ 57
4.3 The comparison of test results............................................................................. 58

vii


4.3.1 The pre- and post-test comparison of the Control Group ....................... 58
4.3.2 The pre- and post-test comparison of the Experimental Group .............. 58
4.3.3 The pre- and post-test comparison of the two groups ............................ 59

4.3.4 Conclusion............................................................................................ 60
4.4 Responses to pre- and post-test questionnaires .................................................... 61
4.4.1 The analysis of students’ pre-questionnaire data ................................... 61
4.4.2 The analysis of teachers’ questionnaire data ......................................... 65
4.4.3 The analysis of students’ post-questionnaire data .................................. 71
4.4.4 Conclusion ........................................................................................... 76
4.5 Reflections from the study .................................................................................. 76
4.5.1 Evaluation of pre- and post-tests ........................................................... 76
4.5.2 Findings from teaching new words through contexts ............................ 78
4.6 Summary ............................................................................................................ 79
CHAPTER 5: RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Generalizations ................................................................................................... 81
5.2 Limitations of the study ...................................................................................... 83
5.3 Contributions of the research .............................................................................. 83
5.3.1 Selecting new lexical items to teach through contexts ........................... 83
5.3.2 Choosing contexts................................................................................. 84
5.3.3 Doing the follow-up exercises............................................................... 84
5.4 Recommendations .............................................................................................. 87
5.4.1 For teachers .......................................................................................... 87
5.4.2 For students .......................................................................................... 88
5.5 Concerns about further research .......................................................................... 88
5.6 Summary ............................................................................................................ 89
CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................ 90
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................ 92

viii


APPENDICES
Appendix 1: The “Dolch basic words list” ............................................................... .99

Appendix 2: The result of word recognition in the “Dolch basic words list” ............ 101
Appendix 3: Pre-test ................................................................................................ 102
Appendix 4: A typical lesson plan ........................................................................... 104
Appendix 5: The collection of contexts.................................................................... 106
Appendix 6: The suggested follow-up exercises ...................................................... 117
Appendix 7: The total words chosen to teach in the texts ......................................... 123
Appendix 8: The suggested 500-word list ................................................................ 124
Appendix 9:

Post-test.............................................................................................. 127

Appendix 10: The scores of pre- and post-tests ......................................................... 130
Appendix 11: Pre-questionnaire for the 6th graders (in English) ................................ 131
Appendix 12: Pre-questionnaire for the 6th graders (in Vietnamese) ......................... 134
Appendix 13: Questionnaire for teachers .................................................................. 137
Appendix 14: Post-questionnaire for the 6th graders (in English) .............................. 140
Appendix 15: Post-questionnaire for the 6th graders (in Vietnamese) ........................ 142

ix


LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Types of reading texts and vocabulary coverage ......................................... 26
Table 2: The Control Group’s background information ............................................ 39
Table 3: The Experimental Group’s background information ................................... 40
Table 4: The assessment of new words in a text........................................................ 45
Table 5: The comparison of mean values in the two groups ...................................... 52
Table 6: The description of pre-test scores of the two groups.................................... 53
Table 7: The pre-test score ranges of the two groups ................................................ 54
Table 8: The analysis of the two groups’ pre-test results by the T-test ...................... 55

Table 9: The analysis of the two groups’ post-test results by the T-test ..................... 56
Table 10: The post-test score ranges of the two groups .............................................. 56
Table 11: The score changes of the Control Group in pre- and post-tests ................... 59
Table 12: The score changes of the Experimental Group in pre- and post-tests .......... 60
Table 13: Students’ vocabulary learning experience of topics given .......................... 61
Table 14: The students’ assessment of words in “Tieng Anh 6” ................................. 62
Table 15: Aspects of Glossary helping the students learn new words ......................... 62
Table 16: Ways the students enjoyed when learning new words ................................ 63
Table 17: Difficulties the students encounter when learning new words in contexts .. 64
Table 18: Effective classroom activities in pre-reading contexts ................................ 64
Table 19: Effective classroom activities in while-reading contexts ............................ 64
Table 20: Effective classroom activities in post-reading contexts .............................. 65
Table 21: The students’ suggested contents of the short texts .................................... 65
Table 22: Aspects of teaching words ......................................................................... 66
Table 23: The frequency of applying different techniques in vocabulary teaching ..... 67
Table 24: Benefits gained from teaching words through short texts ........................... 69
Table 25: Aspects of a word the 6th graders developed after learning vocabulary
through contexts ........................................................................................ 70
Table 26: Factors affecting vocabulary teaching and learning .................................... 71

x


Table 27: Reasons making the students prefer the texts ............................................. 72
Table 28: The students’ ideas on forms of activities .................................................. 72
Table 29: Aspects of new words the students learn in contexts .................................. 73
Table 30: Activities of learning new words done in pre-reading contexts .................. 73
Table 31: Activities of learning new words done in while-reading contexts ............... 74
Table 32: Activities of learning new words done in post-reading contexts ................. 74

xi


LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Vocabulary in the relation to four language skills ...................................... .8
Figure 2: Knowing a word ........................................................................................ 10
Figure 3: The process from understanding a context to remembering it .................... 15
Figure 4: The four factors involved in remembering ................................................. 16
Figure 5: Simple Neuron Pathway ............................................................................ 17
Figure 6: The relationship of context and content ..................................................... 24
Figure 7: Tasks and rate at which information is remembered .................................. 31
Figure 8: The comparison of the level of lexical knowledge between the
Control Group and the Experimental Group .............................................. 52
Figure 9: The comparison of the pre-test scores between the Control Group and
the Experimental Group ........................................................................... 54
Figure 10: The comparison of the post-test scores between the Control Group and
the Experimental Group ........................................................................... 57
Figure 11: The score changes of the students in the Control Group............................ 58
Figure 12: The score changes of the students in the Experimental Group................... 58
Figure 13: The post-test comparison of the two groups .............................................. 59
Figure 14: The Control Group’s scores in pre- and post-tests..................................... 60
Figure 15: The Experimental Group’s scores in pre- and post-tests............................ 60
Figure 16: Reading - the main skill for the 6th graders to learn new words ................. 61
Figure 17: How the 6th graders learnt new words ....................................................... 63
Figure 18: The teachers’ realization of the role of teaching vocabulary ..................... 66
Figure 19: Basic language skills for the 6th graders to learn vocabulary ..................... 68
Figure 20: The teachers’ assessment of teaching vocabulary through contexts ........... 68
Figure 21: Opinions on the number of short texts per week ....................................... 70
Figure 22: The students’ ideas about the new words in contexts ................................ 75
Figure 23: The students’ suggestions about the short texts ......................................... 76

xii


CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Rationale of the study
The rationale of the study presented below mainly interprets the current
teaching issues at Quang Trung secondary school and theoretical points of view
related to the literature review in the thesis.
For the past few decades, English has developed with a considerable speed in
Viet Nam. It becomes an essential means of communication on the progress of
economic integration and development for the country, especially after its
participation in WTO (2007) as well as being the Chair of ASEAN organization
(2010). Recognizably, English started to be taught at secondary schools, then even
at primary ones, existing in both regular and intensive English programs. Besides,
“various language centers, both public and private, have been established with
different courses, programs and types of training to serve the different learning
needs of different types of learners” (Do, 2006, p.8). These above are convincing
proofs for the fact that English has a tremendous effect in language teaching and
learning in Viet Nam today.
Apparently, teaching English at secondary schools has been supplying good
basic knowledge of English to help the students get higher education. However,
owing to many subjective and objective obstacles, teaching and learning English,
including English vocabulary suffer their defects. In particular, Quang Trung
secondary school is located in District 4 of Ho Chi Minh City, where most parents
have a limited intellectual level and they are busy with earning their living every
day. Moreover, there is a lot of tempting entertainment outside the class supported
by modern technology which attracts students a lot. Besides, due to the absence of
well-equipped studying environment for teaching and learning English at school, the

students have difficulties in mastering English vocabulary. Hence, the students do

1


not generally learn and use English vocabulary as required partly owing to their lack
of serious awareness towards the learning of English or of chances to practice
English in a communicative way. Also, pressure of examination and their evaluation
do not allow teachers to go far away from teaching new words in word lists, in
which students are obligated to remember as many words as possible. From the
obstacles shown, teaching vocabulary through contexts is expected to match the
learning of English words in the classroom with using them in the real-life situations
through variously vivid follow-up activities.
Besides, there are so many problems existing in the current teaching at
Quang Trung secondary school that the students cannot effectively learn English
vocabulary. It cannot be denied that “Tieng Anh 6” textbook supplies various
language materials to teach the 6th graders. Particularly, in teaching vocabulary, new
words are orderly arranged into each unit in the Glossary, which is helpful in
supporting the 6th graders to discover their Vietnamese equivalents. However, to the
6th graders, learning new words in the normal way by mainly listing isolated words
does not satisfy their needs. Although teachers employ different ways to teach new
words in the classroom, using word lists is the most favorite one. It leads to the
unexpected fact that the students confuse translation with language use. Moreover,
they assume that understanding the word meaning is eventually all of the vocabulary
learning. Once they cannot remember the word with its Vietnamese equivalent, they
blame on their bad memory. In reality of teaching, even when there are contexts in
the textbook, words are taught isolation, which cannot create beneficial impacts on
the teachers and students as expected. Furthermore, teachers rarely use follow-up
exercises after teaching new words. Also, from the fact that the 6th graders have
learnt some knowledge of English before, it is suggested to teach new words

through contexts. The researcher, being accepted to conduct the teaching vocabulary
through contexts at Quang Trung secondary school, tries to improve the current
situation of teaching vocabulary. It is hoped that the study brings positive
contributions to teaching English vocabulary through contexts at Quang Trung

2


secondary school as well as at secondary schools in District 4. That way of teaching
helps the 6th graders understand, remember and use words in appropriate contexts –
the starting step to learn other language skills such as reading, listening, speaking
and writing.
Laufer and Hulstijn (2001, in Brown and Rodgers, 2002, p.222) report
“teachers are well aware of the fact that learning a second language involves the
learning of large numbers of words”, thus it is necessary to find an effective way to
enrich the students’ vocabulary. This thesis mainly focuses on teaching vocabulary
through contexts as that effective way. Nagy and Herman (1987, in Hatch and
Brown, 1995, p.375) state that “even a single encounter with a word in context” can
increase the learners’ knowledge about that word and its meaning. Additionally,
Hatch and Brown (1995, p.375) present that learners should encounter the same
word in multiples sources. Gowers, Phillips and Walters (2005, p.142) interpret
“The more often a vocabulary item is encountered, the more likely it is that the full
meaning will be understood and remembered”. In detail, Allen and Valette (1977,
p.151) suppose that “once students know the meaning of a new word, they must use
it often and correctly in the target language in order to master the word and make it
part of their personal vocabulary”.
In conclusion, the study is carried out over the difficulties existing in the
current teaching situation mentioned above. Besides, the researcher starts the
research considering the following background.

1.2 Background of the study
In the connection with the rationale of the study, the experiment of teaching
vocabulary through contexts has such background information about Quang Trung
school, about “Tieng Anh 6” textbook and about the students in grade 6. From the
background, it is necessary to help students get involved in vocabulary learning in a
more effective way.

3


Firstly, like other schools in Viet Nam, English is taught at Quang Trung
secondary school from the 6th grade onwards. Quang Trung is located in District 4 –
one of the districts near the centre of Ho Chi Minh City. However, the conditions of
teaching and learning English here is still inadequate. Recognizably, the daily
teaching occurs without any support from the high technology. There are 20 classes
from grades 6 to 9 in a school year on average. The normal number of students
reaches from 45-50 students in every class. In such a teaching environment,
although the management board and teachers make many efforts to renew the
teaching methodology, far from the old way in which teachers read and students
write into their notebooks, there occurs unavoidable obstacles in reality. Obviously,
the above-mentioned things affect the teaching of English in general and of English
vocabulary in particular at the school, which does not stimulate the students to learn
new words. Hence, it is necessary to have an effective way of teaching English,
including English vocabulary, in such a context which motivates the students to
learn it better.
Secondly, teaching and learning English in the 6th grade fundamentally bases
on “Tieng Anh 6” textbook issued by Ministry of Education and Training (MOET).
The book is designed with beautiful and colorful pictures. It supplies various
language materials appropriate to the 6th graders’ ability of understanding. The
topics of units are close to the 6th graders’ daily life. However, there are few

exercises, especially lexical ones in every unit. The practice on lexical items mainly
focuses on their form, not their meaning or use. Indeed, the vocabulary practice is
fairly monotonous and tedious, which cannot motivate the students to learn English
words. Thus, it raises the need to learn vocabulary together with various kinds of
vividly lexical classroom activities which help the students to remember and use
words better.
Finally, most of the 6th graders at Quang Trung secondary school have an
average capacity of learning. Beneficially, the 6th graders in the school have learnt
English at primary schools, so anyway, they have a little knowledge of English

4


vocabulary at the present threshold. All of the 6th graders here attend the normally
standard English program popular to students at secondary schools. Although they
are rather overactive, they are eager and willing to get more knowledge, especially
English. Therefore, it is appropriate to apply teaching English vocabulary through
contexts to the 6th graders at Quang Trung secondary school.
In summary, the issues related to Quang Trung secondary school, the main
textbook and the 6th graders are laid as the foundation to implement the study. From
the rationale and background indicated in 1.1 and 1.2, the researcher is motivated to
carry out the experiment of teaching English vocabulary through contexts.

1.3 Aims of the research
The study is carried out in the researcher’s efforts to prove the effectiveness
and feasibility of teaching vocabulary through contexts as much as possible. It is the
point that thanks to the contexts, the students can create a connection between words
previously learned and currently new ones. After that, the students can use the new
words in other contexts appropriately. Besides, the researcher aims at finding out the
students’ reactions towards the technique of teaching new words through contexts.

The realization of this technique reflects the expectation of enriching the 6th graders’
vocabulary repertoire flexibly and effectively.

1.4 Research questions
To make the study of teaching English vocabulary through contexts feasible,
the process of researching was guided by the following research questions:
1. In what way is teaching English vocabulary to the 6th graders effective?
2. Which reactions do the 6th graders show towards teaching vocabulary
through contexts?
The study consisted of the following hypothesis:
The 6th graders can accumulate their English vocabulary better through
contexts than through word lists.

5


1.5 Significance of the study
Only a little time can be spent on doing English vocabulary exercises in
classroom, thus chances for students to practice vocabulary are inadequate. The
significance of the study lies in the fact that the technique of teaching vocabulary
through contexts can be applied for the 6th graders to overcome the boredom of
learning English vocabulary in the current situation at school, so that they can
sufficiently enrich and use their English vocabulary. The researcher hopes to
contribute, to some extent, to practical aspects in vocabulary teaching and learning
to the 6th graders.

1.6 Structure of the thesis
There are five chapters in the study. Chapter One is the introduction of the
study, which states the research rationale, the study’s background, the aims, the
research questions as well as the significance of the study. Chapter Two provides

the review of literature, namely issues concerning vocabulary teaching, teaching
English to preteens, short-term and long-term memories, techniques to present new
words, teaching new words through contexts and different follow-up vocabulary
exercises used in the experiment. In addition, it refers to the teacher and students’
roles when working with contexts, to previous word lists and to local studies.
Chapter Three presents the methodology in which the study is conducted: how data
are collected, and how the experimental teaching is carried out. Chapter Four
launches the results of data analyses and the findings, and gives interpretation
together with tables and figures from statistics. It also gives some discussions about
the issues from the experiment of teaching new words through contexts. Chapter
Five gives some recommendations for teachers and students as well as for further
research, then draws a conclusion for the study.

6


CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
As mentioned in the previous chapter, teaching English vocabulary has not
been put in its high esteem at Vietnamese secondary schools. Therefore, raising
awareness of the importance of vocabulary development, including expanding
vocabulary, plays an important role. In its adequate extent, this chapter refers to the
issues relevant to teaching new English words through contexts. Firstly, the chapter
presents some issues of teaching vocabulary which are necessary in discovering
language. Secondly, it mentions the teaching of English to preteens. Thirdly, it
shows two ways which help words stay in the memory – temporary and everlasting
ones. Fourthly, it states some techniques of presenting vocabulary that help learners
remember words in a short time. Fifthly, it indicates the issue of teaching new words
through contexts. Sixthly, it shows the follow-up classroom activities helping new
words enter the long-term memory. Seventhly, it refers to the roles of the teacher

and students. Also, it looks over some reliable basic word lists in order that it makes
the foundation for the suggested 500-word list to the 6th graders. Last but not least, it
generally reports previous local studies in teaching vocabulary. Finally, the chapter
ends with the conclusion about the items mentioned above.
2.1 Issues concerning vocabulary teaching
2.1.1 Why vocabulary should be taught
Ellis and Tomlinson (1992, p.64) present that vocabulary teaching is not
beyond the purpose of enriching the learners’ vocabulary repertoire; for example,
increasing the number of lexical items which the learners can understand and apply
exactly when necessary. Noticeably, Allen (1983, p.9-10) states that students’
interests in learning vocabulary can start from the feeling that they want to please
the teacher or to pass the examination. Besides, Spratt (1991, p.184) presents that
vocabulary teaching aims at supplying students the tools that enables them to

7


function (for example: to recognize and produce word items) accurately,
appropriately and fluently in the situations. Also, Gestern and Baker (2000, in
Nation, 1990, p.222) highlight “vocabulary learning plays a major role in successful
programs for English language learners”. Moreover, Gower, Phillips and Walters
(2005, p.142) express that vocabulary is important to students, especially in the
early stages when beginners are frequently motivated to learn basic words.
Especially, teaching vocabulary in reading texts, according to Pikulski and
Templeton (2004, p.5), provides a large and rich vocabulary for students, which
means rewarding students the valuable tool to learn language because vocabulary
relates to all language skills.

Figure 1. Vocabulary in the relation to four language skills
(adapted from Pikulski & Templeton

/>In sum, learning vocabulary helps to make a stable language foundation.
2.1.2 Active and passive words
Allen (1983, p.105), Ellis and Tomlinson (1992, p.78) as well as Harmer
(1992, p.159) state that active words are those which students have been taught or
learnt, and the passive ones are words which students encounter without being able

8


to produce. At the beginning level, it is a good idea to provide sets of vocabulary
which students can learn in the classroom, and then most of these early words are
constantly practiced to be active. In addition, Lewis and Hill (1992, p.99-100)
express that because all the words taught are for active use at the beginning of the
language course, students need to know the context in which a word can appear, the
possible and impossible collocations of the word, the details of meaning included in
the word.
Neutrally, Harmer (1992, p.160) assumes that it is difficult to say which
words are active and which are passive in students’ store of words. An active word
may slip back into the passive storage if it is not regularly used, and vice-versa, a
passive word can become active if it is provoked by contexts in use. Obviously, the
status of a vocabulary item seems not to be constant.
In brief, there exists a mutual change between active and passive words.
2.1.3 Aspects of knowing a word
Lado (1964, p.114) points out “words have a form or expression which is
associated with a content or meaning”. After that, Richards (1976, p.83) presents
many points of view related to “knowing a word”, among which are the probability
of recognizing a word when encountering it in a text, and that of knowing the
semantic value of that word and different meanings associated with it. Also,
“knowing a word” implies students’ ability to use the word appropriately according
to its functions and situations. Giving supplementary ideas, Ellis and Tomlinson

(1992, p.60-61) consider that “the teaching of vocabulary is mainly concerned with
the teaching of meaning and therefore with the presentation of content words”. It
refers to “all nouns, adjectives, and adverbs and nearly all verbs”. Furthermore, “a
dictionary word” can involve different meanings relying on where, when and how it
is used to form “derived words”. For example, the dictionary word “foul” can mean
“causing disgust”, “having a bad smell”, “filthy”, “wicked”, “obese”, “rough” or
“stormy” in different contexts. Also, Coates (1999, p.10) shows “map and maps”
which presents the same vocabulary unit but in different forms.

9


According to Nation (1990, p.131), students learn a word from its spoken
form, written form, grammar, collocation, frequency and appropriateness, concept
and association. Later on, Nation (2001, p.26) summarizes that knowing a word at
levels relates to form, meaning and use. Likewise, beside the concept of “meaning
in context”, Lewis and Hill (1992, p.99), Harmer (1992, p.156) refer to “sense
relations” when understanding a word. For example, students need to know that the
meaning of “vegetables” covers “carrots, cabbages, potatoes”. Once students are
conscious of words in the context they meet for the first time, they are able to
manipulate both the meanings and forms of the word. Hence, word meanings are
described in the relation to word use, word information and word grammar as
described in the following diagram.
Meaning in context

MEANING

Sense relations
Metaphor and idiom

WORD USE

Collocation
Style and register

WORDS

Parts of speech

WORD INFORMATION

WORD GRAMMAR

Prefixes and suffixes
Spelling and pronunciation
Nouns: countable and
uncountable, etc.
Verb complementation,
phrasal verbs, etc.
Adjectives and adverbs:
position, etc.

Figure 2. Knowing a word (Harmer, 1992, p.158)
Briefly, knowing a word means exploring different aspects of that word.
2.1.4 Process of teaching new words
Nation (2001, p.107-108) defines a procedure is “a series of defined steps
leading to a learning goal”. Teachers work according to the procedure to assure that
students cover all what they need to cover, even in a task. According to the
following steps, Lado (1964, p.121) describes that new words are taught: first

10


hearing the word, next pronouncing it, then grasping its meaning, and at last
practicing its usage. It is helpful for teachers to make slow pronunciation without
any distortion. Students themselves pronounce a word to remember it longer.
Moreover, the word meanings are conveyed through a plentiful variety of
techniques for presenting vocabulary (for instance: using opposites, synonyms,
drawings, definitions). Last but not least, practice makes the process of vocabulary
perfect on the purpose of reinforcing students’ understanding of the word and
making a habit to use it when necessary.
Allen and Valette (1977, p.250) suggest that students should hear the
word before seeing its written form. Allen (1983, p.21), Gower, Phillips and Walters
(2005, p.146) together take the teaching of word meaning prior to hearing the word,
next writing it and then practicing its usage. Later on, Harmer (1992, p.159)
indicates students are unable to use a lexical item which they do not understand, so
they first read or hear the word and later practice it. Next, Blake and Majors (1995,
in Nation, 2001, p.107-108) describe five steps to make words recycled, which
includes the pre-teaching of vocabulary, the oral teaching of a text containing the
intended vocabulary before exploring the text meaning, the deliberate word study,
the vocabulary tests and the use of the words. Differently, Hatch and Brown (1995,
p.218) make five steps to work with words as at first encountering a new word, next
getting the word form, then understanding the word meaning, afterwards
consolidating word form and meaning to let them stay in the memory, finally using
the word in appropriate situations.
In summary, following steps of the procedure in teaching words is helpful.
The procedure by Hatch and Brown (1995, p.218) was chosen for the present study.
2.1.5 Easy words vs. difficult words
It is possible that the words chosen for the early stages are due to the ease
of showing their meaning (Lado, 1964, p.115). Later on, Rodgers (1969, in Nation,

1990, p.48) presents that vocabulary learning is affected by word categories. A little
differently, Allen and Valette (1977, p.149-150) consider words of concrete

11


definitions as the easiest to learn, then adverbs and adverbial expressions more
difficult. Besides, it is not easy for students to learn inflected forms of nouns,
adjectives and adverbs. In generalization, Palmberg (1994, p.24), Hatch and Brown
(1995, p.220) assess that it is, to young learners, more successful to learn “words for
concrete, tangible, physical objects” than any other types of nouns.
Afterwards, Nation (2001, p.23-24) reviews the principle of learning
burden that “the more a word represents patterns and knowledge that learners are
familiar with, the lighter its learning burden is”. Concretely, the linguist interprets
the learning burden is based on three factors: the learners’ background knowledge of
English and their first language, the way in which the word is taught and learned as
well as the difficulty inside the word. Sufficiently, Nation (ibid., p.39), Gower,
Phillips and Walters (2005, p.143) suggest reducing the learning burden of a word
meaning by teachers’ introduction of a word predictable from its form, having its
meaning corresponding to a mother-tongue word’s meaning or enabling learners to
guess its meaning through various examples of its uses. Folse (2008, p.15) adds “the
frequency of a word is often cited as a major factor in a given word’s difficulty”.
Previously, Lado (1964, p.127) states that content words should be
assigned to the selected contextual areas (ibid., p.120). These are suggested
contextual areas such as “food, clothing, sports, work, school, shopping; music,
language, literature, art; the human body, a person, a city, a country; a discovery, an
exploration, geography; a newspaper, education, and government” (ibid., p.127).
Likewise, Ek (1978, in Spratt, 1991, p.184) supplements some contextual areas:
“personal identification, house and home, life at home, travel, relationship with
other people, health and welfare, drink, services, foreign language and weather”.

According to Allen (1983), teachers introduce basic words because they know that
most of these words will be used for defining difficult words in the future (p.8).
In summary, it should be careful to choose words for beginning students.
In the researcher’s experiment, words belong to some of the suggested contextual
areas. The next part is about preteens and teaching them how to learn English.

12