An investigation into cohesion in argumentative essays by english majored students at quy nhơn university

1

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF HO CHI MINH CITY
UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES
FACULTY OF ENGLISH LINGUISTICS AND LITERATURE
*

AN INVESTIGATION INTO COHESION IN
ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAYS BY ENGLISH-MAJORED
STUDENTS AT QUY NHON UNIVERSITY
Submitted by TRẦN THỊ BÍCH THUẬN
Supervisor: TRƯƠNG HỚN HUY, M.A.
TESOL Class - Course: 2006
Student Code: 0305180634

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
degree of Master of Arts

April 2011


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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page No

Chapter 1

Introduction

1

1. Rationale of the Study
2. The Significance of the Study
3. Aims of the Study
4. The Scope of the Study
5. The Organization of the Study

1
2
3
4
4

Chapter 2

6

Literature Review

1.Theoretical background

6

1.1. Introduction to Argumentative Essays

6

1.1.1.
1.1.2.
1.1.3.

1.1.4.

6
8
9
10

What is an Argumentative Essay?
Topics for Argumentative Essays
Features of an Argumentative Essay
Structure of an Argumentative Essay

1.2. The Writing Section of TOEFL Test

11

1.2.1.
1.2.2.

11

1.2.3.

A general view on TOEFL Writing Test
Argumentative Essay as a kind of Essay Prompts
on the TOEFL Test
Criteria for Scoring the TOEFL Essay Test

1.3. Cohesion devices

12
15
17

1.3.1.

The review of previous studies on cohesion

17

1.3.2.
1.3.3.

Cohesion and Written Communication
Classification of Cohesive Ties

18

in the view of Halliday and Hasan

20

1.3.3.1. Syntactic cohesion

20

1.3.3.1.1.

Reference

20

1.3.3.1.2.

Conjunction

22

1.3.3.1.3.

Ellipsis

25

1.3.3.1.4.

Substitution

27


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1.3.3.2. Lexical cohesion

28

1.3.3.2.1.

Reiteration

28

1.3.3.2.2.

Collocation

30

1.3.4. Effects of Cohesion in Argumentative Essays
2. Summary

Chapter 3

31
31

Methodology

32

1. The research population and location
2. Data collection
3. Coding Scheme and Data Analysis
4. The procedure of the study
5. Summary

32
33
35

36
37

Chapter 4

39

Data analysis and discussion

4.1. Data analysis
A.

39

Data analysis of Phase one: From students’ score values
compared with the ones by TOEFL test takers

39

4.1.1. General comparison of cohesive ties in EFL students’
essays at Quy Nhon university and TOEFL test takers’ essays

39

4.1.2. Frequency of occurrence of particular cohesive ties used
in EFL students’ essays at Quy Nhon university and TOEFL
test takers’ essays

44

4.1.2.1. Frequency of occurrence of Reference used in EFL
students’ essays at Quy Nhon university and TOEFL
test takers’ essays

46

4.1.2.1.1. Personal Reference

48

4.1.2.1.2. Demonstrative Reference

52


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4.1.2.1.3. Comparative Reference

54

4.1.2.2. Frequency of occurrence of Conjunction used in EFL
students’ essays at Quy Nhon university and TOEFL
test takers’ essays

56

4.1.2.2.1. Additive Conjunctions

57

4.1.2.2.2. Adversative Conjunction

58

4.1.2.2.3. Clausal/Conditional Conjunction

59

4.1.2.2.4. Temporal Conjunction

61

4.1.2.2.5. Other conjunction

63

4.1.2.3. Frequency of occurrence of Lexical Cohesion used in
EFL students’ essays at Quy Nhon university and TOEFL
test takers’ essays

64

4.1.2.3.1. Same items

65

4.1.2.3.2. Synonymy and near synonymy

66

(including antonymy)
4.1.2.3.3. Superordinate

68

(including meronymy and hyponymy)
4.1.2.3.4. General nouns

69

4.1.2.3.5. Collocation

71

4.1.2.4. Frequency of occurrence of Substitutes and Ellipsis
used in EFL students’ essays at Quy Nhon university and TOEFL
test takers’ essays

73

4.1.3. Summary

76

B.

76

Data analysis of Phase two: From Questionnaires

4.1.4 Results from questionnaires

76


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4.1.4.1. The students’ and teachers’ reflections on
students’ current writing quality, students’ troubles in
writing, and students’ awareness of cohesive devices in writing
4.1.4.2. The students’ and teachers’ opinions
for students’ most regular use and most challenging use
of cohesive devices
4.1.4.3. The students’ and teachers’ reflections
on students’ most regular tie used in reference ties,
conjunction ties, and lexical cohesion ties
4.1.4.4. The students’ and teachers’ ideas about
the relationship of using cohesive devices effectively
and argumentative writing quality
4.1.4.5. The students’ and teachers’ preference

76

78

80

83

for the stage to teach cohesive devices

84

4.1.4.6. The students’ and teachers’ suggestions for
a successful argumentative essay

85

4.1.5. Summary

86

4.2. Discussion and possible mistakes of using cohesive ties
4.2.1. Discussion
4.2.2 Possible mistakes of using cohesive ties
4.2.3. Summary

86
86
89
92

4.3. Overall summary

92

Chapter 5

93

Conclusion

1. Major findings

93

2. Answers to research questions

95

3. Implications and suggestions for further studies

97

References
Appendix

99
103


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STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP

I certify that the minor thesis entitled:

AN INVESTIGATION INTO COHESION IN ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAYS BY
ENGLISH-MAJORED STUDENTS AT QUY NHON UNIVERSITY

And submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master
of Arts is the result of my own work, except where otherwise acknowledged and that this
minor thesis or any part of the same has not been submitted for a higher degree to any
other university or institution.

Signed

……………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………..

Date ……………………………………………………………………………


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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

1. EFL:

English as a Foreign Language

2. ESL:

English as a Second Language

3. ETS®:

Educational Testing Service

4. GRE®:

Graduate Record Examination

5. NSs :

Native Speakers

6. NSSs:

Non-Native Speakers

7. SAT®:

Scholastic Assessment Test

8. TOEFL:

Test of English as a Foreign Language

9. TWE®:

Test of Written English™

10. TESOL :

Teaching English to Students of other languages

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LIST OF TABLES AND CHARTS
Page No

Chapter 2
Table 2.1. Types of Cohesion

20

Table 2.2. Types of Syntactic Cohesion

28

Table 2.3. Types of Lexical Cohesion

30

Chapter 3
Table 3.1. Coding scheme

35

Table 3.2. A summary of words and cohesive ties essays
by Group 1, Group 2, Group 3

36

Chapter 4
A.

Data analysis of Phase one: From students’ score values
compared with the ones by TOEFL test takers

Table 4.1. Use of particular cohesive ties and their percentage
in poor essays by Group 1, Group 2, Group 3

40

Table 4.2. Use of particular cohesive ties per 100 words in essays
by Group 1, Group 2, Group 3

41

Table 4.3. Use of particular cohesive ties per 100
words in essays by three distinct groups

42

Chart 4.1. Use of particular cohesive ties per 100
words in essays by three distinct groups

42

Table 4.4. Frequency of occurrence of particular
cohesive ties in poor essays by Group 1, Group 2, Group 3

45

Chart 4.2. Frequency of occurrence of particular

cohesive ties in poor essays by Group 1, Group 2, Group 3

45

Table 4.5. Mean and percentage of reference across
argumentative essays by Group 1, Group 2, and Group 3

46

Chart 4.3. The frequency of reference occurrence in essays
by Group 1, Group 2 and Group 3
Table 4.6. Mean and percentage of conjunction across
argumentative essays by Group 1, Group 2, and Group 3

47

56


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Chart 4.4. The frequency of conjunction occurrence in essays
by Group 1, Group 2 and Group 3
Table 4.7. Mean and percentage of lexical cohesion across
argumentative essays by Group 1, Group 2, and Group 3
Chart 4.5. The use of Lexical Cohesion: Same items (L1)
Table 4.8. The number of key same items per 100 words

57

in argumenative essays by Group 1, Group 2, and Group 3

65

64
65

Chart 4.6. The use of Lexical Cohesion:
Synonymy or near Synonym (including antonymy) (L2)
Table 4.9. Examples of Synonym and Antonym in
argumenative essays by Group 1, Group 2, and Group 3
Chart 4.7. The use of Lexical Cohesion: Superordinate (L3) 68
Table 4.10. Examples of Superordinate/Hyponymy

67

in argumentative essays by the three distinct groups

69

67

Chart 4.8. The use of Lexical Cohesion: General nouns (L4) 69
Chart 4.9. The use of Lexical Cohesion: Collocation (L5)
Table 4.11. Examples of Collocation in argumentative
essays by Group 1, Group 2, and Group 3

71
72

Table 4.12. Mean and percentage of substitution across
argumentative essays by Group 1, Group 2, and Group 3
Table 4.13. Mean and percentage of ellipsis across
argumentative essays by Group 1, Group 2, and Group 3
Chart 4.10. The use of Substitutes by three groups
Chart 4.11. The use of Ellipsis by three groups
B.

73
73
73
73

Data analysis of Phase two: From Questionnaires

Table 4.14.a. Students’ reflections on their current writing quality,
troubles in writing, and awareness of cohesive devices
Table 4.14.b. Teachers’ reflections on students’ current writing
quality, troubles in writing, and awareness of cohesive devices
Table 4.15.a. Students’ opinions for their most regular use
and most challenging use of cohesive devices
Table 4.15.b. Teachers’ opinions for students’ most regular use
and most challenging use of cohesive devices
Chart 4.12.a. Ss’ opinions for their most regular cohesive
device used
Chart 4.12.b. Ts’ opinions for the students’ most regular cohesive
device used
Chart 4.13.a. Ss’ opinions for their most challenging
cohesive tie
Chart 4.13.b. Ts’ opinions for the students’ most challenging

cohesive tie

77
77
78
78
79
79
79
79


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Table 4.16.a. Students’ reflections on their most regular tie used
in reference ties, conjunction ties, and lexical cohesion ties
Table 4.16.b. Teachers’ reflections on their most regular tie used
in reference ties, conjunction ties, and lexical cohesion ties
Chart 4.14.a. Ss’ opinions for their most regular reference
tie used
Chart 4.14.b. Ts’ opinions for the students’ most regular
reference tie used
Chart 4.15.a. Ss’ opinions for their most regular conjunction
tie used
Chart 4.15.b. Ts’ opinions for the students’ most regular
conjunction tie used
Chart 4.16.a. Ss’ opinions for their most regular conjunction
tie used

80

81
81
81
82
82
83

Chart 4.16.b. Ts’ opinions for the students’ most regular
conjunction tie used
Table 4.17.a. Students’ ideas about the relationship of using
cohesive devices effectively and argumentative writing quality
Table 4.17.b. Teachers’ ideas about the relationship of using
cohesive devices effectively and argumentative writing quality
Table 4.18.a. Students’ preference for the stage to teach
cohesive devices
Table 4.18.b. Teachers’ preference for the stage to teach
cohesive devices

83
83
83
84
84


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Mr. Trương Hớn

Huy, for his patient support, valuable suggestions, and expert guidance throughout the
stages of the thesis. Without his guidance, it would have been extremely difficult for me
to complete this study.

I am especially thankful to Dr. Nguyễn Thị Kiều Thu, Dean of the Department of
English Linguistics and Literature, Ho Chi Minh City University of Social Sciences and
Humanities, who gave me permission to carry out this research paper.

I also would like to express my deep appreciation to Dr. Hà Thanh Hải, Dean of
Foreign Languages Department at Quy Nhon University for his helpful advice and
invaluable support throughout the research process.

My appreciation also extends to Dr. Nguyễn Quang Ngoạn and Dr. Tôn Nữ Mỹ
Nhật for their proof-reading and insightful suggestions on this thesis. I wish to express
my gratitude to my colleagues at Quy Nhon University.

In particular, a sincere note of thanks goes to the authors of many books and
journals, whose theories and research results have been used as a potential and valuable
sources of reference in this study.

Lastly, my heartfelt gratitude goes to my beloved family for their loyal support,
especially my son, Nguyễn Hoàng Đức Duy, for his great encouragement while I was
away from home to work on this thesis.


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Abstract

Since cohesion is important both in the creation and comprehension of a text,

teachers have placed a great deal of emphasis on text cohesion and coherence in their
teaching and evaluation of writing. Using Halliday and Hasan’s (Halliday, M.A.K.,
Hasan, R.:1976) taxonomy of cohesive devices and their framework for analysis, this
study primarily investigated the use of cohesive devices in argumentative essays by
English-majored students at Quy Nhon University, Vietnam. The research method mainly
involved evaluating students’ written texts in comparison with high-scored argumentative
essays by TOEFL test takers and questionnaires analysis. The research results revealed
that the students did use all cohesive devices in their writing namely reference,
conjunction, lexical cohesion, substitution and ellipsis. While Group 1 (the students with
poor essays) exhibited the most frequent occurrences of conjunction in their essays,
lexical cohesion had the largest frequency in Group 2 (the students with average, fair and
good essays) and Group 3 (TOEFL test takers with high-scored essays). The data analysis
helped to confirm that there existed a relationship between the effective use of cohesive
ties and the quality of writing. Based on the findings, it is suggested that cohesive devices
should be taught explicitly and reinforced during students’ writing practice. Additionally,
a number of mistakes from the use of reference, conjunction and lexical cohesion devices
were identified and analyzed in the students’ written output.


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Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION
1.

Rationale of the Study
Writing is a continuing process of discovering how to find the most effective

language for communicating one's thoughts and feelings. It can be challenging,
whether it is writing in one's native language or in a foreign language. Writing also
enhances language acquisition as learners experiment with words, sentences, and

larger chunks of writing to communicate their ideas effectively and to reinforce the
grammar and vocabulary they have been learning. However, what puzzles and worries
many English teachers in Vietnam is that despite having acquired an adequate
knowledge of grammar and vocabulary competence, EFL students are rather poor in
writing. Most of them find it hard to produce well-organized paragraphs and wellargued essays. This is because little importance is attached to writing in classrooms,
and students have vague ideas about the role of writing in English learning and about
the differences between English and Vietnamese discourse patterns. Regardless of
their efforts in using correct words and well-formed sentences, many students have
not thoroughly been aware of the textual quality through the use of grammatical and
lexical elements that make the readers perceive the meaning relationships within and
between sentences. One consequence is that their writing tends to lack transitions in
the flow of ideas that help to achieve unity. In other words, learners do have some
difficulties in realizing and using cohesive devices in their writing practice.

Indeed, it is cohesion that writing teachers should pay special attention to while
they instruct their students to link sentences using a variety of cohesive ties during the
process of essay writing. According to Raskin and Weiser (1987: 201), “Cohesion
contributes to the flow or continuity of a text, to the sense that the ideas expressed in
the text are connected to one another, and to the unity of the text.”

In TESOL, the genre of argumentative essays constitutes a major part in the
writing curriculum in many colleges and universities. In fact, argumentative essays


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are taught to English-majored students and are also found in the TOEFL and IELTS
writing sections. An argumentative essay focuses on the production of reasoned and
logical arguments, and the type of text structure required should “vary from, for
example, the presentation of a single point of view to an argument that briefly
acknowledges the opposing view, only to refute it.” ( Martin, 1992:563). Aarts (2002)

also points out what teachers expect from students in their writing practice; that is,
argumentation needs a process of systematic and methodical reasoning with the aim of
arriving at a conclusion or solving a particular analytic problem by formulating a set
of coherent and relevant arguments. Students need to present a set of arguments and
provide supporting evidence, putting these together in order to create cohesive and
coherent essays. Therefore, this paper is to help learners solve the problems in
creating cohesive essays as well as improving their present writing ability in the
whole process of English learning.

As an EFL writing teacher, I am interested in my students’ learning how to
express and organize their arguments in their argumentative essays through the use of
cohesive devices. First of all, it is my belief that cohesion is one of the best
indications of a learner’s grammatical and lexical competence, so it is extremely
necessary to make my learners aware of idea - connected expressions in essay writing.
The population of this study comprised English-majored students who had spent a lot
of time practising sentence, paragraph and expository essay writing; however, upon
writing argumentative essays, those students were asked to achieve unity and
coherence. Nevertheless, students seemed to be unable to choose appropriate
connectives for the supporting ideas through the essays. Second, regardless of a
number of existing books about essay writing in general and argumentative essays in
particular, so far no studies of cohesion in argumentative essays by EFL students at a
specific university have been found. It was for these reasons that I chose cohesion in
argumentative essays to be the focus of my investigation.

2.

The Significance of the Study


3

Cohesion in spoken and written discourse has been a favorite field of research
among linguists. This study is of significance to the domain of argumentative essay
writing as it generalized and synthesized the current knowledge base in the field. On
such a theoretical background, the study investigated the influence of features of
cohesion on EFL students' ability of creating good essays in comparison with highscored essays by candidates in the TOEFL Test. The concept of cohesion in essays is
not new to the majority of EFL students. Nevertheless, it is a fact that not many
students can apply their knowledge in this field to their writing appropriately and
effectively. Therefore, the study helps EFL learner get the benefits of cohesive ties in
written texts. The study can be considered a reference source for EFL teachers to
adopt suitable methods to help students understand the use of cohesive links in texts
and pay special attention to organization in essay writing.

3.

Aims of the Study
The study has overall been carried out in a great effort to help students get

better in writing skill. Particularly, students should be aware of the presence of
cohesion as a very important requirement in their argumentative writing. In addition,
students need to acquire the knowledge of what cohesive ties are and how those
factors can be used appropriately in such specific academic writing texts. From the
very early stage of adopting cohesion achievement in argumentative essays as a major
type of writing practice, the study aimed to explore and get the students aware of:

 the use of cohesive devices in argumentative essays by English-majored
students at Quy Nhon university;
 the relationship between the use of cohesive ties and the quality of academic
written essays.
The above aims are translated into the following research questions:

1. What kinds of cohesive devices have been used in argumentative essays by
English-majored students at Quy Nhon university?


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1.1. Which group of students uses most cohesive devices and what types of cohesive
devices used are the most prominent?
1.2. What are the similarities or differences of the use of cohesive device in
argumentative essays by English-majored students at Quy Nhon university and by
TOEFL test takers?
2. Is there a relationship between the use of cohesive ties and the quality of
argumentative essays?

4.

The Scope of the Study
Among the criteria for evaluation of written texts such as content, grammar,

word choice, organization, cohesion and style, unity and coherence, the study limits
itself to cohesion as an essential requirement for argumentative essay practice in EFL
classrooms at Quy Nhon University. Based on Halliday and Hasan’s cohesion theory,
this study explored the relationship between cohesive devices and written English
quality. Within the scope of an M.A. thesis, the study focused on descriptive data
analysis from the essays by English-majored students at Quy Nhon University and
sample essays by TOEFL candidates. However, the study did not include inferential
statistics in the analysis and so no generalizations were made to the whole population
of Vietnamese EFL learners .

5.

The Organization of the Study
The thesis is structured in five chapters.

Chapter 1 presents the rationale for adopting the area of investigation, the
significance, the aims, the scope of the study, the research questions, and the
organization of the study.

Chapter 2 reviews the relevant literature on argumentative essays and
cohesion. This chapter discusses of the concepts of cohesion, kinds of cohesive ties
and their roles in written texts, especially in argumentative essays.


5
Chapter 3 is concerned with the methods and procedure of the study. Based on
the aims of the research, the study determines the instruments of constructing the
research design for the whole study as well as the criteria for choosing the population
as research participants. Specifically, the procedure of carrying out the study is
described in this chapter.

Chapter 4 is divided into two closely related sections. The first section presents
the analysis results of the two sets of data: (1) argumentative essays by Englishmajored students at Quy Nhon University as compared to those by TOEFL candidates
in the light of appropriate and effective usage of cohesion and (2) teachers and
students’ responses to questionnaires. Based on the quantitative analysis, the second
section interprets those results and discusses them in the light of the theoretical
background mentioned in Chapter 2 in order to give possible suggestions for teaching
that are thoroughly be discussed in chapter 5.

Chapter 5 discusses the teaching implications for writing classes and
concludes the study. This chapter is, therefore, a summary of the important points
discussed throughout the study and the major findings of the author in the process of

conducting the study. Also, some existing problems related to the research topic will
be raised for further studies in the future.


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Chapter 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

1. Theoretical background
1.1.

Introduction to Argumentative Essays

The argumentative text is an established text type that has been addressed by
scholars from various disciplines, ranging from logic (Toulmin, 1958), to rhetoric
(Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca, 1969), to discourse analysis (Hoey, 2001; Van Dijk,
1980), and to composition studies (Connor, 1987, 1990, 1993; Connor and Lauer,
1985; Connor and Takala, 1987; Hyland, 1990). The significance of this text type in
the field of science derives from the fact that reasoning and argumentation are central
features of the oral and written discourse of any academic community. As a result,
research on argumentative texts and the overt teaching of argumentation to university
students have been a major concern of undergraduate education together with the
development of effective theoretical backgrounds for composition programmes
focusing on argumentation.

1.1.1. What is an Argumentative Essay?
An argumentative essay is a genre of writing that requires the writer to
investigate a topic, collect, generate, and evaluate evidence, and establish a position
on the topic in a concise manner. Basically, argumentative writing, which includes
argument, persuasion and explanatory writing, explains reasons why something is

true, or defends and expresses point of view, or is designed to convince someone of
something. Hairston (1982) shows that argumentative writing is the act of forming
reasons, making inductions, drawing conclusions, and applying them to the case in
discussion; thus, the operation of inferring propositions, not known or admitted as
true, from facts or principles known, admitted, or proved to be true needs some
thorough analysis. Also, this clearly explains the process of one’s reasoning from the
known or assumed to the unknown. In his discussion about argumentative writing,
Reid (1982) has mentioned the three main goals of argumentation as follows:


7

1. To present a viewpoint to the reader
2. To explain, clarify, and illustrate that viewpoint

Goals of exposition

PLUS

3. To persuade the reader that the viewpoint is valid
A. To move the reader to action
B. To convince the reader that the opinion is correct
(Adapted from Reid. 1982. The process of composition, p.99)
Sharing some common ideas with Reid (1982), Regina (1986) points out that
an argumentative essay attempts to change the reader’s mind and to convince the
reader to agree with the point of view or opinion of the writer. Indeed, an
argumentative essay is constructed around an explicit declaration known as the
hypothesis or conclusion that is questionable within the field in which one is studying.
To put it simply, “It is the one in which the writer tries to persuade readers to share
an opinion and perhaps take a particular action as a result,” White (2003: 205).

Some confusion may occur between the argumentative essay and the
expository essay. These two genres are similar, but the argumentative essay differs
from the expository essay in terms of their purposes, functions, and requirements for
the writers. Firstly, whereas the purpose of an expository essay is to inform, clarify,
explain, define, or instruct by giving information, explaining why or how, clarifying a
process, or defining a concept, that of an argumentative essay is to convince the
reader to accept a particular point of view or to take a specific action. Secondly, if
expository writing presents a subject in details, apart from criticism, argument, or
development by which the written subject will be clearly elucidated and analyzed,
argumentative writing serves several major functions such as stating and supporting a
position, opinion or issue; defending, refuting or arguing that convincingly by a clear


8
thesis and persuasive arguments. Thirdly, in order to create a well-written piece of
exposition, it requires the writer to have a clear, central presentation of ideas, and
examples enhancing the developed topic. Meanwhile, it is a good argumentative essay
that ultimately requires the writer’s thinking skills such as analysis, synthesis and
evaluation in choosing a position from a variety of situations and to take a stand, and
then it asks the writer to state and elaborate his viewpoints to the reader firmly and
persuasively.

1.1.2. Topics for Argumentative Essays
Writing an argumentative essay requires strong and convincing arguments
concerning one’s personal position and insight

from the factual information.

Primarily, according to Myles (2002) it is necessary to show pros (ideas, which
support the information presented in the main part of the essay) and cons (ideas,

which on the contrary, deny the ideas presented in the main body of the essays), and
this asks for a great deal of critical and analytical thinking on the part of the writer. In
Reid’s (1982) view, it is vital to have a debatable topic in order to be able to present
two opposite points of view. As for a student, it is better for him to choose an acute
one referring to interesting sides of life related to a frequently discussed problem in
our society and reality. Hence, the topic itself must be catchy and contain an argument
so that the reader must feel a strong desire to get to know different opinions on this
matter.

Choosing an argumentative topic is not an easy task. According to Oya Ozagac
(2004), the topic should contain the following features:
 it should be narrowed down
X Marijuana should be considered illegal.
(Not a good topic because it is too general. In some medical cases, marijuana is
prescribed by the doctors and the patients are encouraged to use it in case of
suffering from too much pain)
√ Selling and using marijuana in public places should be considered illegal.
 it should contain an argument


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X We should decide whether we want a bicycle or a car.
(our stand is not clear: do we support having bicycles or cars?)
√ If we are under the age of 30 and want a healthy life, we should definitely get
a bicycle instead of a car.
X Are you one of those who thinks cheating is not good for students?
(a question cannot be an argument)
√ Cheating helps students learn.
X Considering its geological position, Turkey has an important geopolitical
role in the EU. (facts cannot be arguments)

√ Considering its geopolitical role, we can clearly say that the EU cannot be
without Turkey.
 it should be a topic that can be adequately supported (with statistics, outside
source citations, etc.)
X I feel that writing an argumentative essay is definitely a challenging task.
(feelings cannot be supported; we cannot persuade other people)

√ Writing an argumentative essay is definitely a challenging task.
(Oya Ozagac. 2004. Argumentative essays. p5)

1.1.3. Features of an Argumentative Essay
Argumentative writing literally refers to everything that involves debate and
possible disagreement, and to opinion as opposed to the uncontested facts of
exposition. It means agreeing or disagreeing with a given proposition, either strongly
or tentatively. In more general terms it refers to a more subjective style of writing,
where the writer engages in defining the basic terms or interpreting and evaluating the
views, evidence or data very clearly from his own perspective or viewpoint.
Therefore, it is important for a writer to grasp the key characteristics of argumentative
essay writing. According to Axelrod and Cooper (1994), and argumentative essay
embraces the following features:

 It addresses a well-defined issue. Consider your audience, and if your readers
will not likely be familiar with the issue you are discussing, explain it clearly.
(Part of your argumentative essay, then, could be more expository, but the
overall purpose of the essay must clearly be arguing and not explaining.)


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 It presents a clear position. Do not be vague or indecisive, but state your

position clearly. Saying that there are arguments for or against something is
NOT sufficient -you need to state which side you support and why.

 It offers a convincing argument. Back up your opinion with sound reasoning
and solid evidence. It helps if you can also anticipate possible opposing
arguments so that you can address those issues too.

 It is written in an appropriate tone. You may feel passionate about the topic,
but do not get carried away with emotional language or insult your opponents.
(Axelrod and Cooper. 1994. The St. Martin's guide to writing, p.26)

1.1.4. Structure of an Argumentative Essay
Toulmin (1984) confirm that the strength of an argument depends on the
persuasiveness of that argument, whether counter-arguments raised are balanced, and
integrated viewpoints are elucidated (Varghese and Abraham, 1998). In this regard,
all argumentative topics themselves contain the two aspects of a problem: PROs and
CONs. As Reid (1982) suggests, there are three overall structures for argumentative
essays :
Pattern 1:
I. Introduction (Thesis statement)
II. Weakest argument that supports your opinion (PRO idea 1)
III. Stronger argument that supports your opinion (PRO idea 2)
IV. Strongest argument that supports your opinion (PRO idea 3)
V. Counterarguments (CON(s) )+ Refutation(s)
VI. Conclusion
Pattern 2:
I.

I. Introduction (Thesis statement)

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II. Counterarguments (CON(s) )+ Refutation(s)
III.
IV.
Arguments that support your opinion, arranged from the least important to
the most important point and vice versa.
V.
VI. Conclusion
Pattern 3:
I. Introduction (Thesis statement)
II. Counterargument 1 and argument to refute it (CON idea 1 -----> Refutation)
III. Counterargument 2 and argument to refute it (CON idea 2 -----> Refutation)
IV. Counterargument 3 and argument to refute it (CON idea 3 -----> Refutation)
V. Strongest argument that supports your opinion.
VI. Conclusion
(Adapted from Reid.1982. The process of composition, p.102)

1.2. The Writing Section of TOEFL Test
In recent years, the evaluation of writing ability among ESL or EFL students
has become increasingly important because the results of such evaluation are used for
a variety of purposes. Classroom teachers, particularly, have specific concerns
regarding the various methods of writing assessment available because they want to
use these results to help improve, influence, refine, and shape their students’ attained
writing ability. Other types of concerns, especially of teachers, include the issue of
whether the results of any one evaluation procedure are helpful to students and how
they affect students’ writing performance and attitudes.

The TOEFL exam is administered by the Educational Testing Service (ETS®),
the organization that also administers other standardized tests, including the

Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT®) and the Graduate Record Examination (GRE®).
Even if one has lived in the United States or another English-speaking country for
several years, he/she still may be required to take the TOEFL exam if English is not


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his native language. Hence, it has been popularly known that the TOEFL is a testing
device to learn English better if one does not know it well, or to evaluate what he/she
already knows if he/she is proficient at English.

1.2.1. General view on TOEFL Writing Test
There are several scoring schemes in use today for evaluating compositions.
Regarding various composition scoring schemes, objective measures, and objective
tests that are available, several questions immediately come to mind: What do they
imply? What specific procedures do they suggest? Are these procedures and tests
practical? Are they reliable and valid? Will they work for different kinds of writing
evaluation called for in administrative, instructional, and research decision-making
processes? This study presents a discussion of the principal scoring schemes,
objective measures, and objective tests currently used to evaluate students’ ability to
write.
On the computer-based TOEFL test, the Writing Section is an internal part of
the test; everyone must complete an essay. The paper-based TOEFL exam, however,
does not include an essay section. The writing test is a separate exam called the Test
of Written English™ (TWE®), which is a 30-minute test of one essay in 250–400
word length. The Writing section measures a test taker's ability to write in an
academic setting. The test takers must write an essay that states, explains and supports
their opinion on an issue, supporting their opinions or choices, rather than simply
listing personal preferences or choices.

1.2.2. Argumentative Essays as a kind of essay prompts on the

TOEFL Test
While there are some differences between the computer-based writing test and
the TWE test, the task and the test procedures are essentially the same. The test takers
will be asked to write a short essay in response to a prompt, a general topic and
question about that topic.


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In the TOEFL exam, however, the essay does not have to be long. In fact,
because each candidate only has 30 minutes, he is only expected to write an essay of
about five paragraphs. On one level, all of the essay prompts on both the computerbased test and the TWE exam are the same. Nearly every question will present a
statement, situation, or scenario and ask the test taker to take a position and support it.
While the essay prompts are all of this general “take a position” type, they can be
organized into five more specific categories:

1. Agree or disagree with a statement
This is probably the most common kind of essay prompt on the TOEFL exam.
The candidate will be presented with a statement and be asked to agree or disagree
with that statement.
For example:
1. Do you agree or disagree with the following statement?
Sometimes, you have to lose in order to win.
Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer.
2. Do you agree that money is the root of all evils ?
Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer.
3. Do you agree or disagree with the following statement?
Schools should require students to wear uniforms rather than wear whatever
clothing they desire.
Use specific reasons and details to support your answer.

2. Take a position and explain it
This is the second most common type of prompt. It asks the test taker to state
his position on a general issue. Often the prompt follows this formula: “Some people
prefer X. Others prefer Y. Which do you prefer?”

Here are some examples: